Literature of Nicaragua
The literature of Nicaragua is the literature of the Central American state Nicaragua , which belonged to the Central American Confederation until 1838 and then became independent. “The question of what contribution Latin America has made and continues to make to world literature […] is only very inadequately answered with reference to the authors who made the international breakthrough. Behind these spearheads of Latin American culture there is an extraordinary variety of literatures. ”So one rarely speaks of a common continental Latin American or Hispanic American identity. At the same time, Nicaraguan literature is not just regional or national literature, but has also been a transcultural phenomenon since the beginning of the 20th century. The fact that it is given special attention in Europe is not only due to the fact that it is certainly the most important of the literatures of Central America of the 20th century - only here can one speak of independent avant-garde initiatives - but also to the political development that led to it that the Nicaraguan Revolution of 1979 gave numerous authors and other intellectuals political responsibility and made them known abroad as political representatives of their country.
Colonial times
The country is an example of an early “mestizisation”, which is already expressed in the satirical folk play El Güegüense (from Nahuatl: huehue - the old) - the oldest indigenous theater , written by an anonymous 17th century author in Spanish and Nahuatl - and dance piece of the western hemisphere, which is performed annually to this day and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2005 .
In Nicaragua, the oral cultures of the pre-Columbian, z. B. Mangue- speaking peoples with the written culture of the Spaniards on the Pacific coast. In addition, there are influences of the Nahuatl-speaking peoples from the north and probably the Caribs from the Antilles and the Chibcha from the south. For a long time the Atlantic coast was dominated by the British influence exerted from Jamaica and thus the English language, which was widespread among the white immigrants - often mutineers, deserters or slave traders. Their successors were buccaneers , pirates who operated from their hiding places on the Atlantic coast and found their way into British fiction. Since the end of the 19th century, the US influence increased here with the introduction of the plantation economy. Today the majority of the descendants of Afro-American slaves live on the east coast; The English language still plays an important role here in the form of modern Creole .
The literary evidence from the colonial era from the 17th to the early 19th century is rare; mostly they are reports from foreign researchers and diplomats, e.g. B. a travelogue published in 1827 by the British Orlando Roberts and a report published in 1859 by the geologist and exiled participant in the revolution of 1848 Julius Froebel . Creole literature did not develop until the end of the 19th century.
The modernismo
Despite the delay in development, Nicaraguan literature reached its first peak in the late 19th century. One of the first authors in Nicaragua and at the same time one of the most important for all of Latin America to this day is Rubén Darío (1867–1916), who founded Modernismo with his volume of poems and short prose influenced by the French Parnassians "Azul". The Modernismo represented the first independent literary trend of Hispanic America, which broke away from Spanish influence, but in turn, with retroactive effect from the Spanish poetry. There were different positions within Modernismo: In his work “Nuestra América” , the Cuban José Martí called for a turning away from Europe and turning to the pre-Columbian high cultures, which he described as the Greeks and Romans of Latin America . Rubén Darío, on the other hand, pleaded for the creation of a Latin community that should be based on France and no longer solely on the motherland Spain. He proclaimed the cultural and political independence of Latin America from the USA and is revered as a national hero, but was hardly received in Germany at the time. After the Spanish-American War in 1898, however, there was a return to the Hispanic heritage, which is to be seen both as a reaction to the criticism of the orientation of Modernismo towards French literature and to the threat to Latin America from the USA. The same applies to the literature of Guatemala and Costa Rica . In this context, Rössner speaks of a second phase of Hispano-American Modernismo, which u. a. found expression in the orientation of some of Darios's poems to the courtly art of the Spanish Middle Ages. In his volume of poems Cantos de vida y esperanza (Madrid 1905) he thinks Spanish America and Spain together to form a new empire, a reino nuevo .
The avant-garde
Modernismo was quickly overcome around 1920. This was not least due to the critical examination of Rubén Darío, which was less of a personality and his work than of his exaggeration as a poet prince. In Europe, futurism , dadaism and surrealism - shaped by the horrors of the First World War - had developed an avant-garde literature. However, the world war was not as catastrophic in Latin America as it was in Europe; in this respect, there was no such pronounced doomsday mood here. The avant-garde in Latin America, however, encountered much more stable discourse and social structures than in war-torn Europe, which in part led to their bitter struggle. Once again France played a decisive role in the reception in Latin America: Paris was the starting point for the Hispanic American avant-garde movement. The protagonists of the Nicaraguan movement also brought the spark from Paris.
