Women's suffrage in the UK

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Suffrage for women
Emmeline Pankhurst, leading suffragette
Millicent Fawcett, leading suffragist

The women's movement for the right to vote in the United Kingdom (English: Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom) was a primarily women-driven social movement that fought for women's suffrage . It eventually succeeded through two laws in 1918 and 1928. It became a nationwide movement in the Victorian era . Women were not expressly excluded from voting until 1832, when it was self-evident for social reasons. The Reform Act of 1832 and the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 then put that exclusion legally established.

In 1872 the struggle for women's suffrage became a nationwide movement and the National Society for Women's Suffrage was formed, later followed by the more influential National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). Similar to England, the women's suffrage movement was growing in importance in Wales and other parts of the UK. By 1906, attitudes towards women's suffrage had developed positively in society. At this point the militant campaign for it began and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded.

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 led to the suspension of political activities, including the suffragette's militant campaigns . The lobbying took place in a silent manner. In 1918, a coalition government passed a law called the Representation of the People Act 1918 , which gave all men the right to vote, but also all women over 30 who had a certain minimum property. This law was the first to actually integrate all men into the political system and begin with the inclusion of women. An additional 5.6 million men had the right to vote and 8.4 million women. The Conservative government passed an electoral law in 1928 called the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 , which gave all women over the age of 21 the right to vote on the same terms as men.

prehistory

Until the Great Reform Act of 1832, which established “males” as voters, some women had managed to vote in general elections because they owned property. But this was rare. In municipal elections, single, tax-paying women gained the right to vote under the Municipal Franchise Act of 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to certain married women. By 1900 there were more than a million single women registered for local government elections in England.

Both before and after the Reform Act of 1832 there were advocates for women to vote in general elections. After the Reform Act was passed, House member Henry Hunt took the view that any single woman who paid taxes and had enough possessions should have the right to vote. One such wealthy woman, Mary Smith, was mentioned as an example in his speech.

The Chartist movement , which began in the late 1830s, presumably had supporters of women's suffrage in its ranks. There is some evidence to suggest that William Lovett , one of the drafters of the People's Charter of 1838, wanted women's suffrage as a movement requirement, but dropped it in order not to delay completion of the charter. While there were also female Chartists, they worked extensively to promote male suffrage. At that time, most women had no drive to win the vote.

There is an election book from 1843 which clearly shows thirty female names among the registered voters. These women played an active role in the election. Grace Brown, owner of a slaughterhouse, was the richest voter on the register. According to the high taxes she paid, she was entitled to four votes

Lilly Maxwell was involved in a major election in Britain in 1867 under the Reform Act of 1832. Shopkeeper Maxwell had the qualifications that would have made a man an eligible voter. However, her name was mistakenly included in the electoral roll and on this basis she was able to vote in a by-election. However, her election was later ruled unlawful by the Court of Common Pleas . However, this case earned the fighters for women's suffrage a great deal of public attention.

Efforts to get women to vote were at the time somewhat sidelined by general feminist problems. Women's rights became increasingly important in the 1850s as some women in the upper classes refused to obey the gender role that was forced upon them. These feminist goals of the time included the right to sue a husband after divorce (obtained in 1857) and the right for married women to own property (fully achieved in 1882, after some concessions by the government in 1870).

After 1848 the problem of parliamentary reform lost its importance along with the Chartist movement and did not return to the agenda until 1865 with the election of John Stuart Mill to parliament. He took up his mandate and immediately showed his support for women's suffrage; he was a Member of Parliament in drafting the Second Reform Act .

Early women's franchises

In the same year that John Stuart Mill was elected (1865), the first Ladies Discussion Society, the Kensington Society, came together to debate whether women should interfere in public affairs. Although there was a proposal for a society for women's suffrage, it was rejected on the grounds that it could be adopted by extremes.

But later that year Barbara Bodichon founded the first Women's Suffrage Committee and within two weeks collected 1,500 signatures in favor of women's suffrage, in view of the Second Reform Bill.

Lydia Becker

The Manchester Society for Women's Suffrage was founded in February 1867. Its secretary, Lydia Becker , wrote letters to Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli as well as to The Spectator newspaper . She was also linked to the London group and organized the collection of further signatures.

