History of the term biosphere

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The concept of the biosphere [ bioˈsfɛːrə ] (from Greek βίος, bíos = life and σφαίρα, sfaira = sphere) was coined in the 19th century. From the 1920s onwards, it became increasingly part of the scientific discussion. Outside of the specialist sciences, he was not known until the late 1960s.

The term has undergone various changes in meaning since it was first coined. Currently, at least in the life sciences , an ecological biosphere term is mainly used. However, it is in competition with a number of other terms, especially the term ecosphere .

Biosphere in bio and geosciences

Beginnings

The first written evidence of the image of a living planet earth can be found in Plato.

The fact that the world contains something extensively living has not been recognized in the last few centuries. Such a thought was first encountered in antiquity, in the 4th century BC. Written down in BC. It can be found in Plato (427–347 BC). The idea has therefore been part of the occidental worldview for a very long time:

"Οὗ δ΄ ἔστιν τἆλλα ζῷα καθ΄ ἓν καὶ κατὰ γένη μόρια͵ τούτῳ πάντων ὁμοιότατον αὐτὸν εἶναι τιθῶμεν. τὰ γὰρ δὴ νοητὰ ζῷα πάντα ἐκεῖνο ἐν ἑαυτῷ περιλαβὸν ἔχει͵ καθάπερ ὅδε ὁ κόσμος ἡμᾶς ὅσα τε ἄλλα θρέμματα συνέστηκεν ὁρατά. "

"Ou d 'estin t'alla zô i a kath hen kai kata genê moria, toutô i pantôn homoiotaton auton einai tithômen. ta gar dê noêta zô i a panta ekeino en eautô i perilabon echei, kathaper hode ho kosmos hêmas hosa te alla thremmata sunestêken horata. "

“But that, of which the other living thing in individuals and species is only a part, we want to concede among all possibilities that it is the most similar. Because all conceivable living beings contain that by embracing them, as this world has composed us and the other visible pupils in general. "

- Plato : Τίμαιος. Pp. 30c-30d
Johannes Kepler described the earth as a living organism.

In the early modern period, in 1619, Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) became very specific. He understood not only the immediate environment of the organisms, but the entire earth as living. As a result, his thoughts on the living earth went beyond what is nowadays defined as the biosphere. Today, such holistic ( holistic ) considerations of the earth are reflected in the relatively new terms Gaia , system earth or bioplanet earth :

“Non est quippe Terra, animal tale, quale Canis, ad omnem nutum promptum; sed tale, quale Bos aut Elephas, tardum ad iram, tanóque víolentius, cúm excandiut. … Ut enim corpus in cutis superficie pilos, sic terra plantas arboresque profert inque ijs ibi pediculi, hîc erucæ, cicadæ, variaque insecta & monstra marina nascuntur: & ut corpus lachrymas, blennam, auriumque recrementa, estul exisie & gumm Tellus electrum, bitumen: utque vesica urinam: sic montes flumina fundunt; & ut corpus excrementum suphurei odoris, crepitusque, qui etiam inflammari possunt, sic Terra Sulfur, ignes subterraneos, tonitrua, fulgura: utque in venis animantis generation sanguis, & cum eo sudor, extracorpus ejectus; sic invenis terræ, Metalla & fossilia, vaporque pluvius. "

“Because the earth is not an animal with the kind of dog that parries at every sign, but with that of an ox or elephant, an animal that is not easy to get angry, but then becomes all the angrier when it Anger is kindled. ... Just as the body produces hair on the surface of the skin, the earth produces plants and trees, and just as lice arise there, so here caterpillars, crickets and other insects as well as sea monsters. Just as the body excretes tear fluid, nasal mucus, ear wax, and sometimes a sticky liquid from pustules on the face, so does the earth amber and pitch. As the bladder lets urine flow, so the mountains rivers. As the body emits excrement with a sulphurous odor and loud winds which are flammable, so the earth gives off sulfur and subterranean fire with thunder and lightning. Just as blood is produced in the animal's veins and with it the sweat that is excreted from the body, so are metals and crystals as well as rain vapor in the veins of the earth. "

- Johannes Kepler : Harmonices mvndi libri v. Pp. 160-161.
James Hutton spoke of a "living world" .