When the "Vanguardia" movement was founded around the magazine of the same name in 1931, a productive avant-garde movement was initiated by intellectuals who had mostly lived in France for a long time. The influence of American authors, which has been growing since the 1930s, and the tradition of the Spanish Baroque ( Garcilaso de la Vega , San Juan de la Cruz , Luis de Góngora , Luis de León ) also led to new aesthetic ideas: one worked with dark verse constructions, Word savings and omission of parts of sentences, fantastically exuberant images, a metaphorical language and cryptic semantics. It was experimental poetry that had no precursors, but developed at the same time in different countries. Interest in the local indigenous roots also increased. New developments in film, findings in anthropology and psychoanalysis - dream, subconscious and taboo - contributed to the formation of the avant-garde.
Its representatives included Luís Alberto Cabrales (1901–1974), José Coronel Urtecho (1906–1994), Pablo Antonio Cuadra (1912–2002) and Joaquín Pasos (1914–1947), all of them young graduates or students of the Colegio Centroamérica in Granada which was run by Jesuits. They met in the tower of the La Merced church in Granada, founded a writing workshop, published regular notebooks and offered the pioneers of the movement an experimental platform. The group first published their work in the weekly supplements of the daily newspaper El Correo .
The group soon joined Octavio Rocha (1910–1986), Manolo Cuadra (1907–1957) and Alberto Ordóñez Argüello (1914–1991). The avant-garde movement broke not only with modernismo, but also with the Nicaraguan civil society of the 1920s and 1930s, from which they themselves came. She openly opposed the commercial mentality of Granada and unsettled the citizens through the disrespectful use of the word "bourgeoisie". Conversely, the young poets and storytellers of the avant-garde were considered lazy by the citizens, since they consistently refused to study and pursue bourgeois studies and insisted on being exclusively poets. While Urtecho was primarily based on contemporary American literature, the poet and essayist Luis Alberto Cabrales brought with him influences from avant-garde French poetry after his return from France in 1928. He changed the face of Nicaraguan literature by incorporating it into international currents. Although a literary avant-garde, he represented an authoritarian anti-liberal Catholicism, but moved the cryptic avant-garde poetry closer to everyday life and the worries and joys of ordinary people.
The fame of the Nicaraguan avant-garde movement is primarily due to the translation of the works of José Coronel Urtecho into English and their publication in the USA. He formed his style to the great American writers Walt Whitman , Carl Sandburg , Ezra Pound , TS Eliot and Henry David Thoreau , while his philosophy at the influential Spanish writers Miguel de Unamuno , Jose Ortega y Gasset and Ramiro de Maeztu oriented . Without these translations, which made Urtecho famous beyond the borders of Nicaragua , the avant-garde would not have existed in the country in the opinion of the critic Iván Uriarte , himself a winner of the international Rubén Darío Prize. It was Coronel Urtecho who encouraged and challenged experimentation and playing with words (“We don't know the impossible word”).
In 1936 Urtecho entered the theater with the Chinfonía burguesa (pun: chinfonía from chin = "breath", "trace" and "symphony", burguesa = "bourgeois", "stuffy"), which he initially wrote as a poem with Joaquín Pasos had written. This piece of absurd theater contains elements of black humor, sarcasm and surrealism. Of course, the theater did not acquire any special importance in later decades.
As a very young man, Pablo Antonio Cuadra traveled through the south of Latin America, where he had the opportunity to meet important writers from Spain and Latin America (including García Lorca ). His experiences ( Cuadernos del Sur ), only published in 1982, are an echo of the style of French avant-garde artists. His poems in Poemas de Nicaragüense are freed from rhyme and metrics, they take up the speaking style of the rural population. In connection with his work for the theater, Cuadra dealt intensively with the folklore of the rural population of Nicaragua and published a collection of songs.
Manolo Cuadra, one of the pioneers of modern Nicaraguan narrative, distanced himself from the avant-garde group by taking up left-wing political positions. One of his best known and most polemical works is Contra Sandino en la Montaña . Under the Somoza dictatorship - the rule of the family lasted from 1934 to 1979 - he was arrested and exiled several times in the 1940s and 1950s. It was not until the Sandinista government in 1982 that his work was honored and reissued.
The lyricist Octavio Rocha became known for his musical poetry, which he carefully orchestrated and brought into a metric system. He was considered sober, accurate, skillful, gifted with wit and acumen - qualities that were only achieved again in Nicaraguan poetry with Ernesto Mejía Sánchez (1923–1985). An example: Lindas telefonistas las azucenas / hablan por sus bocinas de porcelana / con las focas locas y antiguas sirenas / de la perfumería de la mañana. (Parque no. 1) "Pretty telephone operators white lilies / speak through their china mouths / with the crazy seals and old sirens / from the perfumery of the morning."
