Women's suffrage in North Africa and the Middle East

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The women's suffrage in North Africa and the Middle East is linked to the history of colonialism . At the beginning of the 20th century, almost the entire Middle East , North Africa and the Asian countries with predominantly Islamic populations were under colonial rule. However, only in a few of these states, such as Algeria , did women's work for independence have a positive influence on women's emancipation.

Before they withdrew, the colonial rulers had set the course for the introduction of women's suffrage : to a certain extent this had a corresponding effect in the former French colonies of Tunisia and Mauritania and in Franco-Spanish Morocco . In 1953 in Sudan, the British guaranteed the right to vote for the few women who had completed secondary school during the transition to self-government. But unlike in the African regions south of the Sahara, the efforts of the withdrawing colonial powers collided with the relationship between the sexes in predominantly Islamic countries.

With the exception of Turkey , where women were able to vote as early as 1934, the introduction of women's suffrage in countries with an Islamic majority took place in less than twenty years. In Syria the followed Lebanon , Egypt , Pakistan , the Iraq , Morocco and Tunisia in the 1950s and Mauritania, Algeria, Iran , Libya , the Sudan in the early 1960s.

But then the movement came to an end: the Arab states and the Gulf states were opposed to the participation of women in political life into the 21st century. Here women's suffrage either had to be won through political struggle or guaranteed by the withdrawing colonial powers, or it came to a standstill because women's suffrage was generally rejected as un-Islamic.

Investigation of possible influencing factors on the political representation of women

religion

In the former colonies with a large Islamic population, such as Pakistan, there was a tendency to associate women's emancipation with the West and thus with the colonial rulers. From this arose in the process of decolonization the effort to reject the emancipation of women, to bring their national identity to advantage. In Algeria, for example, after 1962, women who voted for women to vote for veiling were punished as foreign agents; The same thing happened to women in Iran after 1978.

Islamic feminists argue that a male gaze prevails in their societies, viewing female sexuality as dangerous and in need of supervision. Islam was also falsified by male legal scholars who introduced misogynistic tendencies into Islam that were not found in the Prophet Muhammad. In the opinion of conservative men, the westernization of women should be prevented as well as other western influences. Intellectuals, on the other hand, saw a change in the role of women as essential for the path to modernity, which led through technical progress and the western-style monogamous family.

The rejection of political rights for women is not inherent in Islam , but a social construction to maintain existing power relations. Christians in Europe and the United States used the same arguments in the 19th century.

Western orientation

In the post- Cold War era , especially after the September 11, 2001 attacks , the world was divided between Islamic extremists and the liberal capitalist world. One of the main differences was the treatment of women. Countries in which fundamentalists have flourished have often been characterized by continued or newly introduced compulsory veils for women. But this dividing line was not straight: Iran and Iraq, opponents of the West, had functioning political systems that involved women. In contrast, states that viewed the West positively, such as Kuwait , Saudi Arabia or the Gulf States, denied women their place in society. Until 2000, only Yemen of the Gulf states had introduced women's suffrage at the national level. On the other hand, Bahrain , Kuwait, Oman , Qatar , Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates , all of which had friendly relations with the West, denied women their rights. Within five years of the start of the war on terror , all of these states had adopted democratic measures and all but Saudi Arabia had introduced women's suffrage at the national level, all despite the conservative opposition forces.

In modern states like Turkey, Egypt and Iran, women should conform to women in the West in order to gain international recognition for the state. Women's suffrage was granted for symbolic reasons, not to give women personal freedom; they should have the right to support the state.

War on terror

At the beginning of the 21st century, a second group of states with Islamic freedom of population gave women the right to vote because of social changes related to the war on terror .

Individual states

Algeria

In 1944, Christian and Jewish women with French citizenship (Européennes) who lived in Algeria, which was part of France, were given the right to vote; Muslimas were excluded.

France did not want to give Algeria independence, which led to civil war. The 1947 Statute created an assembly for European settlers and deserving male Muslims and a separate assembly for male Muslims. Allegedly the members were supposed to be elected in 1948, but the elections were rigged by the French. In any case, it was planned that important laws would have to be approved by both assemblies and that the European minority could have blocked the plans. The 1947 statute stipulated that women should not have the right to vote until later. The French administration was keen to make the world believe that the rejection of women’s suffrage by Muslim men had led to this regulation; but the introduction of women's suffrage would have doubled the number of Muslim electorates and thus weakened the power of the French.