The Scottish naturalist James Hutton (1726–1797) could have meant something similar to Kepler's when he repeatedly referred to the earth as "living world" . This happened in front of a wider audience for the first time in two readings, which took place on March 7th and April 4th, 1785 before the Royal Society of Edinburgh . A privately printed short version was circulated for the readings. The full script appeared three years later. This made Hutton's thoughts accessible to the general public. In the script it can also be read that Hutton divided the earth into different parts ("bodies") . He identified the three inanimate, earthly partial aspects of solid earth, water and air. But he put this in relation to a fourth earthly partial aspect - the partial aspect of living beings. With that, Hutton's Theory of the Earth was fully formulated. He presented them again in detail in a two-volume work in 1795.

James Hutton had not only succeeded in emphasizing the importance of life for an understanding of the entire earth system . At the same time he was able to convey that the earth would consist of four relatively separate "bodies" . This expresses a fundamental change in the understanding of nature, because James Hutton left the previous holistic considerations of the earth behind. He replaced it with a geoscientific reductionism : instead of being a highly complex whole, individual partial aspects of the earth could now be viewed and researched individually.

19th century: Lamarck and Suess

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck formulated the idea of ​​a biosphere.

The idea of ​​the biosphere was made more tangible in 1802 by the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (1744–1828). He wrote that biology was a necessary part of studying the earth:

“Ainsi toutes ces considérations partagent naturellement la physique terrestre en trois parties essentielles, dont la première doit comprendre la theory de l'atmosphère, la météorologie ; la seconde, celle de la croûte external du globe, l ' hydrogeology ; la troisième enfin, cell des corps vivans, la biology . "

- Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck : Hydrogéology. P. 8.
Eduard Suess invented the term biosphere.

Lamarck has not yet coined a term for his idea. It was not until the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831–1914) invented the term biosphere in 1875 for his book "The Origin of the Alps" :

“Just as one has learned to divide the sun into a number of concentric envelopes, one can probably also divide the earth into envelopes, each of which is, however, in multiple connection with the next one. The first is the atmosphere , the second the hydrosphere , the third the lithosphere ... One thing seems strange about this great celestial body made up of spheres, namely organic life. But this is also restricted to a certain zone, the surface of the lithosphere. The plant, which sinks its roots into the ground in search of food and at the same time rises up into the air breathing, is a good picture of the position of organic life in the region of the interaction of the upper spheres and the lithosphere, and it can be seen on the surface of the solid distinguish an independent biosphere. It now extends over the dry as well as the wetted surface, but the evolutionary sequence of the gills and lungs teaches that the wetted surface was its starting point. ... The development and distribution of organic life was to a large extent dependent on the formation of the surface structure of the lithosphere. "

- Eduard Suess : The emergence of the Alps. Pp. 158-160.
  • Biosphere according to Eduard Suess: The abiotic space in which terrestrial organisms live. Biosphere is used as a spatial term.

By identifying the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, Eduard Suess completed the concept of the four "bodies" that James Hutton had written about. This also meant that the concept of the biosphere had arisen from Hutton's reductionist understanding of the world.

A few years later, Suess mentioned the biosphere term again in his main work "The Face of the Earth" . The multi-volume publication was used as a geological textbook for many years.

20th century: Wernadski and Teilhard de Chardin

"The face of the earth" also came into the hands of the Russian geoscientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadski (Владимир Иванович Вернадский, 1863–1945). During a stay in Austria in 1911 he even met Eduard Suess personally. From 1917 Wernadski dealt intensively with the idea of ​​a biosphere. He was probably not only influenced by Eduard Suess. The ideas of his uncle, the Ukrainian philosopher Evgraf Maksimovich Korolenko (1810–1880), may also have played at least a minor role . During long night walks, Korolenko had explained to his nephew his conviction that the entire earth should be seen as a living organism.

Wladimir Iwanowitsch Wernadski developed an ecological biosphere term.