Joaquín Pasos Argüello was described by Manolo Cuadra as the poet who, in a playful way, devoted himself to the great mysteries: death (certainly influenced by his mother's death when he was nine years old and knowledge of his own early death), of love, life, the apocalypse . In his poems he processed native epics. Formally, he leaned against TS Eliot. He became widely known with his poem Canto de guerra de las cosas .
The post-avant-garde 1930/40 and the rise of prose
The development of the avant-garde of the relatively prosperous 1920s, with their boom financed by US loans, was hardly interrupted by the civil war of 1926/27 between the conservative government and the representatives of the liberal coffee oligarchy. It was only the global economic crisis and the drop in coffee prices that led to considerable social problems and ushered in a turn to the narrative realistic prose of the 1930s and 1940s, whose themes were history, politics and the social and economic situation of Nicaragua: Now the American intervention began to come to terms with 1912 and the uprising led by General Augusto César Sandino from 1927 to 1933 against the Chamorros government and its American supporters come to the fore. The representatives of the "Generation of 1940" such as Ernesto Mejía Sánchez, Carlos Martínez Rivas (* 1924) and Ernesto Cardenal took a stand against the Somoza dictatorship; other authors fell silent. The intervention and the uprising made the prose author and essayist Hernán Robleto (1892–1969) the subject of his novel Sangre en el trópico. La novela de la intervención yanki (1933 German under the title “Long live freedom”). It was this struggle of the Sandinistas that made Nicaraguan literature known in Germany. One of the best-known works of this period was the novel "The earth turns tenderly, Compañera" by the revolutionary Omar Cabezas . Manolo Cuadra stands out as a novelist and narrator, who belongs to both the avant-garde movement and the generation of 1940.
The following generations
The "three Ernestos"
Ernesto Mejía Sánchez (1923–1985), Carlos Ernesto Martínez Rivas (1924–1998) and Ernesto Cardenal (1925–2020), who was culture minister of the Sandinista government from 1979 to 1987, still belong to the generation of the 1940s . They were called the "Generation of the Three Ernestos". They published their first works in Mexico because they were not allowed to publish in Nicaragua.
Ernesto Mejía Sánchez first became better known with his work in other countries in Central America and Mexico than in Nicaragua. At the age of 17 (1940) he founded the magazine "La Tertulia" in Granada. The literary scholar is considered to be the greatest expert on the work of Rubén Daríos of his time. He wrote a number of monographs on this and other writers and poets. He was the inventor of a new genre called prose, a mixture of verse and prose with short haunting political texts. As an opponent of Somoza, he went into exile in Mexico, but his strong ties to Nicaragua continued. In 1980 he became Nicaragua's ambassador to Spain and later to Argentina. In 1980 he published a selection of his poems under the title Recolección a mediodía ("Collection at noon"). His volume of poems La Carne contigua on incest addresses many taboos and at the same time is full of taboos, as Ernesto Cardenal claimed. He published more than a dozen books on Hispanic American literature that are now considered key works. Mejía Sánchez died of emphysema, which he contracted during many years of work in the dust of the archives. In Nicaragua he had been forgotten in the last decades, but on the occasion of the Festival de Poesía de Granada 2016, like many other writers of the 1940s, it was publicly honored and brought back to people's minds.
Carlos Ernesto Martínez Rivas, like many of the avant-gardists in Nicaragua, also attended the Jesuit college in Granada, began to write at a very young age and was already 16 years old when he received a national prize for poetry. His poem El paraíso recobrado (“Paradise Rediscovered ”), published in 1943, made him known in one fell swoop and earned him great recognition. In 1953 his most important work “La insurrección solitaria” (“The lonely uprising”) appeared in Mexico, which was reprinted several times (most recently in 1997 in Madrid). He worked in the diplomatic service in Rome and Madrid. After the victory of the Sandinista Revolution in 1979, he returned to Nicaragua and received a professorship in Managua. In 1985 he received the Premio Latinoamericano de Poesía Rubén Darío. He has been described as deeply religious but disappointed in religion, a “rebellious monk” who remained in the dark about whether to believe in Charles Baudelaire or in Jesus Christ until the end of his life. However, after his death, over 2000 unpublished poems were found in his estate. In the legacy of La insurrección solitaria (“The lonely revolt”) there are fragments that, in their fundamental incompleteness, are reminiscent of Nietzsche's thinking .
