Multilingualism

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Blackboard with street names in Serbian, Slovak, and Hungarian, in the village of Belo Blato
South Tyrol : trilingual school signage in Val Gardena in Ladin, German and Italian

Multilingualism describes the ability of a person to speak or understand more than one language . In relation to a family, social group , culture , society , area or state , this term means the validity and widespread or customary use of several languages ​​side by side by the persons or institutions involved. In the case of information systems , instructions, signs and the like, one speaks of multilingualism if these are available in several languages ​​in parallel.

The vast majority of humanity grows up multilingual and learns several languages ​​effortlessly as a child. Another large proportion of people learn at least one foreign language at an advanced age of eight to ten years or thereafter, usually with considerably more effort and comparatively less success.

term

Multilingualism means:

  • the ability to communicate in several languages ​​(multilingualism). See also: Bilingualism ( bilingualism ), immersion .
  • the validity or widespread use of several languages ​​in a society, a linguistic area or a state ( polyglossy ). See also: diglossia .
  • the use of several languages ​​in order to make information accessible to as large a number of individuals in different languages ​​as possible, for example on signs, information boards, product labels, in operating instructions as well as on websites or in computer programs. See also: translation , internationalization and localization .

The terms are not always clearly differentiated in everyday use, but are defined precisely and mutually exclusive in scientific disciplines. A person who speaks multiple languages ​​is said to be polyglot .

Acquisition

  • Simultaneous acquisition occurs when, for example, a child naturally learns several languages ​​at the same time.
  • Gradual acquisition means that different languages ​​are learned at different times.
  • Natural acquisition means that a language is learned without formal instruction.
  • Controlled acquisition means that knowledge of a language is specifically acquired through lessons.
  • Symmetrical acquisition means that several languages ​​are acquired in the same way.
  • Asymmetric acquisition means that one language dominates the other.

Types of multilingualism

Individual multilingualism

Individual multilingualism is understood to mean the ability of a person to be able to communicate in several languages. The person can switch from one language to the other if this is necessary, for example in order to maintain a conversation (see also code switching , code mixing ). It is more about being able to communicate in different languages ​​in everyday life than being able to perfectly master each language. The multilingualism of a person arises from different learning processes and depends on many external and internal factors, such as age, location, the type and circumstances in which a person finds himself, as well as the motivation of the learner.

The acquisition can be very different. On the one hand, an individual can learn several languages ​​simultaneously. This is the case if, for example, both parents speak different languages . However, it can also take place successively if a child learns another language after his or her mother tongue , for example at school. The acquisition can be uncontrolled, for example within the framework of everyday communication, or controlled, for example by means of lessons. One can also differentiate between symmetrical and asymmetrical multilingualism. In the first one, one speaks the languages ​​equally well without, as with the asymmetrical, one language is less well mastered.

Individual multilingualism has many causes; For example, living in linguistic border areas, in linguistically mixed regions, living together and marrying people who speak another language, access to higher education , belief and affiliation with a religion, etc. (Yilmaz, 2004).

Territorial multilingualism

Territorial multilingualism is understood to mean the simultaneous presence of several languages ​​on a territory.

Social multilingualism

Social multilingualism is understood when there is mutual penetration of the language communities. This means that individuals use more than one language in everyday life. This occurs, for example, in areas of overlap at language borders.

Institutional multilingualism

The institutional multilingualism means that different languages ​​are spoken in administrations or institutions . In Switzerland, for example, the national and cantonal public services are offered in different languages ​​and groceries are posted in three languages ​​in large distributors.

Diglossia

The use of the language is distributed across different domains. For example, people speak differently at work than with family or friends. So it is often a functional distribution of two varieties of a language. An example would be the standard language and the colloquial language. Diglossia is also used when the varieties do not have the same language as a basis, as is the case with immigrants, for example, who often include their mother tongue.

causes

There are several causes for multilingualism. These are mostly political and historical in nature.

colonization

A first significant cause is the expansion of a country at the time of colonization . "In the case of a territorial conquest through expansion of a state, the conquering country brings its language with it into the conquered country and installs it there by force." (Roos, 2005, p. 5). This was the case, for example, with the French colonial conquests in Africa . Even if the formerly conquered countries are no longer colonies, the French language has established itself and has become the official language of these countries. “It should be added that the arbitrary drawing of borders when Africa was divided up by the colonial powers contributed to the fact that individual states host several language groups, since the state borders mostly run through tribal areas. If, therefore, before the colonial invasion, each tribe had its own territory and language, then the different language groups are distributed over different national areas . As a result, multilingualism arises not only through contact between French and the autochthonous languages, but also through contact between the autochthonous languages. ”(Roos, 2005, p. 5).

migration

Another reason for learning a foreign language is migration . As a linguistic minority , it is often inevitable to learn the language of the host country, but the larger the linguistic minority, the less the need to learn the language.