Therefore, in 1957, the administration established exclusion criteria for the participation of Muslims in elections. These included literacy, age, marital status, or claiming that the veil made identification difficult at polling stations. When Charles de Gaulle came to power in June 1958, Muslims were also given the right to vote through the loi-cadre Defferre , but by then the power of the French in Algeria was already clearly on the wane. Some Algerians supported the French because they saw in them the guarantor of more equality between the sexes. But many were on the side of the rebels and used their veils to transport prohibited goods during the armed struggle.

After independence, Algerian nationalists rejected everything French and, despite the merits of women in the struggle for independence, sought to regain subordination of women. Women were given more rights in the political arena and in education, including the right to vote on July 5, 1962. The active and passive right to vote for women in the new state of Algeria was thus established on July 5, 1962. In September 1964, an elected woman sat in the national parliament for the first time.

But the liberal bills of 1966 on family and civil status law were not implemented. After 1962, women who wanted women to vote for veils were punished as foreign agents.

Egypt

The Egyptian women's rights activist Huda Sha`arawi, * 1879 † 1947

In 1922 the British lifted their protectorate with a formal recognition of the independence of Egypt. Articles 74 and 82 of the Constitution of March 1923 guaranteed universal suffrage. In the election law from the same year, women were excluded. The feminist Hudā Schaʿrāwī then founded the Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU) together with other women from the upper class and became its chairwoman. The Union campaigned for political rights for women, for equal rights of the sexes in education in secondary schools and universities, for the expansion of skilled employment opportunities for women and for scrutiny of marital laws affecting plural marriage and divorce. Between 1926 and 1934, the Union did not pursue its concerns about women's suffrage, but focused on education and legal improvements.

In 1935, the Egyptian women received the municipal right to vote.

After the revolution by Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1952, he first put together a committee for the drafting of a constitution in which no women sat. Only after a group of women around the women's rights activist Durrīya Schafīq went on a hunger strike did Nasser agree to take their demands for women's rights into account. In 1956 women were given the right to vote and stand as a candidate. Voting was compulsory for men, not for women. Men who had the right to vote were automatically registered, women had to file a special application in order to exercise their political rights, and even in 1972 only 12 percent of women were registered. It was not until 1979 that this disadvantage for women was abolished. In 1979 parliament reserved 30 of the 392 seats for women.

In 1957 there were female MPs for the first time, two of a total of 360.

Unlike in European countries, activities by women in the sphere outside the home have been supported by the state since Nasser, while women's rights within the family such as the right to abortion and issues such as domestic violence or birth control continued to be taboo.

Bahrain

In 1951 women were given local suffrage to elect city councils. In 1971 the country became independent. According to the constitution of December 6, 1973, all citizens were equal before the law; but the electoral law that was later passed did not recognize women's suffrage. As a result, women could not exercise their voting rights in the December 1973 legislative body elections.

In 2001, women also voted in the referendum on the new constitution. This confirmed the rights of women and came into force in 2002. On October 23, 2002 women in Bahrain went to the parliamentary elections for the first time.

Passive women's suffrage: according to the constitution of December 6, 1973, all citizens were equal before the law; but the electoral law that was later passed did not recognize women's suffrage. Therefore, women could not be elected to legislative bodies in December 1973. In 1999 women were given the right to stand for election at the local level. In 2002, after a referendum, a new constitution came into force under which women can be elected. Although women were in the majority in the electorate, no candidate was elected and a pre-election poll found that 60 percent of women were against women's suffrage. In 2006 a woman was elected to the House of Commons for the first time.

Iraq

Iraqi women had been engaged in debates about their role in society since the 1920s. When the country gained independence in 1958 and a group of military leaders had proclaimed a republic and wanted to modernize, women were given the right to vote and stand for election through an amendment to the Constitution of March 26, 1958, passed by the Parliament of the Kingdom of Iraq. Women's suffrage was part of a program of social and agricultural reforms aimed at connecting the country with the West; similar to what was also the case in Turkey, Egypt and Iran, but without the sufficient ideal basis and strong leadership that would have been necessary for the transformation. However, the regime in power at the time was overthrown in the summer of 1958 before elections with women could take place. It was not until the Ba'ath Party came to power in 1968 that women took an active part in political life, girls went to school, women worked outside the home, wore Western clothes and voted.