Wernadski stayed in Paris between 1922 and 1925. There he met the French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955). Teilhard de Chardin had also read "The Face of the Earth" around 1920 and wrote an enthusiastic treatise on it in 1921. Teilhard de Chardin studied paleontology in Paris and obtained a doctorate in 1922. The two geoscientists now met more often, together with Teilhard de Chardin's good friend Édouard Le Roy (1870–1954). It was in the conversations of these three men that modern views of the biosphere were formed.

Wernadski was then able to explain his thoughts on the biosphere to a larger audience for the first time in 1922 and 1923. Because he gave lectures at the Paris Sorbonne on geochemistry . In addition to Teilhard de Chardin and Le Roy, his audience also included Henri Bergson (1859–1941). An essay accompanying the lecture was published in 1924.

After further deliberation, a short book in Russian with the title "биосфера" followed in 1926 . It was translated into French in 1929.

  • Biosphere according to Vladimir Ivanovich Wernadski: the entirety of terrestrial organisms including the space they inhabit, with which they interact and which they help to shape. Biosphere is used as an ecological term.

With the publication and a first translation of his main work, Vernadsky's biosphere concept could have been made accessible to a broader international scientific community. However, this was initially prevented for three reasons:

  1. Because of a lack of knowledge of Russian, "биосфера" (1926) could only be read by a few Western European scholars.
  2. The French translation "La Biosphère" (1929) was hardly noticed either.
  3. In addition, in 1925 and 1926 Pierre Teilhard de Chardin had published his own essays on the subject of the biosphere. In contrast to Wernadski's books, Teilhard de Chardin's writings were widely read. However, Teilhard de Chardin meant something different than Wernadski when he wrote about the biosphere.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin spread a biotic biosphere term.

Teilhard de Chardin's biosphere term appeared before "La Biosphère" and received more attention. That is why this biosphere term prevailed for the time being, not that of Wernadski.

  • Biosphere according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin: The totality of terrestrial organisms. Biosphere is used as a biotic term. It is synonymous with global biota or global biocenosis .

Teilhard de Chardin obviously did not follow the ecological biosphere concept of Wernadski - although he knew the Russian scholar personally from Paris and, together with him and Édouard Le Roy, had developed the modern concept of the biosphere. An explanation for the difference between the two biosphere terms can be found in reading Vernadki's book "биосфера" . Nowhere is there a concise or explicit definition of Vernadski's ecological biosphere term. Instead, the ecological biosphere concept only gradually becomes apparent as you walk through the chapters. On the other hand, there is at least one section of text in the book that, taken in isolation, sounds like a biotic biosphere term: In chapters 44 to 46, Wernadski estimates the total mass of the biosphere. Wernadski does not mean by the total mass, however, the mass of all living beings together with the total mass of the abiotic environment influenced by them. But only such a total mass would have been in the sense of an ecological biosphere term. Instead, Wernadski means the total biosphere mass exclusively the mass of all living beings. At least this section of the text follows the biotic concept of the biosphere. Accordingly, Wernadski did not use a clear biosphere term in the 1920s, but fluctuated between the ecological and the biotic meaning. However, his writings tended predominantly in the direction of the ecological biosphere concept. Here he differed from Teilhard de Chardin. The Jesuit consistently promoted the biotic biosphere concept in his publications.

Biosphere terms
author definition term Synonyms
Eduard Suess The abiotic space on earth where life occurs. spatial biosphere concept Physiosphere , geosphere
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin The totality of earthly living beings. biotic biosphere term global biota , global biocenosis
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky The totality of earthly organisms, including the space they inhabit, with which they interact and which they help to shape. ecological biosphere term Biogeosphere, geobiosphere, ecosphere

For half a century, Vernadski's concept of the ecological biosphere hardly played a role. According to Teilhard de Chardin, the biotic biosphere term dominated completely until the 1970s. Even in Russia, Vernadsky's ecological biosphere term was virtually unknown in the 1930s and only gradually reappeared in the 1960s. In the western world it only appeared occasionally in a few publications.

Even the term biosphere alone was only used in specialist circles for decades. That only changed after September 1968. At that time, UNESCO invited to the Biosphere Conference in Paris - the Intergovernmental Conference of Experts on the Scientific Basis for Rational Use and Conservation of the Resources of the Biosphere . As a result of this conference, the Man and the Biosphere Program was launched. One of the tasks of the program is to designate so-called biosphere reserves . In this way, the biosphere entered the vocabulary of nature conservation and spatial planning . The term became widely known.