Political unification of national territories

A third reason for the emergence of multilingualism is the unification of national and different language areas. Often an ethnic group defends itself against the dominance of a foreign language as an official language. Several examples: In China, Mandarin is the state and official language also for residents with a different mother tongue. Even in the actually German-speaking area in France (Alsace and Lorraine), French is mandatory as the language of instruction and the official language.

globalization

Finally, the globalization of politics and business plays an important role in the development of multilingualism. The ability to master at least one foreign language is increasingly seen as a basic requirement for modern vocational training.

Due to globalization, multilingualism, multilingualism and polyglossy are increasingly becoming key terms for understanding many social changes:

  • Global migratory pressures promote diglossia and polyglossia.
  • For migrants who live in foreign language areas, bilingualism and multilingualism are mostly vital.
  • Bilingual and multilingual competence is increasingly a prerequisite for many jobs.
  • In business, science and technology, new global “codes” and technical languages are emerging , often from elements of English with the addition of elements from other languages. Multilingual speakers can gain informational and economic advantages by knowing the "codes" and "slangs" of global multilingual networks. The diversity of languages ​​in heterogeneous societies is productive from both an economic and a cultural perspective. Therefore, multilingualism is a sign of normality (see publications of the SFB Multilingualism of the University of Hamburg).
  • The European Union is promoting multilingualism through a new framework strategy. The task of “bilinguism” is part of the portfolio of Education Commissioner Androulla Vassiliou.

Code switching

In response to the effects of globalization, it can make sense to promote early multilingual language acquisition by young children and to address specific phenomena such as B. Research code switching linguistically. This is the term used to describe the “change between different language varieties in bilingual or multilingual speakers depending on the requirements of the communication situation” (Bußmann 1990 and Földes 2005, p. 210 ff. As “code switching”). While the phenomenon was previously seen as a deficit, today it is seen as the ability of multilingual speakers to adjust to different modes of conversation (cf. Chilla, Rothweilweiler and Babur).

Natural and school multilingualism

There are two different ways of acquiring multilingualism:

  • uncontrolled (or natural) second language acquisition (acquisition) and controlled second language acquisition through teaching (learning). The uncontrolled multilingualism is an unconscious and implicit process that takes place in a natural environment. The newly learned language takes place through everyday social contacts such as playing with playmates.
  • With controlled multilingualism, the new language is learned consciously and explicitly and takes place with teachers within institutions, such as B. in school (Ribeaud).

In Germany, both types of controlled and uncontrolled language acquisition are assigned to the terms German as a Foreign Language (DAF) and German as a Second Language (DAZ) through the different contexts of appropriation.

  • German as a foreign language is didactically conveyed and learned by a teacher at school , so there is a controlled language acquisition here.
  • German as a second language, on the other hand, occurs naturally and in a natural environment.

However, controlled and uncontrolled language acquisition cannot always be clearly separated. Both options are often coupled. This always depends on the country in question. If, for example, a DAF lesson takes place in a German-speaking country, it is no longer possible to clearly differentiate between controlled and uncontrolled language acquisition. Because the learners also have contact with German native speakers in a natural environment. You acquire the language uncontrolled by listening and speaking. This also applies to migrant children. For example, you learn the language of the host country at school (controlled), but also in dealing with people of the same age (not controlled).

Ribeaud explains that the first language acquisition is uncontrolled. Toddlers aged 0 to 3 learn from their parents, siblings and family, they soak up the language like a sponge. The children also learn indirectly, for example when they hear their parents talking and they are not spoken to.

A distinction is made between two options for natural multilingual acquisition. If the children acquire the second language at the same time as the first language, it is referred to as a bilingual acquisition of the first language (up to the age of three). However, one can also learn a language as an older child or as an adult (Riehl 2004). In the case of bilingual acquisition of the first language (learning two languages ​​at the same time), we also find different constellations (Romaine 1995).

