Nikolai Alexandrovich Amber

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NA Bernstein with his son (deceased) in the 1960s. The photo is in the holdings of Bernstein's granddaughter's archive.

Nikolai Bernstein ( Russian Николай Александрович Бернштейн , scientific transliteration Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bernštejn , born October 24 . Jul / 5. November  1896 greg. 1896 in Moscow ; † 16th January 1966 ) was a Russian physiologist and biomechanics . He is considered one of the founders of modern movement science .

Life

Bernstein was born in Moscow in 1896. His father Alexander Nikolajewitsch Bernstein (1870-1922) was a well-known psychiatrist and his uncle Sergei Natanowitsch Bernstein (1880-1968) was a famous mathematician (see Feigenberg, 2014). His brother was the civil engineer Sergei Alexandrovich Bernstein . Bernstein studied at Moscow University a. a. historical-philological studies, medicine and mathematics. From 1919 to 1921 he was a member of the Red Army. His actual scientific career began in 1922 with a job at the newly opened Biomechanics Laboratory of the Central Labor Institute (ЦИТ / CIT; Центральный институт труда) in Moscow, which was part of the HOTучной организацити организацити органитут труда in 1920 with direct support from Lenin. Gastew was the longtime head of the CIT. He was arrested on September 8, 1938 for "counter-revolutionary terrorist activities" and shot on April 15, 1939 in a Moscow suburb. Bernstein worked at the CIT from 1922 to 1925 and was one of the leading figures. Already in his first work, Bernstein distanced himself from the mechanical views of Gastew with his findings and ideas and distrusted his concept of analogy between human movement and machine. In 1925, Bernstein left the CIT and took a position at the Moscow State Institute for Experimental Psychology , where he worked for 20 years with intermittent breaks. The representatives of the famous cultural-historical school of psychology, Luria , Vygotsky and Leontiev , were his colleagues.

In 1948, Bernstein received the Stalin Prize for Science, which was awarded between 1941 and 1954. It was the highest civilian award that existed for outstanding achievements in art, culture and science in the Soviet Union at that time. This explicitly honored Bernstein's monograph "О построении движений" (On the Structure of the Movement) published in 1947. After 1949, Bernstein was persecuted politically and deprived of his work and publication opportunities. It is one of the great paradoxes of the Soviet science and culture industry that even top-class awards and appreciations do not protect against reprisals (Beyrau, 2014).

From 1950 to 1953, no publications from Bernstein's pen became known. From 1949 onwards, as part of political persecution, he was denied the opportunity to conduct experimental and empirical work as well as access to scientific institutions. After Stalin's death in 1953, there was partial rehabilitation. In 1956, Bernstein officially retired. A significant part of his theoretical treatises with impressive prospects for a changed understanding of human movement emerged in the years that followed. His work was now more oriented towards the integration of movement science, neurophysiological, bio-cybernetic and philosophical knowledge in the concept of a physiology and biology of activity , which was understood as an alternative to the classical reflex theory and provided important food for thought for further research into human movement.

The first complete biography of this researcher was written in 2004 by Josef M. Feigenberg. In a contribution by Haralds Jansons (1992) there are also various photos of Bernstein and his family as well as his places of work.

Work and meaning

A total of around 140 publications can be identified. A chronological list of all writings, compiled by Bernstein's student Josef M. Feigenberg, can be found in the appendix to "Movement Physiology", an anthology with important contributions by Bernstein. In 1992, Haralds Jansons published an extended compilation with additional information on manuscripts from his personal Bernstein archive in Riga. Only a fraction of Bernstein's texts were translated into English or German. These few translations were enough to make him one of the world's leading movement scientists.

His first scientific publication from 1922 dealt with questions of size perception. In the following years he intensively investigates musical and work movements (including striking the hammer and the biodynamics of striking the piano), the functioning of the central nervous system and the physiology of muscle contraction. Furthermore, there are publications on questions of fatigue, the development of investigation methods, mathematical description of movement as well as theoretical and practical aspects of biomechanics. In 1926 his first monograph “Obscaja biomechanika” (General Biomechanics) was published. A main focus of his research was the analysis of the variability and stability of movements. Up to and including 1930 there were already 37 publications with scientific content. Some of this work can be found in German-language journals, for example in the “Journal for Applied Mathematics and Mechanics”, in “ Pflüger's Archive for the Entire Physiology of Humans and Animals ” and in the journal “Arbeitssphysiologie”. The early years were characterized by a wide range of scientific activities, cosmopolitanism and creativity.

In the 1930s, his research increasingly focused on aspects of locomotion, walking and running in sporting and everyday movements. The monograph О построении движений (On the Structure of the Movement), published in 1947, can be regarded as a turning point and highlight in his work .