While the concept of the biosphere was still completely dominated by Teilhard der Chardin, other scientists in addition to Wernadski recognized the existence of a global ecosystem. However, they could no longer call it the biosphere because the term was occupied differently through the writings of Teilhard der Chardin. Instead, they coined a new term for the global ecosystem - the ecosphere . The term goes back to Lamont C. Cole (1958) and was invented again by A. Gillard (1969). The term ecosphere became widely known in the early 1970s through the bestseller "The Closing Circle". by Barry Commoner (1917–2012).

At the same time, however, the ecological biosphere concept also revived. This happened especially in the course of the influential publications of the English limnologist George Evelyn Hutchinson (1903-1991). The rediscovery of the originator of the ecological concept of the biosphere - Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky - happened even later. It wasn't until the mid-1980s that it was mentioned more frequently in publications.

Current situation

The term biosphere is currently still not used consistently. At least in the life sciences, however, the ecological biosphere concept predominates. Here, accordingly, the tradition is followed, which was newly founded by limnologist George Evelyn Hutchinson and refers to Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadski:

"The totality of the earth's ecosystems makes up the biosphere."

- Hafner et al. : Ecology. P. 7.

This ecologically conceived biosphere also led to the naming of the artificial biosphere 2 . The semantic situation becomes more complex, however, if publications from the geosciences are also taken into account in addition to the life sciences . Here you can find publications that also work with the ecological biosphere term. In exceptional cases, however, a spatial biosphere term according to Eduard Suess can even be used. The majority of geosciences prefer the biotic biosphere term, which was spread by Teilhard de Chardin:

"The surface of the solid earth's crust and its uppermost layer, the soil, as well as the surrounding water and air shell (hydrosphere and atmosphere) are populated by an infinite variety of living beings (biosphere)."

- Beurlen et al. : Petrifications p. 14.

“What distinguishes the earth from all other known planets and moons is its biosphere. It has irrevocably changed the environment near the surface, not only leaving its traces on the ground, in the water and in the air, but also in rocks and minerals. ... In parallel with the biosphere, the geosphere continued to develop. Microorganisms and animals, who learned to build their own protective shells from minerals, provided a special boost. "

- Robert M. Hazen : The Evolution of Minerals. Pp. 84, 87.

The geoscientific preference for the biotic biosphere term is related to the primarily geoscientific concept of the earth system . Within the concept, the biosphere is placed on an equal footing with the three inanimate spheres of the hydrosphere , the atmosphere and the lithosphere . The focus here is on the equal coexistence of animate and inanimate environment within the system earth. The ecological impact of the three inanimate spheres through the global biocenosis does not have any conceptual effect:

"System Earth comprises four open subsystems or 'spheres': the [litho] sphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere. Each of these spheres is a reservoir of matter and energy that can be exchanged with the other spheres. The exchange of energy and matter between the spheres are expressed as a number of physical (eg the rock cycle) or biogeochemical (eg the carbon cycle) cycles, responsible for the continuous changes within System Earth. This is 'global change'. "

“System Earth comprises four open sub-systems, also called 'spheres': the [litho] sphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. Each of these spheres is a depot for substances and energy that can be exchanged with the other spheres. The exchange of energy and substances between the spheres is expressed in a number of physical (e.g. rock cycle) or biogeochemical cycles (e.g. carbon cycle). You are responsible for the constant change within the system earth. This change is meant by 'Global Change'. "

- Manuel Sintubin : 4.5 Billion Years of Global Change p. 105.

Biosphere and ecosphere, geobiosphere

At present, the biosphere is primarily used in the life sciences for ecological purposes. This makes the term a synonym for ecosphere . Both terms follow an ecological concept that was introduced by Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky in the 1920s under the name биосфера . Which of the words will ultimately prevail does not seem to be foreseeable at the moment:

"... biosphere which unfortunately Replaced by ecosphere . This neologism, in vogue since 1970, was introduced in flagrant ignorance of Vernadsky's teaching. "

“The biosphere has unfortunately been replaced by the ecosphere . This newly created word, popular since 1970, was introduced out of an outrageous ignorance of Vernadski's teaching. "

- Jacques Grinevald : Introduction: The Invisibility of the Vernadskian Revolution. P. 21

The ecosphere originally had a second meaning. The term was also used in astronomy as a synonym for Habitable Zone . However, only the latter term has been used by NASA since 1996 . Therefore, the term ecosphere has lost its astronomical meaning. Nowadays it is used consistently in its ecological meaning and consequently there is hardly any possibility of misunderstanding.