Ernesto Cardenal Martínez - generally called Ernesto Cardenal in Germany - comes from Granada, where he attended the Jesuit college like almost all of his colleagues, is known as a liberation theologian and socialist minister of culture, but also as one of Nicaragua's most important poets. After studying in Mexico, New York, various European countries and Colombia, he returned to Nicaragua in 1952, but had to leave the country again in 1956 because of his participation in the April Revolution against Somoza's dictatorship. After his ordination as a Catholic priest, he founded the Solentiname commune on an island in Lake Nicaragua in 1965 , which was organized according to early Christian principles. The commune and its facilities were destroyed in 1977 following the occupation of a barracks by soldiers of the regime. Cardenal had to go into exile again in Costa Rica, where he joined the Sandinista Liberation Front, FSLN. In 1979, after the victory of the Sandinista Revolution, he became minister of culture and began a comprehensive and successful literacy campaign. He supported the establishment of the German-Nicaraguan Library . In 1994 Cardenal left the FSLN because he did not agree with Daniel Ortega's leadership style and founded a new non-authoritarian party together with Sergio Ramírez and Gioconda Belli . Since 1994 he has devoted himself increasingly to his literary work, traveled to many countries, including Europe, and made his work known. His large cycle of poems was published in Germany in 1995 under the title "Gesänge des Universum". Other of his books were also published in German. Today Ernesto Cardenal lives as a freelance writer in Managua.
The generation of the 1950s
Many of the authors belonging to the generation of the 1950s went into exile or fell victim to repression during the Somoza dictatorship, such as Pedro Joaquín Chamorro (1924–1978) and the poets Ricardo Morales Avilés (1939–1973) and Leonel Rugama (1949–1970 ), who mostly worked with Ernesto Cardenal in the Solentiname commune from 1965 onwards.
Pedro Joaquín Chamorro had studied law, worked as a young man as an entrepreneur in Mexico, later as a journalist in Nicaragua and was a writer and politician. He was the editor of La Prensa , the only major opposition newspaper in Nicaragua under the Somoza dictatorship. From 1957 to 1960 he lived in exile in Costa Rica. He was detained five times for political reasons. This time he processed literarily in his works Estirpe sangrienta: Los Somozas 1958 ("Bloody descent") and Diario de un Preso 1962 ("Diary of a prisoner"). In 1978 Chamorro was murdered. His widow Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, editor of the liberal La Prensa , was President of Nicaragua from 1990 to 1996.
Ricardo Morales Avilés was a teacher, wrote for La Prensa, published by Chamorro, and joined the FSLN in 1963. Here he was responsible for spreading Sandinista ideas. His poetry made use of a simple and clear, non-metaphorical, transparent language.
In his short life, Leonel Rugama was a mathematics teacher, FSLN guerrilla, chess player and poet. In 1967 he joined the FSLN and was immediately used as a fighter in the mountains. Here he began to write poetry. His best-known poem La tierra es un satéllite de la Luna appeared in the weekly supplement of La Prensa .
In the 1950s, in addition to the poets, it was mainly the storytellers and writers who introduced the narrative innovations from other Latin American countries. These are in particular Guillermo Rothchuh Tablada (* 1926), Fernando Silva (1927–2016), Mario Cajina Vega (1929–1995) and the Honduras- born poet and narrator Raúl Elvir (1927–1998). They were all influenced by World War II, neorealism and film, existentialism and beatnik .
Guillermo Rothchuh Tablada's literature is shaped by the flat, wide, unspectacular landscape of Chontales - a part of the country east of Lake Nicaragua -, its people, their simple language and their ideas of life. He addresses the relationship between man and nature. After the devastating earthquake in Managua in 1972, he wrote a poem that paid homage to the building material wood, because only the small wooden houses had withstood the quake.
Lizandro Chávez Alfaro directed the gaze of Nicaraguan literature to the Caribbean coast, where Creole is spoken, populated by the descendants of African slaves from Jamaica .
The generation of the 1960s
The 1950 generation pioneered the boys who developed their style in the 1960s. Influenced by the success of the Cuban revolution, a new literary movement emerged within the student body - until then it had neither appeared politically nor literarily - the most important medium of which was the short story. These boys made a name for themselves through “left” and “right” philosophies: the left like Fernando Gordillo (1940–1967) and Sergio Ramírez (* 1941) became acquainted with the Ventana (window) group. The literary magazine Frente Ventana under the wing of the lawyer and writer Mariano Fiallos Gil (1907–1964), then rector of the University of Léon , represented an important platform for Central American writers. Their literary and political activities were directed against the Somoza regime. The Right, led by Roberto Cuadra (* 1940), came to be known as Generación traicionada (Generation Betrayed). This included the existentialist poet Iván Uriarte (* 1942).
