History of the term geosphere

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The term geosphere was coined in the second half of the 19th century. It appears for the first time in English-language literature in 1871. During the twentieth century, the geosphere developed a great variety of meanings, especially among German geoscientists. That led to many possibilities of misunderstanding.

By the mid-1990s, at least ten different geosphere terms had been introduced. Since then, the variety of meanings of the geosphere has decreased again. The decrease in the variety of meanings is mainly due to the fact that many substitute terms have now been established. Of the ten geosphere terms, only three are used in current scientific publications.

Term coining from 1864 to 1993

Doherty (1864) and Andrews (1871)

Stephen Pearl Andrews

The British doctor and polymath Hugh Doherty published the first volume of his four-part main work on "Organic Philosophy" in 1864 . In this first volume he divided the earthly environment of man into several realms . These realms included the atmospheric realm of terrestrial air, the thalattospheric or oceanic realm of sea water ( thalattospheric realm / oceanic realm ), the pluvial realm of watery precipitation and surface waters ( pluvial realm ), the religious realm of fossils and sedimentary rocks and the geospheric realm of igneous and metamorphic rocks ( geospheric realm ). The geospheric realm was equated with the earth's crust.

Seven years later, the American linguist and philosopher Stephen Pearl Andrews (1812–1886) used this template to form the independent expression geosphere :

“The Incorporated Homogenismi of the Cosmos have recently been discriminated with some accuracy, by Hugh Doherty ... and have been furnished with a seriated list of names; Geosphere (earthy), Atmosphere (aerial), Thallatosphere (watery), etc. "

"The Incorporated Homogenisms of the Cosmos have recently been carefully distinguished by Hugh Doherty and given a list of names: geosphere (earthy), atmosphere (airy), thallatosphere (watery), etc."

- Stephen Pearl Andrews : The Primary Synopsis of Universology and Alwato: 105

In a comparison between the spherical realms of Doherty and the spheres of Andrews it is noticeable that the latter summarized the conceptual contents in a simplistic way. So he merged Doherty's pluvial realm and oceanic realm to form the thallatosphere. Andrews did the same with the geosphere. Here he put together conceptual contents that had been divided by Hugh between the reliquary realm and the actual geospheric realm. Andrew's geosphere simply comprised things on the solid earth. He gave it the adjective "earthy" and contrasted it with the sphere of water and the sphere of air. In addition, Andrews dropped the reference to the earth's crust that Doherty had discussed at length for his geospheric realm.

  • Geosphere according to Stephen Pearl Andrews: The solid earth.

Andrew's term geosphere was to establish itself permanently within the English-language geosciences. There are many examples of use from all subsequent decades. Two examples are presented here:

"The great mass of the earth, solid at least in its outer crust, is for the most part bathed in an ocean of water and is entirely surrounded by an envelope of gases. These three parts of our planet are sometimes named the geosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. "

“The great mass of the earth, at least firmly in its outer crust, is bathed for the largest part in an ocean of water and is completely surrounded by a shell of gas. These three sections of our planet are sometimes called the geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. "

- William Morris Davis : Elementary meteorology: 9

"The geosphere - in other words, this ball called Planet Earth, and more particularly the solid portion of it."

"The geosphere - in other words, this ball called planet earth, and more precisely the solid part of it."

- Paul Bigelow Sears : Where there is life: 167

Four years after Andrew's publication, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831–1914) was to coin similar terms. On the one hand, Suess also called the earthly atmosphere the atmosphere . This word was in use in the English-speaking area since 1638 and in the German-speaking area since 1682. However, Suess continued to name the terrestrial waters as the hydrosphere (instead of the thallatosphere) - and the stone shell as the lithosphere (instead of the geosphere).

Ratzel (1902)

Friedrich Ratzel

The term geosphere first appeared in German-language literature in 1902. It was invented by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904):

"Next to, or rather above, the geosphere, the solid and plastic earth's crust, which continues into unknown depths, let the hydrosphere, or water envelope, and atmosphere, or air envelope, be given their natural place without abbreviation."

- Friedrich Ratzel : The earth and life - second volume: 4
  • Geosphere according to Friedrich Ratzel: The earth's shell made of solid and plastic rock.