"... 'ecosphere' is the most appropriate term for all situations where living things and their supporting environment are taken as a whole."

"'Ecosphere' is the most suitable term for all situations in which living beings are viewed as a whole together with their [inanimate] environment."

- Richard John Huggett : Ecosphere, biosphere or Gaia? What to call the global ecosystem. P. 430

In addition, four more terms have been introduced in the meantime, which are also to be understood as synonyms for the ecological biosphere term: geobiosphere (geo-biosphere) or biogeosphere (bio-geosphere), or even geosphere-biosphere or biosphere-geosphere . These terms were all later invented as biosphere and ecosphere . They can be seen as an attempt to expand the biotic biosphere term to include an ecological meaning. In doing so, they create conceptual alternatives to the ecosphere . However, all four terms are used very rarely. None of them could prevail.

The current semantic situation of Biosphere gives a very mixed picture. A biotic biosphere term continues to be used in the geosciences. An ecological biosphere term is primarily used in the life sciences today. However, the term is in strong competition with the ecosphere and weak competition with the geobiosphere and similar terms. In summary, there are now six synonyms to denote the global ecosystem in its spatial extent.

With the terms ecosphere , physiosphere and global biocenosis , the worldwide ecosystem can be represented in its spatial extent without misunderstandings. The three terms also fit seamlessly into the larger concept of the Earth system . Further explanations → image description.
Similar freedom from misunderstandings cannot be achieved if the term biosphere is used. Because the biosphere can be understood ecologically on the one hand or biotic on the other. Depending on the understanding, the term biosphere can be equated with both the ecosphere and the global biocenosis.

Biosphere and Gaia, System Earth, Bioplanet Earth

The ecological biosphere term after Vladimir Ivanovich Wernadski overlaps and blurs with three other terms. The ecologically understood biosphere exclusively describes that thin shell of the earth in which all terrestrial organisms occur and in which they interact with one another and with their inanimate environment. Only a small section of the earth is considered. As a result, Wernadski's biosphere concept also has reductionist features in the tradition of James Hutton and Eduard Suess.

Since 1968, however, geoscientific counter-movements have emerged that are returning to a more holistic approach. The concepts of Gaia , System Earth and Bioplanet Earth protrude spatially and functionally beyond the boundaries of the biosphere. They postulate that the earth can only be understood if it is understood as a functional whole. The three terms allow life in particular to have a more extensive impact. They demand that other parts of the earth - far from any life - are at least indirectly shaped by living beings.

  • The term from Gaia (from 1968) has two forms, weak Gaia and strong Gaia . In its weakest formulation, the weak Gaia term says that earthly life profoundly transforms its inanimate environment. In this respect, the weak Gaia term is still almost like the biosphere (ecosphere). However, there is also the strong Gaia term, which is not sharply separated from the weak Gaia term. The Starke Gaia term regards the planet earth with its living beings as an independent form of life. The term “strong Gaia” has been criticized repeatedly. The criticism led to the Gaia term being shown a certain distance overall (→ Gaia hypothesis ).

"The name of the living planet, Gaia, is not a synonym for the biosphere. The biosphere is defined as that part of the Earth where living things normally exist. Still less is Gaia the same as the biota, which is simply the collection of all individual living organisms. The biosphere and the biota taken together form part but not all of Gaia. Just as the shell is part of a snail, so the rocks, the air, and the oceans are part of Gaia. "

“The name of the living planet, Gaia, is not a synonym for the biosphere. The biosphere is defined as that area of ​​the earth in which living things normally exist. Nor does Gaia mean the same thing as Biota, which merely means the totality of all living organisms. The biosphere and biota taken together represent a part, but not all, of Gaia. Just as the shell is part of the snail, so are the rocks, the air and the oceans parts of Gaia. "

- James Ephraim Lovelock : Ages of Gaia. P. 10.
  • The concept of the system earth / earth system (from 1983) is similar in content to a weak Gaia . In the concept of the earth system, the global biota is placed on an equal footing with the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Only the interaction of life and the three abiotic earth spheres together form the system earth (→ system earth ). The term was originally coined in connection with research on global change . There it has largely prevailed. In addition, System Earth is used today in many areas of geosciences.