In 1979 Saddam Hussein came to power. Women's suffrage, which resulted in actual voting, was only introduced in February 1980. In June 1980, 16 women were elected to the national parliament.

In 2004, power was transferred to a temporary government, and elections were held on January 30, 2005, with multiple parties standing. Every third proposed name on the lists for the election of the 275-seat transitional assembly had to name a woman; the aim was to achieve a proportion of women of at least 25 percent, in fact 31 percent were achieved. Almost half of the women elected, however, belonged to the Iraqi Northern Alliance and had to represent the conservative line of this party union. The new constitution emphasized the equality of women and men before the law, but also stipulated that no law could come into effect against the existing rules of Islam. This made laws in fact dependent on the approval of religious forces. Radical Sunnis and Shiites restricted women's freedom by enforcing the separation of the sexes in public spaces, banning singing and dancing there, bombing hairdressers and forcing women to wear full veils. Forty-two women were murdered between July and September 2007 by militant groups who hunted down women who wore make-up or did not wear a veil.

Iran

Today's Iran was not a colony at the beginning of the 20th century, but was divided into so-called spheres of influence between Great Britain and Russia. Members of the Bahai and Masonic discussed the woman about improving the position, but the Muslim majority prevented such. During the constitutional revolution that began in 1905, women also took part in the protests. An educational program led to the opening of girls' schools, but Islamic authorities continued to say that women's education was contrary to Islam. The political engagement of women did not lead to the right to vote; Under the new constitution, women along with minors, beggars, murderers, thieves, bankruptcy scammers and other criminals were still excluded from voting under Islamic law. Although the Shah had to make concessions regarding the constitution, he did not give up and attacked parliament, which led to a riot. Here, too, women took part in demonstrations, especially after Russia invaded the north of the country, when it was also a question of repelling an aggressor from outside.

This national crisis resulted in women's rights becoming an issue. In August 1911 a member of parliament suggested introducing women's suffrage for the next election, but was unable to get through. In 1912 the parliament was closed and in 1921 Reza Shah Pahlavi came to power through a military coup. His authoritarian regime, which was friendly to the West, smashed women's organizations, but also abolished the veil in 1936 and used police violence to do so. He pushed back the power of the religious forces. Under his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , among other things, an improvement in the position of women was propagated as part of the reform program of the White Revolution of 1963. However, women were excluded from participating in the referendum on the reforms. Women opened their own voting halls and achieved such a strong public interest that the regime accepted the situation and also counted their votes. In September 1963 women were given the right to vote and stand as a candidate. Six women were elected to parliament in September 1963.

While the regime denounced the Islamic religious movement's rejection of women's suffrage as backward, opposition leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini continued to declare that women's suffrage was morally corrupt and part of a plot by the United States. However, women played such an important role in the deposition of the Shah that the Shiite regime, which came to power in 1979, did not dare to deprive women of their right to vote. Rather, it used the legal situation to legitimize itself through the votes of women. The veil was forcibly reinstated.

In the parliamentary elections on February 26, 2016, there were more than 580 female candidates, twice as many as in the previous election four years earlier. According to media reports, individual politicians use misogynistic comments against their competitors; these are increasingly viewed by the public as unacceptable.

see also: Women's rights in Iran

Israel

In 1920 the yishuv created an assembly of representatives. This did not have any legal legitimation, since the power lay with the British mandate power ; but this was encouraged to work with Jewish representatives. Ultra-Orthodox men successfully blocked women's suffrage in the yishuv in the beginning. As a compromise solution, women were given the right to vote for a limited time in April 1920. The ultra-Orthodox men were compensated by receiving two votes: one for themselves and one for their wife. Women were given permanent voting rights in the 1925 elections to the second legislative assembly. However, the one vote per person principle was not applied until the election of the fourth legislative assembly in August 1944. The rules governing this election formed the basis for the constitution of the State of Israel, which became independent on May 15, 1948. After the declaration of independence, a constituent assembly was supposed to draw up a constitution within five months, but this was not possible because of the war. In January 1949, Knesset elections were held according to the system that had applied to the Assembly of Representatives (see above). On February 16, 1949, a few basic laws were passed by the Constituent Assembly. The rule that gender shouldn't matter was part of these basic laws.