In June, however, the London group split, partly out of party loyalty and partly due to tactical goals. Conservative members wanted slow action to avoid alarmed public opinion, while Liberals were not in favor of such a dilution of political beliefs. As a result, Helen Taylor founded the London National Society for Women's Suffrage, which built strong ties with Manchester and Edinburgh . One of the earliest societies in Scotland was the Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage.

Although these early divisions fragmented the women's movement and left it at times leaderless, this condition allowed Lydia Becker to gain greater influence. The suffragists were known as the "parliamentarians".

In Ireland , the Dublin Women's Suffrage Association was established in 1874. In addition to fighting for women's suffrage, she tried to promote the position of women in local government. In 1898 it changed its name and called itself "Irish Women's Suffrage and Local Government Association".

Formation of a national movement

Political women groups

Although the political party groups were not formed to achieve women's suffrage, they had two major implications. First, they showed their female members how to work competently in the political arena; and when this was achieved the concept of women's suffrage became more and more accepted.

The "Primrose League"

Primrose League badge

The Primrose League was set up to promote conservative values ​​through social events and to support the community. As women were allowed to join, it gave women of all walks of life the opportunity to mingle with the society of local and national political figures. Many also had important roles, such as getting voters to the ballot box. All of this prevented the isolation of women and promoted civic education and awareness among them. The promotion of women's suffrage was not one of the goals of the "League".

The Liberal Societies of Women

While there is evidence to suggest that liberal women's societies were originally founded to promote female suffrage (the first was in Bristol in 1881 ), they often did not have such an agenda. They operated independently of the male groups. They showed more activity when they came under the control of the “Women's Liberal Federation” and became active in all walks of life in support of women's suffrage and against male dominance.

There was significant support for women's suffrage in the Liberal Party, which was in power after 1905, but a handful of party leaders, particularly HH Asquith , blocked all efforts in parliament.

Combative groups

In the 1870s the women's campaign became a national movement. At this point in time, all women fighters were still suffragists, not suffragettes . Until 1903, all campaigns complied with the constitution and law. It was only after the failure of the first women's suffrage law to pass that the Manchester and London committees joined forces to gain broader support. One of the most important measures at this time was influencing members of parliament so that they could bring in bills (private member's bills). However, since such bills seldom succeeded, this avenue of achieving suffrage has not been effective.

The establishment of the National Society for Women's Suffrage (NSWS) in 1868 was a first attempt to form a unified front to promote women's suffrage. Local groups banded together to work more closely together. Because of several divisions, this was not very successful and once again weakened the electoral campaign.

Until 1897 the campaign stayed at this relatively ineffective level. Most of the participants came from the land-owning classes and only met in small groups. This year saw the founding of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) by Millicent Fawcett . This association brought the smaller groups together and used various peaceful methods to put pressure on the members of parliament who refused to support.

Pankhursts and Suffragettes

Force-feeding the suffragettes in custody
WSPU poster for the "Cat and Mouse Act" (1914)
A leaflet lamenting the harsh detention for suffragettes

The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), founded in 1903, was closely led and controlled by the three Pankhursts: Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928), and her daughters Christabel Pankhurst (1880-1958) and Sylvia Pankhurst (1882-1960). They resorted to campaigns that received a lot of public attention, such as large demonstrations and parades. The effect was that all areas of the women's suffrage movement could be mobilized. There was a supportive majority in parliament, but the ruling Liberal Party refused to allow a vote on the matter. The result was that the suffragette's campaign escalated. In contrast to its fellow campaigners, the WSPU resorted to a violent struggle to make the problem publicly effective, even to the detriment of its own goals.

The so-called " Cat and Mouse Act" (actually: "Prisoners 'Temporary Discharge for Ill Health' Act 1913") was passed in parliament as an attempt to prevent suffragettes from being imprisoned to become martyrs. It arranged for the sick people who had been subjected to hunger strikes and force-feeding to be released from their homes and detained again when they recovered. The result was an even greater public impact on women's suffrage.