The first geosphere term in the German-speaking area appeared congruent in content with the lithosphere term. But the lithosphere was already 27 years old and had long since established itself in geoscientific terminology. As a result, Ratzel's geosphere did not prevail.

Murray (1910) and Wernadski (1924)

John Murray

A second geosphere term was coined in 1910 in the English-speaking world. This was done through John Murray (1841-1914). The Scottish marine explorer wrote the influential book The Ocean three years later , in which his geosphere reappeared:

"If we regard our earth as it is swung in space at the present time, we may see, with the mind's eye, that it is composed of concentric spheres or shells of matter in the gaseous, liquid, and solid or" trans-solid "states. These have been called Geospheres, viz., The atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, the biosphere, the tektosphere, and the great centrosphere which makes up by far the greatest mass and volume of the globe. "

“If we look at our earth as it is currently being rotated through space, we can perhaps see in the mind's eye that it consists of spherical spheres or shells, the matter of which is of gaseous, liquid, solid or“ trans-solid ”form is. These [spheres] have been called geospheres, namely the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, the biosphere, the tectosphere and the enormous centrosphere, which occupies by far the greatest mass and the greatest volume of the globe. "

- John Murray : The Ocean, pp. 226-227.
  • Geosphere according to John Murray: A material sphere of the planet earth. These include the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

The book The Ocean was also read by the Russian geoscientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadski (1863-1945). He took it into account in a small paper on geochemistry that appeared in 1924, a German translation of which was submitted in 1930. Therein geosphere is found in the meaning of Murray. Vernadski used the same geosphere term again in his main work "биосфера" from 1926. In this way, Murray's geosphere came into the linguistic usage of Russian geoscientists. Among them, the term was to be cultivated for many decades. It can also be found sporadically in German-language publications, and more often in English authors.

Hellpach (1935)

The next German-language meaning of geosphere came from the German doctor Willy Hellpach (1877–1955). It can be traced back to at least 1935. Now the geosphere denotes the "air layer" of man:

"The weather reaction of humans ... takes place in the geosphere : this is the name of the layer of air that lies directly above the ground."

- Willy Hellpach : Culture and Climate

"The very young" microclimate "of plants shows us how much the ground-level geosphere differs from the open air high above the ground as a result of soil influences."

- Willy Hellpach : Geopsyche, p. 202.
  • Geosphere according to Willy Hellpach: The air layer near the surface of the earth.

Hellpach's term geosphere appeared to be roughly the same as the term peplosphere . The ground layer of the troposphere near the surface of the earth is referred to as the peplosphere . The term was only coined in 1953 by the German meteorologist Karl Schneider-Carius (1896–1959). However, it spread quickly. Hellpach's geosphere did not prevail - although this author was verifiably read by geographers.

Carol (1956)

While Hellpach was still using his term geosphere, a new understanding of geosphere came to the German-speaking countries. It goes back indirectly to a publication by the Russian geographer Andrei Alexandrovich Grigorjew (1883–1968) from 1949.

"As a research object in physical geography, the structure of the [outer] (geographical) earth crust appears as a sphere of mutual influence and, in particular, mutual penetration of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and the processes of transformation of one type of energy into another existing in the geographic crust of the earth, taking into account the changes brought about by the activity of human society. "

- Andrei Alexandrovich Grigoriev : The Advances in Soviet Physical Geography in the Last 30 Years, p. 21.

The research subject of geography - spatially located on the surface of the earth - is also called "geographic substance" by Grigoryev . This spatially fixed concept of a materially tangible, geographical substance was already conceived in a similar form in the 1920s by the German geographer Alfred Hettner (1859–1941). It was readily accepted by leading representatives of German-speaking geography and was a key guide to the next German-language geosphere term. It was introduced in 1956 by the Swiss geographer Hans Carol (1915–1971):

“Indeed, the earth's shell is the object of geographic research, it is the“ geographic substance ”that has been mentioned a lot recently. Five essential areas, spheres, are involved in its structure: litho-, hydro-, atmo-, bio- and anthroposphere, which we want to call the geosphere in their entirety ... the earth's shell as a whole. "

- Hans Carol : On the discussion of landscape and geography, pp. 113–114.