In the vicinity of these groups, others emerged, of which Los Bandoleros (The Highwaymen) with Francisco de Asís Fernández (* 1945) and Jorge Eduardo Arellano (* 1946) became known. In some cases, the authors appeared as independents and not as members of groups and movements, which was typical for Nicaragua until then. They only became known through the literary press and no longer through their political group affiliation.
Juan Aburto (1918–1988) is considered a pioneer of modern narrative in Nicaragua. He did not publish his first collection of short stories until 1969, but felt himself closely connected to the avant-garde of the 1920s and all subsequent generations. He experimented with a fantastic narrative style, but later returned to realism. Even working as a bank clerk until 1977, he describes the urban world of Managua in his stories, whereby his heroes as well as his anti-heroes are often bank employees or managers of banks. The earthquakes and life in the slums of Managua also became subjects of his mostly short stories.
Mario Cajina Vega (1929–1995), who studied and lived in Europe and the USA for a time, is one of the founders of the modern Nicaraguan story alongside Juan Aburto. He was also known for his political poetry. In 1960 he founded a publishing house - Editorial Nicaragüense - in which he and Sergio Ramírez published books with high-quality graphics.
Raúl Elvir (1927–1998), an engineer by profession, was a poet and translator. As a meticulous observer and descriptor of natural phenomena, he wrote a collection of 60 stories about birds in Nicaragua.
Many Nicaraguan authors were already involved as students in the student protests of the late 1950s, which culminated in the massacre of July 23, 1959. Sergio Ramírez was the initiator of the "Group of Twelve", a group of intellectuals who were close to the Sandinista. He described his narrative style as "realistic realism"; his tragic heroes fail because of themselves or circumstances. In contrast to Magical Realism, its precise descriptions give the impression of great authenticity.
The late phase of the dictatorship
In the 1970s this development of dealing with the political and social situation continued. Their critical attitude towards the Somoza dictatorship led many authors to participate in the struggle of the FSLN . Special mention should be made of Álvaro Urtecho (* 1951) and Julio Valle Castillo (* 1952), who were mainly influenced by Mejía Sánchez and Martínez Rivas.
Among the most important young authors are the poets Gioconda Belli (* 1948) and Rosario Murillo (* 1951). Belli caused a scandal with her erotic poems in the early 1970s, but later also wrote novels and children's books. As a supporter of the Sandinista Liberation Front, she had to go into exile in Mexico and Costa Rica and later returned. The poet Maria Amanda Rivas (* 1956) also emigrated to Costa Rica in 1978.
After 1979
Many intellectuals and poets came to Managua from abroad at the time of the Sandinista Revolution. Your publications have shaped our image of Nicaragua, so u. a. Antonio Skármeta , Eduardo Galeano , Günter Wallraff , Franz Xaver Kroetz , Erich Fried , Dorothee Sölle and Salman Rushdie . Franz Galich (1951–2007) was born in Guatemala and developed his literary work in Nicaragua.
With the victory of the revolution in 1979, a large number of intellectuals had the opportunity to take on political offices for the first time. However, they lost their independence. Ramírez maintained contacts with the Socialist International. Most of his stories and novels have been translated into German. Under Daniel Ortega, he became Vice President of Nicaragua, but fell out with him and worked increasingly as a human rights activist.
Gioconda Belli achieved international success in 1988 with her first novel La mujer habitada (" Inhabited Woman "), which, in the tradition of magical realism, alludes to parallels between the struggle against the dictatorship and that against the Spanish colonialists using the example of the life story of two women.
It was not until the 1980s that Fernando Silva Espinoza's (1927–2016) work became known and received numerous awards. He was a pediatrician and director of a children's hospital in Managua, poet, storyteller, essayist and painter. Nature and everyday life were frequent themes in his outstanding stylistic works. He did a lot for the rediscovery of the indigenous heritage and earned a lot of recognition for it. He spoke Nahuatl; his work has been translated into English, French, Russian, Polish, Czech, Hungarian, German and Italian. Like many other poets and writers, he was a member of the FSLN.