The WSPU's procedures were: shouting down speakers, hunger strike, throwing stones, throwing windows and setting fire to unused churches and country houses. Historian Martin Pugh says that militancy was obviously counterproductive ("militancy clearly damaged the cause."). Whitfield says: “The overall effect of the suffragette militancy, however, was to set back the cause of women's suffrage.” (German: Overall, however, the effect of the militancy of the suffragettes was that the issue of women's suffrage was thrown back. )

Their struggle against the liberals had become a kind of holy war: "A kind of holy war, so important that it could not be called off even if continuing it prevented suffrage reform. This preoccupation with the struggle distinguished the WSPU from that by the NUWSS, which Remained focused on Obtaining women's suffrage "(German:. A kind of holy war, so important that it could not be stopped, even if the continuation meant the prevention of electoral reform employment and concern for this fight distinguished the WSPU on the attitude. the NUWSS, which remained focused on achieving women's suffrage as well. )

Smith concludes:

"Although non-historians often assumed the WSPU was primarily responsible for obtaining women's suffrage, historians are much more skeptical about its contribution. It is generally agreed that the WSPU revitalized the suffrage campaign initially, but that it is escalation of militancy after 1912 impeded reform. Recent studies have shifted from claiming that the WSPU was responsible for women's suffrage to portraying it as an early form of radical feminism that sought to liberate women from male-centered gender system. "

(German: Although non-historians often assumed that the WSPU in particular had the merit for achieving women's suffrage, historians are much more skeptical about this ascription. There is general agreement that the WSPU originally revived the struggle for women's suffrage, but that the escalation to militancy after 1912 prevented the reform. Modern studies have deviated from ascribing the merit of the WSPU for women's suffrage, they portray the whole thing as an early form of radical feminism that attempted to turn women off Liberate man centered gender relationship. )

First World War and the aftermath

With the outbreak of World War I, efforts to reform electoral law largely came to a standstill. Some activity remained in the NUWSS, which sought peaceful lobbying. Emmeline Pankhurst, convinced that Germany was a danger to all humanity, persuaded the WSPU to stop all militant activities.

Extension of women's suffrage in 1918

During the war, a select group of parliamentary leaders adopted a policy that would extend the right to vote to all men and most women. Opponent of this policy, Prime Minister Asquith was replaced in late 1916 by David Lloyd George , a lifelong advocate of women's suffrage.

During the war there was a serious shortage of manpower and women were required to take on many of the traditional male roles. With the approval of the trade unions, an agreement was reached on “simplification”. Complicated factory jobs carried out by skilled men were simplified so that they could be carried out by less skilled men and women. The effect was a large increase in the female workforce concentrated mostly in ammunition manufacture, which was of paramount importance to victory. This led to a new assessment of female skills, while at the same time the hostile attitudes to women's suffrage caused by the militant tactics decreased. There was a certain pacifism on the left political wing, especially in the trade unions, but it was not as important as opposition to women's suffrage.

Until then, the right to vote had been based on the professional qualifications of men. Millions of women now fulfilled these professional qualifications, all of which were so ancient that their elimination was widely approved. For example, a male voter who joined the army could lose his right to vote. In 1916 women's franchises secretly agreed to neglect their differences, and they decided that any legislation that would increase the number of votes should also lead to women's suffrage. Local government officials suggested simplifying the old electoral system and registration. And Labor Party cabinet member in the new coalition government, Arthur Henderson , called for universal suffrage, with an age limit of 21 for men and 25 for women.

Most male leaders were concerned about the existence of a female majority in their new constituency. Parliament assigned the problem to a new type of "Speakers Conference", a special committee of all parties in both houses, which was chaired by the speaker . Their meeting began in secret in October 1916. A majority of 15 to 6 supported the right to vote for some women; 12 to 10 agreed to the higher age limit for women. The women leaders accepted the age limit of 30 years in order to achieve the right to vote for the majority of women.

Finally, in 1918 Parliament passed a law giving women over 30 years of age the right to vote who ran a household, owned a household, owned property with an annual income of five pounds and graduated from a UK university. Approximately 8.4 million women were given the right to vote. In November 1918, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed, which also allowed women to be elected as members of the lower house.

Extension of the right to vote 1928 - equality

In 1928, there was a general belief that women's suffrage was a success. The Conservative Party was in power in 1928 when Parliament passed the new Suffrage Act, Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 , which extended the right to vote to all women over the age of 21, on the same terms as women Men. Still, a conservative opponent of the law warned that it risked splitting the party in the years to come.