In his essay, Carol made no mention of the fact that geosphere had been used by other authors with different meanings before him. That was astonishing, especially in the case of Willy Hellpach, because Hellpach was even quoted by Carol. However, Carol only seemed to have read an older edition of Hellpach's work, in which Hellpach had not yet introduced his concept of the geosphere.

“Since STRABO, geographers have repeatedly focused their science on the complex knowledge of“ the country and its people ”. RITTER and RICHTHOFEN introduced the term “earth's surface” as a symbol for the domain of geography. RICHTHOFEN, HETTNER, u. am used the word “earth shell”, which HARTSHORNE translated as “earth shell”. In 1956 the author introduced the term geosphere to denote the same domain . "

- Hans Carol : On the theory of geography, p. 26.
  • Geosphere according to Hans Carol: The space of things with which the science geography deals. These things belong in detail to the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, to the global biocenosis (the biosphere according to Teilhard de Chardin ) and to the anthroposphere. The entire surface of the earth and the areas immediately above and below it corresponds to this space of geographically researched things.

In Carol's understanding, the geosphere became synonymous with what he considered the subject of geographic research . The illustrations in his articles show that Carol wanted to see the entire surface of the earth contained under the geosphere . This means that the high seas should also be regarded as part of the geosphere - as an object of geographic research. The fact that the high seas should also belong to the area of ​​responsibility of geography arose from a very traditional idea of ​​geography. Within the traditional notion, oceanography was not seen as a completely separate science, but also as a subdivision of geography.

After Carol had introduced his geosphere term, several attempts were made to anchor the term in international geoscientific terminology. They hardly met with any response.

Teilhard de Chardin (1956), Barrett (1981) and readers (1991)

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

Another line of development of the term geosphere was influenced by the French geologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). He belonged to the order of the Jesuits . The associated control meant that Teilhard de Chardin was not allowed to publish some of his central thoughts during his lifetime. They soon appeared posthumously in the books Le Phénomène Humain and La Place de l'Homme dans la Nature . The two works saw several editions and were translated into English and German after a few years.

Teilhard de Chardin explained in the two books his idea that there would be a kind of supra-individual knowledge network on earth. He called this network the noosphere . The noosphere grew out of the consciousnesses of communicating human beings. The noosphere grew out of organic life (biosphere). The biosphere, in turn, emerged from the non-living environment of planet earth. Teilhard de Chardin called this abiotic environment the geosphere .

  • Geosphere according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin: The abiotic environment of living things.

Eduard Suess had already compared the animate part of the earth's surface (biosphere) with the three inanimate parts in 1875. These inanimate parts included the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Consequently, according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, the geosphere should have been composed of the three sub-areas lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. In fact, it was precisely this view that was only found occasionally in scientific publications that were published after Teilhard des Chardin's posthumous writings. A handbook on environmental measurement technology became very clear in 1975:

“Air, water and land comprise the physical surroundings of man. Collectively, they may be called the GEOSPHERE or the earth's environment, which includes three systems: ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE and LITHOSPHERE. "

“Air, water and land make up the physical environment of humans. In summary, they could perhaps be called the GEOSPHERE or the environment of the earth, which contains three systems: ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE and LITHOSPHERE. "

- Jen Yu Wang : Instruments for physical environmental measurements, with special emphasis on atmospheric instruments: syllabus, p. 1.

The exact same idea of ​​the geosphere was advocated six years later by the American ecologist Gary W Barrett.

  • Geosphere according to Gary W Barrett: The abiotic environment of living things in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

This geosphere term only came to the German-speaking geosciences with some delay and that was initially only implicit. Ten years later, the German geographer Hartmut Leser published the third edition of his textbook on landscape ecology . Many pages have been used to carefully derive and explain various landscape-ecological terms. Among other things, Geotop was also presented. The geotope should describe the abiotic environment (rock, air, water) of a smaller ecosystem. On the other hand, Hartmut Leser never mentioned the term geosphere - although he had thoroughly explained and illustrated this word in the first edition of his textbook in the sense of Carol's term geosphere.