At least four core scientific ideas of Bernstein should be explicitly highlighted:

  • the emphasis on the holistic character and structural complexity of living movement
  • the idea of ​​the ambiguity of the center and the periphery in motor activity
  • the conceptual differentiation into metric and topological dimensions of movement regulation
  • extensive observations on phenomena of variability in the kinematic and dynamic parameters of motion.

Bernstein recognized that movements are not rigidly controlled by fixed neuromotor programs, but are flexibly adapted to the current situation. Therefore, the main task in coordinating movements is to control the various degrees of freedom that the human body allows. Bernstein's publications were only translated into English and German with a considerable delay and thus made accessible to Western scholars. However, they should have a profound influence on the scientific currents of movement research. Among other things, they serve as the basis for the application of dynamic systems theory to motor coordination. Since the 1980s, Bernstein has been quoted with a consistent continuity in textbooks on biomechanics, movement and sport science or physiology. In current projects on robotics (Runbot, 2007) his multi-level concept of motion control was implemented. Nowadays his piano studies from the 1920s are also attracting attention. In addition, his multi-level conception of human movement is currently used in physiotherapy (Maximova, 2013).

Bernstein's controversy with Pavlov

In the manuscript of a monograph from 1936, which was unknown to the professional world for many decades and was only officially printed in Russia in 2003, Bernstein clearly positions himself against the theory of conditioned reflexes of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov . Here, Bernstein was not concerned with a general negation of the overall concept, rather he shows its limits and restrictions. His conclusion is:

"The radical mistake of the majority of ideologues from the school of conditioned reflexes is precisely that they research processes of cramming and think they are studying processes of behavior."

Bernstein is also critical of the limits of the concept of conditioned reflexes when it comes to explaining artistic and creative achievements by humans. However, he was not alone with his criticism. Lev Vygotsky wrote as early as 1925:

“The reflex is an abstract concept of very high methodological value; However, it cannot become the basic concept of a psychology that is regarded as a concrete science of human behavior. The human being is by no means a leather bag filled with reflexes and the brain is not an inn for conditional reflexes that happen at the same time. "

At that time, however, Pavlov's position could hardly be scientifically challenged in public. Pavlov received extensive political and material support for his research. His exposed position also resulted from winning the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1904, which he was the first Russian ever to receive for his studies on the function of the dog's digestive glands. Only later did he turn to the systematic investigation of the conditioned reflexes. On January 24, 1921, Lenin personally signed a decree on Pavlov, which was published on February 11, 1921 in the journal Izvestiâ . In it he pays tribute to:

"Very exceptional scientific merits of the academician IP Pavlov, which are of tremendous importance for the working people all over the world".

A commission chaired by the famous writer Maxim Gorky was set up by decree ,

"To create the most favorable conditions in the shortest possible time, which guarantee the academic work of Academician Pavlov and his staff."

Pavlov's outstanding status had not changed until his death. What made his findings ideologically usable in a special way for the political elite was the declaration of upbringing and educational processes as an occurrence of conditioned reflexes, which, according to Pavlov, should also be inheritable. In his lectures he concluded from the experiments:

"It is evident that our upbringing, our learning, all disciplines and our many habits are long series of conditioned reflexes." (Lectures on the Work of the Cerebral Hemispheres, given 1924)

As early as 1913 he formulated:

"One can assume that some of the newly formed conditioned reflexes later turn into unconditional ones through heredity."

However, studies on humans have never been carried out, only conclusions on human behavior from animal experiments. In 1924 the Russian politician Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin called the teachings of Pavlov a "weapon from the iron arsenal of materialism."

Pavlov died on February 27, 1936. Bernstein withdrew his writing directed against Pavlov from the printing process. Partly pious reasons can be asserted, but in 1936 there were already pre-forms of the Great Terror of 1937/38. It can be assumed that Bernstein refrained from publishing the criticism for reasons of self-protection, especially since Pavlov's importance and reputation increased after his death. Today, Bernstein is considered to be the main scientific opponent of Pavlov.