"Scientific research continues to yield fundamental new knowledge about the Earth. Studies of the continents, oceans, atmosphere, biosphere, and ice cover over the past thirty years have revealed that these are components of a far more dynamic and complex world than could have been imagined only a few generations ago. These investigations also have delineated, with inceasing clarity, the complex interactions upon Earth history and evolution ... Our new knowledge is providing us with deeper insight into the Earth as a system. "

“Scientific research is constantly providing new knowledge about the earth. Over the past thirty years, studies of the continents, oceans, atmosphere, biosphere and ice cover have shown that these [just individual] parts of a much more dynamic and complex world than could be imagined a few generations ago. The research has also revealed with increasing clarity its complex interactions during the history and evolution of the earth ... Our new knowledge provides us with deeper understanding of the earth as a system. "

- Earth System Science Committee : Earth System Science: A Program For Global Change. P. 4.
  • The concept of the bioplanet earth (from 1987) is similar in content to a weak Gaia. just like the term earth system. The difference to the term earth system is mainly based on the emphasis on the role of life. Because the term bio- planet grants life an outstanding position simply by its name: On the bio- planet life is not only on a par with the inanimate spheres of the earth. Instead, it is of central importance and influences and forms (parts of) air as well as rock and water. The term bioplanet was developed in German-language biology didactics and is found mainly in school books. Outside of biology didactics, it is also used by representatives of geology.

“According to the usual view, life could arise and develop on earth, because in our planetary system only the earth provided the conditions for it in the correct dosage. The differences between the planets are mainly due to their size, distance from the sun and the presence of liquid water. ... However, the astronomical and geological conditions only explain the boundary conditions under which life on earth could arise and develop on it. Life itself has taken care of today's conditions and the current structure of the planets ... Earth's history is life history and, conversely, life history is also earth history. "

- Ulrich Kattmann : Bioplanet Earth: The history of the earth is life history. P. 5.

Biosphere within geographical viewing dimensions

After the UNESCO Biosphere Conference, the term biosphere came into common usage. Around the same time, the concept of geographical viewing dimensions was established within German-speaking geography. The concept says that the geographical area should be structured according to different viewing dimensions. These viewing dimensions differ from one another in terms of their scale . Different working methods emerge from the different scales in order to examine the space being viewed.

This hierarchical system of geographical viewing dimensions was developed in the German-speaking area primarily by Ernst Neef and his students. Similar approaches can already be found in Carl Troll (1943), Gerhard Franz Josef Schmithüsen (1949) and Carl Troll's colleague Karlheinz Paffen (1953).

The largest geographical dimension is the global dimension. It looks at a certain topic either across the globe or across the globe. A topic that is addressed on the global perspective for the whole earth is given a technical term that ends in -sphere . More recent technical term examples for this would be anthroposphere or technosphere . Because of the chosen ending -sphere , older technical terms could also be inserted very easily into the concept of geographical viewing dimensions . Such older examples would be atmosphere or noosphere . Also biosphere would be such senior technical term. However, it is precisely this term that cannot be inserted into the concept of geographical viewing dimensions without difficulty. The difficulty becomes clear when the bio- sphere is considered in connection with the other geographical dimensions :

  1. The smallest unit of space within the concept of geographical viewing dimensions is the top . Tope are the units of space of the topical viewing dimension. Topes are shown on large-scale maps.
  2. Several neighboring toes are combined to form a choir . Choirs are the spatial units of the choral viewing dimension. Choirs are displayed on maps on a large to medium scale.
  3. Several neighboring choirs are combined to form the region . Regions are the spatial units of the regional dimension. Regions are shown on maps in medium to small scales.
  4. Several neighboring regions are combined to form a zone . Zones can span continents. Zones are the spatial units of the zonal dimension. At the same time, this means that zones represent the smaller spatial units of the global dimension. Zones are shown on maps on a very small scale.
  5. All zones of the earth are combined into a sphere . Spheres encompass the whole earth. Spheres are the unit of space of the spherical dimension of observation. At the same time, this means that spheres represent the larger spatial units of the global dimension. Zones are shown on maps on a very small scale.