However, in 1991 not only the landscape-ecological technical vocabulary was explained in detail. In the same edition of the book, Hartmut Leser also attached great importance to presenting the concept of geographical viewing dimensions according to Ernst Neef ( see below ). From this concept of geographical viewing dimensions, it followed that certain content - for example the abiotic environment - can be viewed on different scales. The abiotic environment of the small-scale observation dimension was called Geotop according to Hartmut Leser . However, true to the concept of geographical viewing dimensions, it followed that the abiotic environment of the largest viewing dimension would have to be called the geosphere .

  • Geosphere (implicit) according to Hartmut Leser: The abiotic environment of the global biocenosis in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

As a result, Hartmut Leser succeeded in implicitly transferring Gary W Barrett's concept of geosphere into German in 1991. But the explicit transfer was also due to him. Because Hartmut Leser was in charge of the widespread dictionary of general geography . In this specialist dictionary Barrett's geosphere term was directly readable as the main meaning under the keyword geosphere .

Winkler (1960)

By 1960, five geosphere terms had been introduced in German-speaking countries. Of them, at least the three younger ones were still in use: in 1960 owned geosphere. no clear conceptual content. This gave rise to the possibility of misunderstanding. These possible misunderstandings were discussed in a short essay by the Swiss geographer Ernst Winkler (1907–1987). In his text, not only were almost all previous geosphere terms presented in a comparative way, but another possible term was also introduced.

“But it is closer to going back to the“ original ”sense of the root words“ Gäa ”and“ Sphaira ”when making a decision. According to this, the "more general" meaning would then be: Earth area to be selected that includes both the geosphere in the sense of CAROL as its partial spheres, but also the "area" of the entire earth (i.e. not only the envelopes, but also the interior of the earth). For geography, of course, this would mean that with this word it no longer had a specific term for its object, which was actually called into question by the earlier descriptions. "

- Ernst Winkler : On two more recent geographical "basic concepts", p. 48.
  • Geosphere according to Ernst Winkler: an area of ​​the earth that can mean the entire planet or a section of the earth.

Winkler's geosphere was never used in scientific literature. In any case, his conceptual suggestion was only intended as a linguistically founded response to the previous geosphere concepts. Winkler's goal was not to present a more suitable geosphere . His goal was to present this term as unusable and to remove it from the geoscientific vocabulary. He didn't succeed.

Neef (1963)

The German geographer Ernst Neef (1908–1984) pursued a completely new approach to the conceptual definition of a geosphere . Neef was not concerned with real geographical objects, but with geographical representations. So he largely developed the concept of geographical viewing dimensions. The concept says that the geographical area should be structured according to different viewing dimensions. These viewing dimensions differ from one another in terms of their scales. Different working methods emerge from the different scales in order to examine the space being viewed. With the help of the largest geographical dimension, very large sections of the earth or the earth as a whole are explored and described. The largest geographic viewing dimension is shown on maps on a very small scale. The maps then usually show more than one continent, earth hemispheres or the whole earth. Neef called this largest geographical dimension the geospheric dimension.

  • Geosphere according to Ernst Neef: a section of space in geospheric dimension.

Neef's geosphere term did not designate the subject of geography . Instead, the geosphere named here the space that is explored and described in the geospheric dimension. For the object of geographic research, on the other hand, Neef used a new term. He spoke of the geographic surface of the earth .

Ernst Neef's work was very influential. Nevertheless, Neef's conception of the geosphere could not completely replace the somewhat older term coined by Hans Carol. Instead, both terms sometimes merged:

“The geosphere is considered a real object of geography ... 'Geosphere' is primarily a spatial term. The 'geosphere' is the spatial area in which those factors and elements of reality work together through which the earth's surface is built up, structured and influenced. "

- Peter Weichhart (1947-) : Geographie im Umbruch, p. 95.

Walter (1976)

Teilhard de Chardin's geosphere concept experienced a certain split in 1976. In that year the German-Russian geobotanist Heinrich Walter (1898–1989) published the book “The ecological systems of the continents (biogeosphere)” . In it he contrasted the biosphere of the mainland with the biosphere of the seas. He called the latter the bio-hydrosphere and the former the biogeosphere . If the bio (sphere) part is removed from the newly created word , what Heinrich Walter understood by geosphere appears . Namely the abiotic environment of the dry land.