Women in important roles

Emmeline Pankhurst

WSPU founders Annie Kenney and Christabel Pankhurst

Emmeline Pankhurst was a key figure who generated intense coverage of the movement for women's suffrage. She and her two daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded and ran the Women's Social and Political Union, an organization that focused on direct action to achieve voting rights. Her husband Richard Pankhurst also supported women's suffrage ideas as he was the author of the UK's first suffrage and the Married Women's Property Acts of 1870 and 1882. After her husband's death, Emmeline decided to go to the front of the suffrage battle. Together with her two daughters, she joined the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). After her experience with this organization, Emmeline founded the Women's Franchise League in 1889 and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903 . Disappointed over the years of government inactivity and false promises, the WSPU adopted a militant stance that was so sensational that it was later imported worldwide for women's suffrage. Best known is the takeover by Alice Paul in the United States. After many years of struggle and hostility, women finally won the right to vote, and Emmeline died a short time later.

Millicent Fawcett

Millicent Fawcett statue in Parliament Square , London

Another key figure was Millicent Fawcett . She turned to the problems her organization faced and the methods of communicating information socially in a peaceful manner. She supported the Act on Women's Property Rights, the Married Women's Property Act , and the Social purity campaign. Two events were decisive in making her more involved: the death of her husband and the difference of opinion of the women's suffrage movement on the problem of joining political parties. Millicent wanted to remain independent from the parties and managed to bring the disagreed parts back together to become stronger through cooperation. Because of her activities, she was elected President of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies. Between 1910 and 1912 she supported a law that would give single and widowed female householders the right to vote. By supporting the British in World War I, she tried to convey that women would be recognized as an important part of European society and therefore deserve basic rights such as the right to vote.

Millicent Fawcett came from a radical family. Her sister was Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , an English doctor and feminist who became the first woman to be licensed in the UK. Elizabeth was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh in 1908 and gave speeches on women's suffrage.

Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon

Emily Davies became the editor of a feminist publication, the English Woman's Journal . She expressed her feminist ideas on paper and was also a key exponent and influential figure in the 20th century. In addition to the right to vote, she supported the enhancement of women's rights such as access to education and training. She wrote books and had the power of the word, as evidenced by texts such as Thoughts on Some Questions Relating to Women (1910) and Higher Education for Women (1866). She was a great supporter of the times when organizations were trying to make a difference in society. She had a friend named Barbara Bodichon who also wrote articles and books such as: For example: Women and Work (1857), Enfranchisement of Women (1866), Objections to the Enfranchisement of Women (1866) and American Diary (1872).

Mary Gawthorpe (1908)

Mary Gawthorpe

Mary Gawthorpe was an early suffragette who gave up teaching to fight for women's suffrage. After the failure of Winston Churchill by heckling she was arrested. After her release, she left England, eventually emigrated to the United States and settled in New York. She worked in the trade union movement and in 1920 became a full-time employee of the "Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union". In 2003, Mary's nieces bequeathed her written estate to New York University.

souvenir

Plaque in Gower Street, London
  • The "Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial" from 1930 in London was dedicated only to Emmeline Pankhurst, in 1958 a plaque was added in memory of her daughter Christabel Pankhurst.
  • A statue of Millicent Fawcett was erected in Parliament Square , London , in 2018 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of women's suffrage .