First election of a woman to the national parliament: 11 women, January 1949

Yemen

Before unification, women in what was then the Democratic Republic of Yemen in 1967, and in North Yemen in 1970, were given the right to vote and to stand as candidates. At the unification in 1990 the rights were confirmed. In the elections since 1990, women made up at least a third of the electorate, and their share rose to 42% in the 2003 general election. However, the number of women candidates for parliamentary seats decreased over the same period. The number of women parliamentarians also fell from 11 women in the parliament of the former People's Republic of Yemen before 1990 to one woman in parliament in 2003. Although women were courted by the parties as voters, they were less welcome in the active role as candidates.

In 2001 two women were appointed by the President to the advisory chamber of Majlis asch-Shura with 111 members.

Jordan

In 1974 women were given the right to vote at the national level. At the local level, women were given the right to vote in 1982.

Passive women's suffrage: 1974

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Toujan Faisal , House of Commons, November 29, 1993. In 1989 the first woman sat in the Jordanian parliament, but had been appointed.

Qatar

In 1998, decree number 17 gave women the right to vote at the municipal level. Women exercised their right to vote for the first time in the election of March 8, 1999 (elections to the Doha Municipal Council).

Women's suffrage at the national level to the Consultative Assembly was introduced in 2003. 30 of the 45 members are to be elected in accordance with Article 77 of the Constitution, the remainder being appointed by the President. But the first national elections were postponed until at least 2019.

Passive women’s right to vote: In 1998 women were given the right to stand up to local elections. There were six candidates for the March 8, 1999 election to Doha City Council , but none won a seat. In 2003, Sheika Yousef Hassan al-Jufairi became the first woman to be elected to a City Council member in a Gulf state . Another source states, however, that up to the fifth such elections in 2015 women were not represented there, and in 2015 two women were then elected.

Kuwait

Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy. Male Kuwait people have had the right to vote since 1999. In May 1999, the Emir Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah issued a decree guaranteeing women the right to vote, but the National Assembly refused to approve it, so the decree was dropped in November. An active women's movement built on the emir's attitude and advocated women's suffrage; these were not protests, but rather expressions of loyalty to the ruler who had spoken out in favor of women's suffrage. Technical developments created new possibilities for mobilization: in 2005, the economist Rola Dashti organized protest actions by girls on the streets via mobile phone, to whom she called on the mobile phone. On May 16, 2005, women received the general active and passive national right to vote by a parliamentary resolution with 35 to 23 votes. As an ambiguous concession to the fundamentalists, the formulation that women had to comply with Islamic laws during the election campaign and election was included. In the election that followed the granting of the right to vote, not a single candidate was elected to parliament. Two women were appointed to the government, which has 16 members, and were thereby entitled to vote in parliament. In 2005/2006 laws came into force restricting freedom of speech and the freedom of the media to criticize the government. In 2009 Dashti and two other women were the first to be elected to parliament. Dashti became Minister for State Planning and Development in 2012.

In the current government (January 2019) two of the fifteen members are women. Among the fifty MPs (after the November 26, 2016 election) there is only one woman (January 2019).

Lebanon

Before independence, the administration as a French protected area (Trust Territory) proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law in Article 7 of the Constitution of May 26, 1926, women were not mentioned separately. In 1926 active women's suffrage was introduced, but it was tied to educational requirements.

In 1943 the country became independent. From 1952 all men had to vote, while women 21 and over with elementary education had the right to vote. Between 1952 and 1953, the electoral law was redesigned to give women universal suffrage. According to a different source, women still need a certificate of education in order to exercise their right to vote, unlike men (as of 2007), while men can vote without any restrictions; there is also compulsory voting for men and not for women.

Passive women's suffrage: 1952

First election of a woman to the national parliament: In 1963, a woman was unanimously elected to parliament in a replacement election for a deceased member of parliament. In a regular election, women became MPs for the first time in 1992 (three women).

Libya

Active and passive women's suffrage was introduced in 1964.

First election of a woman to the national parliament: A woman, 1984.

Morocco

In 1956 the country became independent.