Political persecution in the 1940s and 50s

In 1949 the politically motivated persecution against Bernstein began. From 1949 until the mid-1950s, Bernstein was practically denied work and publication opportunities. An anti-Semitic background is likely from the overall social context; at least the attacks in the Soviet Union were generally aimed at the “rootless cosmopolitans” , which included cosmopolitan and Jewish scientists. From 1949 to 1950 there were attacks and statements against him in almost every issue of the leading Soviet sports science journal Teorija i Praktika fizičeskoj kultury . At the Moscow Pavlov conference from June 28 to July 4, 1950, several speakers engaged in sometimes rude attacks, such as Azratjan, Birjukov, Frolov and, in particular, KM Smirnov from the advanced training course for physical education in Leningrad, who wrote:

"Prof. Bernstein puts forward fantastic hypotheses about the nature of the coordination of movements and tries to refute Pavlov's teaching through considerations a priori ... Through his completely wrong and factually and methodologically incorrect views, Bernstein has rendered the interesting research material he had obtained unusable. "

P. Žukov and K. Kožin judged even more harshly in the Pravda magazine on August 21, 1950:

“… Bernstein crouches in front of many scholars of the bourgeoisie. The names of the reactionary Sherrington and other foreign physiologists are mentioned ... Bernstein slanderously slandered Pavlov ... Bernstein's 'discoveries' are a typical example of the mere biologization and mechanization ... Bernstein's confused anti-Pavlovian teachings actually damage sports science. "

The publication organ of the GDR sports science theory and practice of physical culture positions itself in 1952/53 with extremely derogatory assessments. Such attacks against Bernstein can be documented until around the mid-1950s, before he was allowed to work and publish again.

Reception history

In 1957, the first documented translation of an article by Bernstein with the title "Some maturing problems of the regulation of motoric acts" from the Russian journal Questions of Philosophy (Voprossii Psichologii) from 1957 took place in the GDR (see Pöhlmann, 1966, p. 62). In 1958 there was a working translation of chapters of the monograph “On the Structure of Movement” by Kurt Meinel, professor at the German University of Physical Culture in Leipzig . Remarkably, this happened at a time when Bernstein was still largely hushed up in the USSR after years of defamation. In 1996, Günter Schnabel at the Institute for Applied Training Science (IAT) Leipzig initiated a revision of the early Bernstein translation from 1958, which is thus also accessible to the specialist public. In the GDR in the 1960s, the first positive evaluations were made from work psychology and sports science (Hacker, 1962; Pöhlmann, 1966; Schnabel, 1968). At the same time, a positive reception of the amber works can also be stated for Poland. A volume with texts translated into English appeared in 1967. The first published translation of a Bernstein article into German was in 1971 in an anthology by Kussmann and Kölling. In 1972, the GDR translated an anthology from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR from 1966 with a contribution from Bernstein. From around the mid-1970s onwards, also supported by the publication of a volume with Bernstein works in the GDR (Pickenhain & Schnabel, 1975), one can assume that his work was widely accepted. The world's first international conference on amber took place from November 2nd to 3rd, 1988 on German soil in Trassenheide in the GDR with more than 100 participants. The organization was in the hands of the Sports Motor Skills Commission of the Scientific Council at the State Secretariat for Physical Culture and Sport and the Nikolai Alexandrowitsch Bernstein research group at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald, which has existed since 1971 . The work by Klaus Schneider (1989), in which Bernstein's coordination hypothesis was experimentally tested, also belongs in the context of the positive appreciation. A second Bernstein conference followed in 1996 in Zinnowitz. At the same time a conference on amber took place at Pennsylvania State University in 1996 under the direction of Mark L. Latash. With the collapse of the GDR, the progressive potentials of biography and work research on German soil also essentially disappeared. Research on the work and life of Bernstein takes place today mainly in Israel (Feigenberg), Russia (Sirotkina, Talis), Latvia (Jansons), the Netherlands (Meijer, Bongaardt) and the USA (Latash). In 2004, the first complete biography in Russian was published in Moscow (author: Josef M. Feigenberg). In 2014, a translation into English, both textually and with interesting images, was published in Germany. At present, direct access to original documents concerning Bernstein is still difficult for scientists working outside Russia. From July 6th to July 8th 2012 the International Annual Conference 2012 of the German Society for the History of Sports Science on the subject of NA Bernstein versus IP Pavlov - ´conditional reflexes´ revisited took place in Leipzig in honor of the early appreciation of Bernstein in Germany . A few years ago an unpublished manuscript Atlas of the Ganges and Runs of Man was discovered in the library of the Leibniz Institute for Labor Research at the Technical University of Dortmund (120 pages). The information on this came from the Russian-speaking area (Čchaidze & Čumakov, 1972; Kosenko, 2012; Talis, 2015). It contains carefully made sketches, measuring sheets and photos of the human gait, which in a unique way document Bernstein's precise work during the investigation of the locomotion. It becomes clear how exactly he reproduced the movement in order to penetrate its secrets and to formulate basic laws from what was recorded. Nikolai Bernstein gave it to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Occupational Physiology as a present on the occasion of a working visit in 1929. The German Society for the History of Sports Science is currently preparing to print the work. A digitized form is available in the Universal Multimedia Electronic Library (UrMEL) of the Thuringian University and State Library Jena.