Timetable

  • 1818: Jeremy Bentham advocated women's suffrage in his book A Plan for Parliamentary Reform . The Vestries Act 1818 allowed some single women to vote in the parish and church areas.
  • 1832: Great Reform Act - upheld the exclusion of women from elections.
  • 1851: The Sheffield Female Political Association was founded and submitted a petition to the House of Lords calling for women to vote.
  • 1864: The first Venereal Disease Act, the Contagious Disease Act, was passed in England with the intention of controlling venereal diseases by locking prostitutes and suspected women in hospitals for examination and treatment. Josephine Butler began a campaign to have these laws repealed. Many have since argued that Butler's campaign broke the conspiracy of silence surrounding sexuality and forced women to act in order to protect those of the opposite sex. If so, there are clear links between the suffrage movement and Butler's campaign.
John Stuart Mill, advocate for women's suffrage
  • 1865: John Stuart Mill was elected MP and immediately showed his support for women's suffrage.
  • 1867: Second Reform Act - male suffrage increased to 2.5 million.
  • 1869: Municipal Franchise Act - gave single women who paid taxes the right to vote in their communities.
  • 1883: Conservative Primrose League was established.
  • 1884: "Third Reform Act" - The male electorate doubled to 5 million.
  • 1889: "Women's Franchise League" was established.
  • 1894: "Local Government Act 1894" - women with property could vote in local elections, become advocates for the poor and participate in school committees.
  • 1894: Charlotte Carmichael Stopes' British Freewomen published , standard reading on women's suffrage for decades.
  • 1897: "National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies" (NUWSS) was founded (led by Millicent Fawcett ).
  • 1903: "Women's Social and Political Union" (WSPU) was founded (led by Emmeline Pankhurst )
  • 1904: Militancy began. Emmeline Pankhurst disrupted a Liberal Party meeting
  • February 1907: “ Mud March ” of the NUWSS - the largest open-air demonstration held up to this point in time - over 3000 women took part. This year women were allowed to be entered in the electoral register and to stand for election for important local government posts.
  • 1907: The "Artists' Suffrage League" was founded.
  • 1907: The "Women's Freedom League" was born.
  • 1908: In November of that year, Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , a member of the small town of Aldeburgh , Suffolk, was elected mayor of that town, the first woman to hold office.
  • 1907, 1912, 1914: main divisions in the WSPU.
A suffragette was arrested by two police officers on the street in 1914.
  • 1905, 1908, 1913: Three phases of WSPU militancy: civil disobedience, destruction of public property, arson / bombing.
  • July 5, 1909: Marion Wallace Dunlop started the first hunger strike - was released after 91 hours of fasting.
  • 1909 The "Women's Tax Resistance League" was founded.
  • September 1909: "Force-feeding" was introduced for hunger strikers in English prisons.
  • 1910: Lady Constance Lytton disguised herself as a labor seamstress named Jane Wharton, was arrested and subjected to force-feeding, which shortened her lifespan considerably.
  • February 1910: Establishment of a "Conciliation Committee" across party lines (54 MPs): The so-called conciliation law, "Conciliation Bill", which would have given women the right to vote, passed its second reading with a majority of 109 votes, but Asquith refused to to give this law more time in parliament.
  • November 1910: Herbert Henry Asquith amended a law to give more men the right to vote instead of women.
  • November 18, 1910: Black Friday .
  • October 1912: George Lansbury , Labor MP, stepped down to support women's suffrage.
  • February 1913: David Lloyd George's house burned down (despite his support for women's suffrage).
  • April 1913: The Cat and Mouse Act was passed. It allowed hunger strikers to be released if their health was threatened and re-incarcerated when they recovered.
  • June 4, 1913: Emily Davison ran in front of the king's horse at the Epsom Derby and was subsequently trampled and killed.
  • March 13, 1914: Mary Richardson axed the painting of Rokeby Venus , painted by Diego Velázquez , in the National Gallery to protest against the government's force-feeding injury to Emmeline Pankhurst by injuring such a beautiful woman.
  • August 4, 1914: World War II was declared in the United Kingdom too. The WSPU activities ceased immediately. The "NUWSS" activities continued peacefully - the branch of the organization in Birmingham continued to influence Parliament and to write letters to MPs.
  • February 6, 1918: The Representation of the People Act 1918 gave the right to vote to all women over the age of 30 who were either on the municipal electoral roll or married to a man on the register. About 8.4 million got the right to vote.
  • November 21, 1918: The Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 was passed allowing women 21 and older to be elected to Parliament .
  • 1928: Women were given the right to vote under the same conditions as men (over 21 years of age). This was the result of the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 .