On September 1, 1959, women's suffrage was guaranteed at both the local and national levels. It was first used on June 18, 1963.

Passive women's suffrage: September 1, 1959

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Two women, June 1993

Mauritania

According to the Loi Lamine Guèye of 1946, all citizens had the right to vote in elections to the French parliament and also in local elections. The right to stand as a candidate was not specifically mentioned in the law, but it was not excluded either. In the elections to the Paris Parliament, French West Africa , which included Mauritania, had no two-tier suffrage as in other French colonies, but there was for all local elections. On June 23, 1956, still under French administration, the loi-cadre Defferre was introduced, which confirmed universal suffrage. In 1960 the country became independent and on May 20, 1961, active and passive women's suffrage was introduced in the now independent state.

Passive women's suffrage: 1946; general: 1956; after independence confirmation: May 20, 1961

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Fatma Lalla Zeina Mint Sbaghou , 1996 (according to another source: 1978)

Oman

Since 1994 women have had the right to vote and stand for election, limited to certain seats in the Consultative Assembly . Equal rights for women and men were enshrined in Article 17 of the 1996 Constitution. In 2003, universal active and passive suffrage at the national level was granted in time for the 2003 elections.

In October 2003, in the first general election, in which all Omanis over 21 were allowed to vote, two women were elected to parliament. Before that there had been appointments of women after a limited election:

1. Consultative Assembly (Majlis asch-Shura): Two women, 1997. Both were appointed in 1997 after a restricted election: 50,000 Omanis, including women for the first time, elected a group of nominees for the Consultative Assembly. The Sultan appointed 82 delegates from among the elected. Both women were re-elected in the next election, which allowed for an expanded electorate.

2nd State Assembly (Majlis ad-Dawla): Four women

No woman was elected in 2007, only one in 2012.

Saudi Arabia

see also local elections in Saudi Arabia 2015

A law from 1977 guaranteed all citizens the right to vote without specifying any special restrictions for women. In 2000, Saudi Arabia signed an international treaty undertaking to ensure that women were allowed to vote on the same terms as men in all elections. The electoral law of August 2004 guaranteed universal suffrage without restrictions. However, only men were allowed to vote in the 2005 sub-municipal elections. Technical reasons, such as the difficulty of setting up a polling station for women, were used to explain why women did not participate. On the basis of a decree from 2011 - issued during the upheavals of the Arab Spring - women in Saudi Arabia were finally admitted to local elections for the first time in December 2015. However, the women were in the election campaign z. B. externally financed election advertising prohibited. Women and men had to vote in different rooms. The majority of Saudi women, however, did not have an identity card : the basic requirement to be able to vote. Women received twenty of the 2100 seats in this election.

Syria

In 1946 the country became independent. In 1949 there was a coup d'etat by Colonel Husni az-Za'im , in which Quwatli was overthrown. The new regime provided limited voting rights for women with some education as part of a series of political and social reforms. On September 10, 1949, women who graduated from sixth grade were given the right to vote. It was later extended to all women who could read and write, and in 1953 all educational restrictions that had curtailed women's suffrage were lifted. After another coup in the same year, the voting rights were screwed back to the 1949 basis. Only in 1973 did women regain full voting rights.

Passive women's suffrage: 1953.

First election of a woman to the national parliament: Five women, May 1973

Tunisia

In 1956 the country became independent. Women's suffrage was introduced on June 1, 1959.

On the basis of an ordinance, women exercised the right to vote and stand for election for the first time in city council elections in May 1957. Since June 1, 1959, women have also been allowed to cast their votes and be elected at the national level.

Passive women's suffrage: June 1, 1959

First election of a woman to the national parliament: A woman, November 8, 1959

Turkey

Development of women's rights

see also women's rights in Turkey

A number of women's organizations were founded between 1908 and 1920. Some of them resorted to militant actions, such as a sit-in , to get the telephone company to hire women. The Young Turks , to whom Mustafa Kemal Ataturk belonged, took a progressive line on women's issues. When they came to power, measures were taken to promote the education of women, among other things. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire , the Latin alphabet, Gregorian calendar, and European clothing were introduced. Women were asked to stop wearing veils. Marriage rights, inheritance rights and the end of polygamy and harem were granted or at least promised . Ataturk worked to ensure that women were granted full civil rights and access to jobs and the political sphere.