Among the younger authors, the Generación de Mollina , Ariel Montoya (* 1964) was known as a poet, magazine author and editor of anthologies and was awarded the Premio Rubén Darío in 1999. The literary scholar and novelist Erick Aguirre Aragón (* 1961) paints a picture of his generation in his novel Un sol sobre Managua . The writers and poets of this generation took their place in the literary supplements of the major daily newspapers. The narrator Ulises Juárez Polanco , who died in 2017 at the age of only 33, was considered a great up-and-coming talent .
present
In the course of time, the intellectuals' disappointment with the course of the Sandinista Revolution prevailed. The poet and narrator Berman Bans (* 1976) joined the Capuchin Order in 2002 and now lives in Honduras . María del Carmen Pérez (* 1971) went to Chile in 2013 . Where there used to be censorship and oppression, in a more liberal, even neoliberal , but still ruled by a corrupt clan, many writers like Gioconda Belli came into conflict with their former political companions. In El país bajo mi piel (2001) she looks back on her participation in the Sandinista movement; in El país de las mujeres (2010) she describes the fiction of a country ruled by the women's party of the “Erotic Left” (this movement actually existed in the 1980s).
Since President Ortega's brutal crackdown on the unrest in 2018, there has been a culture of resistance that no longer has anything to do with the Sandinista Revolution.
literature
- Anika Oettler, Peter Peetz, Bert Hoffmann: Society and Culture. In: Federal Center for Political Education (ed.): Latin America. Information on political education 300 (2008), pp. 17–26.
- Michael Rössner: The Hispanic American Literature. In: Kindlers new literature dictionary , Ed. Walter Jens, Vol. 20, Munich 1996, pp. 40–56.
- Michael Rössner (ed.): Latin American literary history. New edition Stuttgart 2016.
- Nicaragua , in: Der Literatur Brockhaus , Volume 2, Mannheim 1988, p. 622.
Web links
- Enciclopedia de Literatura Niguarense (Spanish)
Individual evidence
- ↑ Oettler, Peetz, Hoffmann 2008, p. 25.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 251. This also applies to Mexico, which, however, is not part of Central America.
- ↑ Aníbal Ramírez: About El Güegüense or Macho Ratón: An American dance comedy from colonial times. In: Quetzal 32 , Leipzig 2002.
- ↑ Rössner 1996, p. 46.
- ↑ Rössner 1996, p. 46.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 217.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 237.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 240.
- ↑ Brockhaus , Volume 2, 1988, p. 622.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 251.
- ↑ José Ramón Fernández de Cano: Cabrales, Luis Alberto , in: www.mcnbiografias.com
- ↑ Dánae Vílchez: Manolo Cuadra: El ´vanguardista´ de izquierda. In: www.niu.com.ni , February 16, 2017.
- ^ Carlos Tünnermann Bernheim: Ernesto Mejía Sánchez un escritor de los años cuarenta. In: www.laprensa.com.ni , April 12, 2015.
- ↑ Danae Vílchez: Ernesto Mejía Sánchez: un intelectual integral. In: www.confidencial.com.ni , February 18, 2016.
- ↑ www.elnuevodiario.com , July 6, 2010.
- ↑ Pablo Centeno: Un Acercamiento a Carlos Martinez Rivas. In: 400 Elefantes , June 16, 2012.
- ^ Alain Rouquié: The Military and the State in Latin America. University of California Press 1987.
- ↑ His short story Tolentino Camacho was published in German in Erkundungen: 50 Narrators from Central America , ed. by Carlos Rincón, Berlin 1988.
- ↑ Alfredo Vega Salablanca: Ricardo Morales Aviles. In: / 29 / biografias-4 / wordpress.com , June 29, 2013.
- ↑ Alfredo Vega Salablanca: Leonel Rugama. In: wordpress.com , May 9, 2014.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 424.
- ↑ Rössner 2016, p. 424.
- ↑ Biography on www.biografiasyvidas.com
- ↑ Biography on www.ecured.cu
- ↑ biography on www.ecured.cu
- ↑ Salman Rushdie: The Jaguar's Smile. A trip through Nicaragua. Munich 1998.
- ↑ liportal.giz.de
- ↑ Toni Keppeler: The decline of the Nicaraguan revolution. In: Central America. Between the Panama Canal and Rio Bravo. Édition Le Monde Diplomatique 19 (2016), pp. 32 - 37; here: p. 35.
- ^ Writer from Nicaragua
- ↑ Gioconda Belli: Let's be silent , in: confidencial.com.ni (English), June 14, 2018.