See also

Web links

Commons : Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ NUWSS. Origin of the NUWSS
  2. ↑ Harold L. Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866–1928 . Revised 2nd ed. Routledge. P. 95. ISBN 978-1-317-86225-3
  3. ^ Martin Roberts: Britain, 1846-1964: The Challenge of Change . Oxford University Press 2001. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-19-913373-4
  4. ^ Derek Heater: Citizenship in Britain: A History . Edinburgh University Press 2006. p. 107. ISBN 9780748626724
  5. ^ Heater: Citizenship in Britain: A History . 2006. p. 136.
  6. ↑ Women's rights in The National Archives, accessed February 11, 2015
  7. ^ Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain? Which Act Gave Women the Right to Vote in Britain? accessed on February 11, 2015
  8. ^ The History of the Parliamentary Franchise, House of Commons Library, Female Suffrage before 1918 . P. 37–39 accessed on March 16, 2016 (English)
  9. ^ Sarah Richardson: Women voted 75 years before they were legally allowed to in 1918 In: The Telegraph dated 2013-03-18. Retrieved September 4, 2016
  10. ^ Martin Pugh: The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914 . Oxford University Press 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-820775-7
  11. ^ Edinburgh National Society for Women's Suffrage, 1876
  12. ^ Martin Roberts: Britain, 1846-1964: The Challenge of Change . Oxford University Press 2001. p. 8
  13. ↑ Jane Marcus: Suffrage and the Pankhursts (2013).
  14. ↑ The Struggle for Suffrage, Historic England, accessed October 3
  15. ^ Lisa Tickner: The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign 1907-14 . 1988. p. 27.
  16. ^ Pugh, 2012
  17. ^ Bob Whitfield: The Extension of the Franchise, 1832-1931 . Heinemann 2001. pp. 152-160
  18. ↑ Harold L. Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866–1928 . 2nd ed. Routledge 2014. p. 60
  19. ^ Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866-1928 . 2014. p. 34
  20. ^ Arthur Marwick, A History of the Modern British Isles, 1914-1999: Circumstances, Events and Outcomes . (Wiley-Blackwell, 2000), pp. 43-45.
  21. ↑ Millicent Garrett Fawcett: The Women's Victory - and After: Personal Reminiscences, 1911-1918 . Cambridge UP 2011. pp. 140-143.
  22. ↑ Malcolm Chandler: Votes for Women C. 1900-28 . Heinemann 2001. p. 27
  23. ^ DE Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954), pp. 15-38.
  24. ^ Diane Atkinson: The Purple, White and Green: Suffragettes in London , Museum of London, 1992, p. 7.
  25. ↑ Marina Warner, "The Agitator: Emmeline Pankhurst," Time 100, Time Magazine .
  26. ^ The Early Suffrage Societies in the 19th century - a timeline ( en ) Retrieved October 3, 2017.
  27. ^ Jone Johnson Lewis, "Millicent Garrett Fawcett," ThoughtCo.com.
  28. ^ Jone Johnson Lewis, "Elizabeth Garrett Anderson," ThoughtCo.com.
  29. ↑ Jone Johnson Lewis, "Emily Davies," ThoughtCo.com.
  30. ^ Jone Johnson Lewis, "Barbara Bodichon," ThoughtCo.com.
  31. ↑ Guide to the Mary E. Gawthorpe Papers TAM.275 . Retrieved March 22, 2018.
  32. ↑ Suffragette and equal rights campaigner Millicent Fawcett to be first woman statue in Parliament Square a century after she dedicated her life to getting British women the right to vote . Daily Mail. 3rd April 2017.
  33. ↑ Kent, 2014, p. 7
  34. ↑ Mayall, 2000, p. 350
  35. ^ "Timeline" , Britain 1906-1918.
  36. ^ Purvis, 1995, p. 120
  37. ^ Butler: The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954), pp. 7-12
  38. ^ Fawcett, Millicent Garrett. The Women's Victory - and After , Cambridge University Press, p. 170
  39. ^ Butler, The Electoral System in Britain 1918-1951 (1954), pp. 15-38

literature

  • Derek Heater: Citizenship in Britain: A History . Edinburgh University Press 2006. ISBN 978-0-74-862672-4
  • Martin Pugh: The March of the Women: A Revisionist Analysis of the Campaign for Women's Suffrage, 1866-1914 . Oxford University Press 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-820775-7
  • Martin Roberts: Britain, 1846-1964: The Challenge of Change . Oxford University Press 2001.
  • Lisa Tickner: The Spectacle of Women: Imagery of the Suffrage Campaign 1907-14 . 1988.
  • Harold L. Smith: The British Women's Suffrage Campaign 1866-1928 . 2nd edition Routledge 2014.
  • Millicent Garrett Fawcett: The Women's Victory - and After: Personal Reminiscences, 1911-1918 . Cambridge UP 2011.

Primary sources

  • Lewis, J., Ed .: Before the Vote Was Won: Arguments for and Against Women's Suffrage (1987)
  • McPhee, C., and A. Fitzgerald, Ed .: The Non-Violent Militant: Selected Writings of Teresa Billington-Greig (1987)
  • Marcus, J., Ed .: Suffrage and the Pankhursts (1987)