  • a family language (L1), an environmental language (L2) (kindergarten, outside world)
  • mixed-language families (father speaks L1, mother speaks L2, the environment speaks L1 or L2)
  • Mixed-language families (father speaks L1, mother speaks L2) in an environment with a different language (L3)

Riehl explains that the principle of "une personne - une langue" applies to mixed-language families. Each parent should speak his or her mother tongue with the children because the use of the language is therefore tied to certain people. Children can therefore distinguish between “papa language” and “mother tongue” when building their multilingual lexicon. It becomes difficult, however, if one of the partners is only monolingual and is therefore excluded from the family conversation. With the “one person - one language” principle, however, children become aware very early on that they speak several languages. In the case of migrant children who speak a uniform family language but grow up in a different environmental language, it is very important that the parents stick to their native language and do not mix the languages.

In the uncontrolled (natural) second language acquisition, the children have two options for learning the new language. On the one hand, children can acquire the second language as a small child at the same time as the first language, then one speaks of so-called "bilingual first language acquisition" (up to the age of three). On the other hand, the language can be acquired at a later stage, as an older child or as an adult (from ten years of age). However, this latter option poses problems. If you acquire it at a later stage, it is hardly possible to speak a language without an accent. That is why in this case one speaks of a “critical period” for multilingual acquisition (Riehl, 2004).

In the case of bilingual first language acquisition , the development and training of a strong and weak language is not inevitable, despite striving for a balance in the linguistic input (bilinguals with a dominant first or family language). Only in the rarest of cases does the child achieve balanced bilingualism (double first language acquisition). The promotion of both languages ​​is therefore very important so that insufficient linguistically appropriate input does not lead to “bilateral semilingualism” (Riehl, 2004). However, Riehl goes on to explain that the brain is in itself geared towards the acquisition of several languages ​​and does not provide separate areas for the individual languages. The ability to speak is therefore innate and not the knowledge of a particular language system .

Basic problem

Although the language can be learned through immersion in a foreign language society, the acquisition of the written language is usually an institutional mediation, i.e. H. coupled with school lessons. The same applies vice versa for the first language: migrant children who z. B. going to school in Germany, usually only learn the German language as a written language. The mother tongue , on the other hand, often remains only the “domestic language”, which affects the vast majority of migrants around the world. The children grow up in a country with a different language and are also literate in this language. “You can only achieve a balanced multilingualism if you also learn the written language in the respective language. I.e. if you attend bilingual schools or schools with so-called “immersion lessons” ”(Riehl, 2004). In the so-called “immersion lessons”, the “pupils get a 'language bath' in which subjects other than language lessons are held in this language. These immersion programs can be very diverse. ”(Riehl, 2004). (For practical information, see Bilingual Lessons .)

Chances of multilingualism

With regard to multilingualism, theorists view it from two perspectives. On the one hand it is still seen as a disadvantage of a society, on the other hand it represents a number of advantages. These opportunities of multilingualism are now made clear here.

Communication skills

An obvious advantage of multilingualism is the increased social communication skills (Reimann, 2009). On the one hand, this promotes an international exchange (Roth, 2006). People with different mother tongues and from different countries can still understand each other and communicate in many situations. The communication possibilities are not only directed outwards, but also inwards: Within a society the communication possibilities are promoted. Since communication between the majorities and minorities becomes possible, mutual cooperation can become possible. In this way, integration into and participation in society is made easier for different minorities (Roth, 2006).

Languages ​​as a linguistic resource - cognitive advantages

The languages ​​that a person speaks can serve as a linguistic resource in many ways. Children and adolescents who grow up with several languages ​​get used to contrasting languages ​​early on. Through this particular comparison, a metalinguistic awareness is built. This is an advantage for them when it comes to learning new languages ​​and thus new linguistic structures (Roth, 2006).

As Riehl (2006) explains, the advantage of multilingualism when learning new languages ​​is not only limited to the feeling for language, but also to metalinguistic knowledge. Multilingual people are superior to monolingual people because they can use different linguistic strategies when learning new languages ​​that they can draw on from their multilingualism (e.g. paraphrasing and code switching ), they approach texts more confidently and search more specifically familiar structures and words. They are also better able to determine word boundaries and understand grammatical rules, as they are more likely to pay attention to these aspects than monolinguals (Riehl, 2006).