Accordingly, the tops form the smallest spatial units, the spheres the largest spatial units in geographical terms: The spherical dimension of the biosphere can be assigned a zonal, a regional, a choral and finally a topical dimension. The spatial unit of the topical viewing dimension that would be assigned to the biosphere should be called biotope : true to the concept of geographical viewing dimensions, biosphere and biotope should describe the same spatial property - the same topic, the same functional content - but only on different scales. However, exactly this requirement does not apply:

  • The term biotope was introduced in 1908 by Friedrich Dahl . Biotope. was intended as a supplement to the term biocenosis , which had been introduced by his university professor Karl August Möbius as early as 1877 . In Dahl's original meaning, the term biotope described the inanimate environment of a biocenosis. After 1908, the biotic and abiotic equipment of an ecosystem could be comprehensively addressed with the pair of terms biocenosis + biotope .

In its purely abiotic meaning, the term biotope is still used frequently. However, it is now regularly enriched explicitly or implicitly with parts of biotic meaning. This mainly happens during biotope mapping . Because biotopes are usually not defined in terms of abiotic properties, but rather on the basis of certain organisms that live in them. In terms of their functional content, these biotope terms move between the abiotic environment and the biocenosis.

  • The biosphere term was introduced by Eduard Suess in 1875 as an abiotic spatial term. However, during the twentieth century , the biosphere underwent two changes in meaning through Vladimir Ivanovich Wernadski and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Vernadsky's biosphere corresponds to the global ecosystem. Teilhard de Chardin's biosphere corresponds to the global biocenosis. Functionally, however, the ecosystem and the biocenosis are not congruent with the inanimate environment.

A comparison between the different biotope terms and biosphere terms gives the following picture:

  1. Only the original biosphere term according to Eduard Suess can functionally be brought into consistent agreement with a biotope term - namely with the original biotope term according to Friedrich Dahl.
  2. The ecological biosphere term according to Vladimir Ivanovich Wernadski cannot functionally be brought into consistent agreement with any biotope term. In the topical dimension, Vernadski's term would correspond to the ecotope.
  3. The biotic biosphere term according to Pierre Teilhard de Chardin cannot functionally be brought into consistent agreement with any biotope term. In the topical dimension, Teilhard de Chardin's term would correspond to the biocenosis of the ecotope.

At the moment, Suess' biosphere term is hardly used any more. In the same way, Dahl's concept of biotope now regularly experiences certain biotic supplements. As a result, under the currently prevailing understanding of terms, there is no functional-content agreement between biosphere and biotope. Consistency was lost during the 1920s when Vladimir Ivanovich Wernadski, Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, and Édouard Le Roy formulated the modern meanings of biosphere . This happened forty years before Ernst Neef succeeded in firmly establishing the hierarchical system of geographical viewing dimensions within German-speaking geography.

Construction of ecosystems from a functional and spatial perspective. With the terms biocenosis , physiotope ( physiochore , etc.) and ecotope ( ecochore , etc.) a consistent hierarchy of terms within the system of geographical dimensions can be created. Similar consistency cannot be achieved if the biotope terms and biosphere terms customary today are used.

See also

literature

  • J. Grinevald: Introduction: The Invisibility of the Vernadskian Revolution. In: V. Vernadsky: The Biosphere . New York 1998, ISBN 0-387-98268-X , pp. 20-32.
  • JP Cancela da Fonseca: On Vernadsky's biosphere. In: Web Ecology. 01, 2000, pp. 86-96. (pdf)
  • RJ Huggett: Ecosphere, biosphere or Gaia? What to call the global ecosystem. In: Global Ecology and Biogeography. 8, 1999, pp. 425-431. doi: 10.1046 / j.1365-2699.1999.00158.x pdf
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