In 1936 a civil law was introduced based on the model of the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel . It replaced Sharia law, abolished polygamy and stipulated a minimum age for marriage. Women and men were given equal rights in the areas of divorce law , parental custody and inheritance law .

Women's suffrage

First female MP in the Turkish Parliament, 1935.

Numerous hurdles had to be overcome before women's suffrage was introduced. In the 1930s, women's requests to join political parties were rejected. As western countries approached dictatorship, Ataturk saw women's suffrage as a step towards democratization. On April 3, 1930, women were given the right to vote and stand for election at the local level. The 1934 national elections were the first national elections to allow women to participate.

Since 1934 women could be elected to the Grand National Assembly. Martin gives the date December 5, 1934.

In 1935 women sat in parliament for the first time. It was a group of 18 (according to Martin: 17) women handpicked by Ataturk. This corresponded to 4.5 percent of the MPs and was the highest number of women MPs in Europe at the time. Turkey was a one-party state at the time, so there was no competition between different parties in the election. However, the introduction of women's suffrage did not result in an expansion of women's political engagement. The female MPs hardly took part in the discussions.

However, the government soon banned the first women's party and urged the Union of Turkish Women to dissolve. On the one hand, the nation state granted women rights, but on the other hand, it restricted their exercise in order to retain its power.

see also: Political participation of women in Turkey

United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates has an administration-appointed, hand-picked electorate for the election of half of the members of the Federal National Council . In 2006, the first election ever, there were 1163 female and 6595 female voters, according to Adams. Since the conditions for women and men are the same, this is considered here as a general active and passive right to vote for women.

In 2006 and 2011 a woman was elected to parliament.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 399.
  2. ↑ a b c d e Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 400th
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 401.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 412.
  5. ↑ a b Maxine Molyneux. Women's Emancipation Under Socialism: A Model for the Third World? Brighton, Sussex, ID Publications 1981, p. 7. Quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 412.
  6. ↑ a b c d Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 427.
  7. ↑ a b c d Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 424.
  8. ↑ a b c d e f g Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 425.
  9. ↑ a b c - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 29, 2018 .
  10. ↑ a b c d e Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 413.
  11. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colo5ado, 2000, p. 5.
  12. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 6.
  13. ↑ Nadje S. Al-Ali: The Women's Movement in Egypt, with Selected References to Turkey. Geneva, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development 2002, p. 22, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 407.
  14. ^ Margot Badran: Feminists, Islam and Nation: Gender and the Making of Modern Egypt. Princeton, Princeton University Press 1994, p. 207, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 407.
  15. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 408.
  16. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 409.
  17. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 410.
  18. ↑ a b c - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 30, 2018 .
  19. ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 351.
  20. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 94.
  21. ↑ Kumari Jayawardena: Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Zed Books London, 5th Edition 1994, p. 55.
  22. ↑ a b Werner Ende, Udo Steinbach (ed.): Islam in the present. Federal Agency for Civic Education. CH Beck Munich, 5th edition, 2005; Special edition for the Federal Agency for Civic Education, series of publications, volume 501, p. 653
  23. ↑ a b c d - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved September 29, 2018 .
  24. ↑ Dieter Nohlen, Florian Grotz, Christof Hartmann (Eds.): Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia. (= Elections in Asia and the Pacific. A Data Handbook. Volume 1). Oxford University Press, New York 2001, ISBN 978-0-19-924958-9 , p. 53
  25. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 438.
  26. ↑ a b c d e f Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 426.
  27. ^ IN The Gulf, Women are not Women's Best Friends. , Daily Star (Lebanon), June 20, 2005, quoted in: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 426.
  28. ↑ a b c Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 421.
  29. ^ A b c d Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 188.
  30. ↑ a b c d e Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 422.
  31. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 423.
  32. ↑ BBC Radio 4 Today Program Report, November 15, 2007, quoted from: Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 422.
  33. ↑ Kumari Jayawardena: Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Zed Books London, 1986, p. 64, quoted from Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 414.
  34. ↑ a b Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 414.
  35. ↑ a b c d e f Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 415.
  36. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , pages 415-416.
  37. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 184.
  38. ↑ Kumari Jayawardena: Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Zed Books London, 5th Edition 1994, p. 70.
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