Different studies in brain research (cf. Franceschini, 2001) clearly show that multilingualism at an early age (from the age of six) shows considerable advantages in learning new languages. The other languages ​​can be linked to the areas of the existing languages ​​and thus facilitate learning (Riehl, 2006). In further studies, psycholinguists have found that there is an unmistakable connection between metalinguistic awareness and learning to read. One of these studies (cf. Clyne, 2005) showed that multilingual children are a few months ahead of monolingual children. This is justified by their ability to recognize words (Riehl, 2006).

Linguistic pragmatic aspect

The multilingualism also brings with it linguistic pragmatic aspects. Bilingual and multilingualism broadens the horizon of the individual. This relates on the one hand to intercultural understanding, but on the other hand also to the individual educational opportunities. Being able to speak and understand several languages ​​has many advantages in school and at work (Roth, 2006).

In terms of the linguistic pragmatic aspect, Riehl (2006) speaks of the “differentiated view of the world” of multilingual people, as they can see through “the glasses of other languages”, thus getting to know other points of view and becoming more flexible in their actions.

Problems of multilingualism

The multilingualism created by migration is seen by a few researchers as a disadvantage, and its difficulties are repeatedly pointed out in the literature. Stölting (1980) asserts that multilingualism is not in human nature at all. We are a monolingual living being and it would speak against our nature to learn and speak other languages ​​(Ostendoerfer, 2009). The following arguments and observations all relate to later and possibly incompletely acquired second languages. They cannot be detected in adults under the age of six with multilingualism acquired by children.

Expenditure of time

One of the difficulties with multilingualism is the path that leads to it. Learning a second or third language costs the learner a lot of time. This represents a great effort, which often takes place at the expense of other activities and which prevents many people from learning other languages ​​(Krieger, 2011). Depending on the context in which you learn, you have to assume different costs, such as language courses and books to support the learning process.

Decreased sense of language

If you learn different languages ​​and speak them, it is clear, according to Krieger (2011), that the languages ​​influence each other. This leads to a weakening of the feeling for language, since a multilingual person can never concentrate on a single language without orienting himself to the other languages ​​when speaking and writing. Other factors that are negatively influenced by multilingualism are the uncertainty of expression and the poverty of the lively vocabulary. This is justified by the fact that the languages, vocabulary and grammar of the individual languages ​​are mixed up again and again.

Weak cohesion of a society

According to Eichinger (1994), a community is held together by the language of the individual participants, among other things. However, if several languages ​​are spoken, the community is not as strong as a group of people who only speak one language. In this case the togetherness is stronger and people are also more aware of it. However, this negative aspect of multilingualism is in contrast to the factor of integration and participation of the participants in a society through multilingualism, which is listed above under “Chances of multilingualism”.

Multilingualism as a language barrier

Again in contrast to the opportunities of multilingualism mentioned above, according to Roth (2006) and Eichinger (1994), multilingualism should represent a language barrier for people. Since a multilingual person cannot speak any of his languages ​​with any degree of certainty (since all languages ​​influence each other), this could mean that no one in a multilingual society could communicate properly with one another. With regard to migrant families, this also prevents their integration into and participation in society.