  • Geosphere (derived) after Heinrich Walter: The abiotic environment of the living beings on the mainland.

However, Heinrich Walter never used the geosphere in its basic form, but always wrote of the biogeosphere or bio-geosphere . Walter's advance does not seem to have had any notable influence on the history of the actual geosphere concept.

Eichler (1993)

Only two years after the implicit geosphere term by Hartmut Leser ( see above ), the German geographer Horst Eichler tried an updated version of the geosphere :

“The geosphere is understood as a continuum, as a coherent whole, in which the three realms of being or levels of reality - the inorganic, the biotic and the spiritual - interpenetrate, merge and in their integration the complex unity of the real reality of earthly life can be experienced ... The geosphere is understood as a three-dimensional shell structure of the earth, which on the one hand extends far beyond the real solid surface of the earth, but on the other hand does not also enclose its interior ... The geosphere is the shell-shaped envelope of the earth, in which and through the interlocking The superimposition of spherical physical, biotic and spiritual elements results in the spatial quality for life on earth. "

- Horst Eichler : Ecosystem Earth, pp. 33–35.

Horst Eichler started out from Hans Carol's geosphere concept. He then enriched it with the ideas that went back to Teilhard de Chardin. This meant that Eichler's geosphere had to be supplemented by many spheres that did not fall under this term for Hans Carol. Eichler counted a total of twelve earth spheres in the geosphere: anthroposphere , atmosphere , biosphere , hydrosphere , cososphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , noosphere , pedosphere , relief sphere , technosphere .

Both Horst Eichler and, immediately before him, Hartmut Leser tried to take Teilhard de Chardin's views on the concept of the geosphere into account. However, the results of their efforts are very contrasting. Hartmut Leser reduced the content of the term geosphere, reduced it to the inanimate parts of the ecosphere . Eichler enlarged the content of the geosphere term, adding spiritual and technical (and cosmic) parts.

Horst Eichler's term represents the most recent version of Geosphere . It was never taken up again.

Current situation

The solid geosphere according to Stephen Pearl Andrews (1871) in the network of the earth spheres. This is the only modern geosphere term that has no synonym.

Five of the geosphere terms presented are no longer used today. The geosphere concept according to Ratzel (1902) could not prevail against the competing concept of the lithosphere. The concept of the geosphere according to Hellpach (1935) could not assert itself against the concept of the peplosphere. Winkler's term (1960) also disappeared, but from the start it was not introduced as a serious conceptual suggestion. Similarly, Walter's term (1976) was not pursued any further, but he had never formulated an independent geosphere term anyway, but always stuck to the biogeosphere . Finally, Eichler's (1993) thoroughly devised, comprehensive geosphere was never taken up again, despite its extensive explanation.

Five of the geosphere terms presented are still in use today. These modern geosphere terms include the solid geosphere according to Stephen Pearl Andrews (1871), the abiotic geosphere according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1956), the geographical geosphere according to Hans Carol (1956), the multiple geospheres according to John Murray (1910) and the space-dimensional geosphere according to Ernst Neef (1963). The fixed geosphere and the abiotic geosphere terms are found particularly frequently. The former became the geosphere of system earth research in 1983 and the latter became the geosphere of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program in 1986 - both of which are flourishing fields of research. The other three modern geosphere terms can still be found occasionally (multiple geospheres), rarely (geographical geosphere) or very rarely (space-dimensional geosphere).

There are synonyms for four of the five modern geosphere terms: The abiotic geosphere can also be called the physiosphere . The object of the geographical geosphere can also be addressed as a chorosphere or (in many cases) alternatively as a landscape sphere . The multiple geospheres have a synonym called earth spheres , which has been known since 1903. The space-dimensional geosphere can be just as spherical. or higher global. The viewing dimension. Only the oldest geosphere term of the solid geosphere has no synonym.

See also

literature

  • H. Carol: For the discussion of landscape and geography. In: Geographica Helvetica. 11, 1956, pp. 111-132.
  • H. Eichler: Ecosystem Earth . Leipzig 1993.
  • V. Vernadsky: The Biosphere . New York 1998.
  • E. Winkler: On two more recent geographical "basic concepts". In: Geographica Helvetica. 15, 1960, pp. 47-49.

Individual evidence

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