Selected publications by Bernstein

  • The co-ordination and regulation of movements . Pergamon Press, Oxford 1967.
  • Movement physiology . (Eds. Lothar Pickenhain, Günter Schnabel). Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1975/1988 (1st and 2nd ed.).
  • Movement control. In: Thomas Kussmann, Heinz Kölling (eds.): Biology and behavior. A reader on Soviet psychophysiology. Huber, Bern 1971, pp. 146-172.
  • Problems of modeling in the biology of activity. In: Hansjürgen Matthies, Fritz Pliquett (Hrsg.): Mathematical modeling of life processes . Akademieverlag, Berlin 1972, pp. 163–173.
  • O lovkosti i ee razvitii (About skill and its development). Fiskultura I sport, Moscow 1991 (unpublished original manuscript from 1947, Russian).
  • The development of movement skills. Translation of Chapter VIII from NA Bernstein: O postrojenii dviženij (On the structure of movements). Medgiz, Moscow 1947 (editing: G. Schnabel, H. Sandner; translation: C. Bauer 1996 / J. Schlief 1958.) IAT / dvs, Leipzig 1996/1958.
  • Fiziologiâ dviženij i aktivnost´ . Nauka, Moscow 1966 (Ed. OG Gazenko / IM Feigenberg, originals published 1947, 1966).
  • Sovremennye iskaniâ b fiziologii nervnogo processa (Current studies on the physiology of nervous processes). Smysl, Moscow 2003 (unpublished original manuscript from 1936, Russian; editor of the first edition 2003 Josef M. Feigenberg & Irina E. Sirotkina), ISBN 5-89357-132-0 .