literature

  • Yilmaz Ali; Swiss news for international media Soliday (Ed.): Multilingualism in Switzerland - profit or disadvantage . Basel 2004.
  • Colin Baker: Bilingualism at home and at school. A handbook for educators. Verlag auf dem Ruffel, Engelschoff 2007, ISBN 978-3-933847-11-9 .
  • Hadumod Bußmann (Ed.) With the collaboration of Hartmut Lauffer: Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. 4th, revised and bibliographically supplemented edition. Kröner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-520-45204-7 .
  • Jean-Louis Calvet: La guerre des langues et les politiques linguistiques. Payot, Paris 1987, ISBN 2-228-14200-X .
  • S. Chilla, M. Rothweiler, E. Babur: Childish multilingualism. Basic disorders diagnostics. Reinhardt, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-497-02165-9 .
  • Detlef Heints, Jürgen Eugen Müller, Ludger Reiberg: multilingualism sets a precedent . Cologne contributions to language didactics. Gilles & Francke, Duisburg 2006, ISBN 3-925348-68-9 .
  • L. Eichinger: Linguistic cost-benefit calculation and the stability of multilingual communities. In: Uta Helfrich, Claudia Maria Riehl (Ed.): Multilingualism in Europe - Obstacle or Opportunity? Egert Verlag, Wilhelmsfeld 1994, ISBN 3-926972-41-6 , pp. 31-54.
  • Csaba Földes: Intercultural Linguistics: Preliminary considerations on concepts, problems and desiderata. Universitätsverlag, Veszprém / Edition Praesens , Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-7069-0230-3 and ISBN 963-9495-20-4 . ( Studia Germanica Universitatis Vesprimiensis, Supplement; 1 ; PDF; 4.0 MB)
  • Csaba Földes: Contact German. On the theory of a variety type under transcultural conditions of multilingualism. Verlag Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2005, ISBN 3-8233-6160-0 . ( Table of contents and full text ; PDF; 2.8 MB)
  • Volker Hinnenkamp: On dealing with multilingualism . In: APuZ . 8/2010, pp. 27-32.
  • E. Koudrjavtseva, T. Volkova: BILIUM-Bilingualism Upgrade Module (Part II): A comprehensive approach to teaching bilingual children language (non-native and another / second native) in the early childhood educational systems (ECES) of the European Union: A framework for an advanced training program for pre-school teachers and similar structural units in mainstream schools (pupils from the age of 1.5 years to 5 years). RetorikaA, Riga 2014, ISBN 978-9984-865-67-6 .
  • Norbert Kühne : How many languages ​​do you speak? - Multilingualism from a psychological and educational point of view (2), Raabe Verlag, Stuttgart 2018.
  • German as second language. Language acquisition, controlled, directed. Teaching and learning workshop, 2008.
  • N. Müller, T. Kupisch, K. Schmitz, K. Cantone: Introduction to multilingualism research. Narr, Tübingen 2001, ISBN 3-8233-6674-2 .
  • M. Ribeaud: magazine visuell plus. Language acquisition. http://www.gebaerden-sprache.ch/index.php?spracherwerb
  • Claudia Maria Riehl: Language contact research. An introduction. Narr, Tübingen 2002, ISBN 3-8233-6013-2 .
  • Claudia Maria Riehl: "The Importance of Multilingualism" from the Competence Center for Language Promotion - newsletter January 2006 (Cologne) (online)
  • Claudia Maria Riehl: Aspects of multilingualism: forms, advantages, meaning. In: Ludger Reiberg (Ed.): Multilingualism makes school. Gilles & Francke, Duisburg 2006, ISBN 3-925348-68-9 , pp. 15-23.
  • S. Romaine: Bilingualism. 2nd Edition. MPG Books Ltd. Bodmin. Cornwall 1995, ISBN 0-631-19539-4 .
  • H. Roth: Multilingualism as a resource and as an educational goal. In: Ludger Reiberg (Ed.) Multilingualism makes school. Gilles & Francke Verlag, Duisburg 2006, ISBN 3-925348-68-9 , pp. 11-14.
  • Language Center of the University and the ETH Zurich, Sabina Schaffner (Ed.): Our multilingualism, a collection of multilingual biographies - students and employees of the University of Zurich and the ETH Zurich tell . VDF Hochschulverlag , Zurich 2012, ISBN 978-3-7281-3447-9 .
  • Stefan Schneider: Bilingual first language acquisition. UTB Reinhardt, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-8252-4348-7 .
  • Sabine Schrader, Christiane Maas (eds.): Learning many languages ​​... a necessary evil? Chances and problems of multilingualism. Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig 2002, ISBN 3-935693-54-0 .
  • Rita Zellerhoff: Didactics of multilingualism. Didactic concepts to promote multilingualism in children and adolescents, cross-school concepts with special consideration of the special focus on language. Lang, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-631-58569-6 .

Web links

Commons : Multilingualism  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Multilingualism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ further background at David Crystal : The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Campus Verlag Frankfurt / New York 1993, p. 360 (right column)
  2. ↑ Advice on multilingualism in: Norbert Kühne : How children learn language - basics, strategies, educational opportunities. Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 2003, p. 120 f.
  3. ↑ (online)
  4. ↑ online