further reading

  • Irina E. Sirotkina: Rol´ issledovanij NA ​​Bernštejna v pazvitii otečestvennoj psihologii (The importance of NA Bernstein's research for the development of local psychology). Dissertation . Lomonosov University, Moscow 1989.
  • Irina E. Sirotkina: Ot peakcii k živomy dviženiû: NA Bernštejn b Psihologičeskom institute dvadcatyh godov (From reaction to lively movement: NA Bernstein at the Psychological Institute in the 1920s). In: Voprosy Psihologii. 4, 1994, pp. 17-27.
  • Irina E. Sirotkina: NA Bernshtein. The years before and after "Pavlov Session". In: Russian Studies in History: a journal of translation. 34, 2, 1995, pp. 24-36.
  • Irina E. Sirotkina: The Ubiquitous Reflex and Its Critics in Post-Revolutionary Russia. In: Reports on the history of science . 32, wikilink1, 2009, pp. 70-81.
  • Peter Hirtz, Rilo Pöhlmann (Red.): Current sports motor research in the light of the teachings of NA Bernstein [special issue]. In: Theory and Practice of Physical Culture. 38 vol., Supplement 2, 1989.
  • Mark L. Latash (Ed.): Progress in Motor Control: Bernstein's Traditions in Movement Studies, Vol. 1 . Human Kinetics, Champaign, Il 1998, ISBN 0-88011-674-9 .
  • Mark L. Latash (Ed.): Progress in Motor Control: Structure-Function Relations in Voluntary Movements, Vol 2. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL 2002, ISBN 0-7360-0027-5 .
  • Mark L. Latash (Ed.): Progress in Motor Control: Effects of Age, Disorder, and Rehabilitation, Vol 3. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL 2004, ISBN 0-7360-4400-0 .
  • Rob Bongaardt: Shifting Focus: The Bernstein Tradition in Movement Science. Druk 80, Amsterdam 1996.
  • Peter Hirtz, Franco Nüske (Ed.): Movement coordination and athletic performance viewed integratively. 2nd Bernstein Conference and 2nd joint symposium of the dvs sections Biomechanics, Sports Motor Skills and Training Science from September 25th to 27th, 1996 in Zinnowitz. Czwalina, Hamburg 1997, ISBN 3-88020-305-9 .
  • Dagmar Sternad: The American Bernstein Reception and the US Conference “Bernstein's Traditions in Motor Control”. In: Peter Hirtz, Franco Nüske (Ed.): Movement coordination and athletic performance viewed integratively. Czwalina, Hamburg 2007, pp. 22-32.
  • Torsten Rüting: Pavlov and the New Man. Discourses on Discipline in Soviet Russia. Oldenbourg, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-486-56679-2 .
  • Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: Ot refleksa k modeli buduŝego (Nikolai Bernstein: From reflexes to modeling the future.) Smysl, Moscow 2004, ISBN 5-89357-161-4 .
  • Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: From Reflex to the Model of the Future. Translator: Julia Linkova, Editors: Eberhard Loosch; Vera Talis. LIT, Münster 2014.
  • Onno G. Meijer, S. Bruijn: The Loyal Dissident: NA Bernstein and the Double-Edged Sword of Stalinism. In: Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 16 (1), 2007, pp. 206-224.
  • Onno G. Meijer: Bernstein Versus Pavlovianism. In terms of interpretation. In: Mark L. Latash: Progress in Motor Control. Volume Two. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL 2002, ISBN 0-7360-0027-5 , pp. 229-250.
  • Julia Kursell: Moscow Eye and Ear Control. About the neurophysiological work of Nikolaj Bernštejn on piano playing. In: Sabine Flach, Margarete Vöhringer (Ed.): Ultravision. The avant-garde understanding of science . Fink, Munich 2010, ISBN 978-3-7705-4917-7 , pp. 83-105.
  • Eberhard Loosch: Nikolai Alexandrowitsch Bernstein. Notes on life and work. In: Jürgen Court, Arno Müller, Wolfram Pyta (eds.): Yearbook 2010 of the German Society for the History of Sports Science eV LIT, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-643-11476-1 , pp. 41–74.
  • Eberhard Loosch: History of the German amber reception from 1952 to the present. In: Jürgen Court, Eberhard Loosch, Arno Müller (eds.): Yearbook 2012 of the German Society for the History of Sports Science eV LIT, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-12437-1 , pp. 45–56.
  • Haralds Jansons: Bernstein: The microscopy of movement. In: Aurelio Cappozzo, Marco Marchetti, Virgilio Tosi (eds.): Biolocomotion: A century of research using moving pictures. Promograph, Roma 1992, ISBN 88-86125-00-3 , pp. 137-174.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: From Reflex to the Model of the Future. Translator: Julia Linkova, Editors: Eberhard Loosch; Vera Talis. LIT, Münster 2014.
  2. ↑ Sirotkina, 2009, pp. 72-74.
  3. ↑ Feigenberg, 2004, p. 130.
  4. ↑ Dietrich Beyrau: The power and the sciences in the USSR. In: Jürgen Court, Eberhard Loosch, Arno Müller (eds.): Yearbook 2012 of the German Society for the History of Sports Science eV LIT, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-12437-1 , pp. 9-27.
  5. ↑ Bernstein, NA: Towards a Biology of Activity. In: Pickenhain, L. & Schnabel, G. (Eds.), 1988, pp. 233-247 (originally published in Voprosy filosofi, 19 (10), 1965, pp. 65-78).
  6. ↑ Feigenberg, 2004.
  7. ^ Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: Ot refleksa k modeli buduŝego (Nikolai Bernstein: From the reflexes to the modeling of the future). Smysl, Moscow 2004, ISBN 5-89357-161-4 .
  8. ↑ Haralds Jansons: Bernstein: The Microskopy of Movement. In: Aurelio Cappozzo, Marco Marchetti, Virgilio Tosi (eds.): Biolocomotion: A century of research using moving pictures. Promograph, Rome 1992, pp. 137-174.
  9. ↑ Bernstein: Movement Physiology. 1st edition. 1975, 2nd edition. 1988.
  10. ↑ cf. Haralds Jansons, 1992, pp. 161-174.
  11. ↑ Poramate Manoonpong, Geng, T., Kulvicius, T., Porr, B. & Wörgötter, F .: Adaptive, Fast Walking in a Bipedal Robot under Neuronal Control and Learning. In: PLoS Computational Biology. Vol. 3, Issue 7, 2007, pp. 1-16.
  12. ^ Kursell, 2010.
  13. ↑ Elena V. Maximova: Corrective exercises for children, with autism spectrum disorders, on the basis of the movement's construction theory of NA Bernstein. In: Proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific and Research Anniversary Conference “Theoretical and Applied Problems of Medical (Clinical) Psychology (to 85leti. Yu.f. Polyakova)”, held from 14-15 February 2013 in SEI HPE “The Moscow City University of Psihologopedagogieskij “and NMHC RAMS under General Ed. N. Zvereva, If Ro.inoj. Moscow, 2013. -197 p. (pp. 83-84)
  14. ^ Meijer, 2002.
  15. ↑ Loosch 2012, pp. 41–74.
  16. ↑ Bernstein, 1936/2003, p. 178.
  17. ↑ Lev Vygotsky: Consciousness as a problem in the psychology of behavior. In: Joachim Lompscher (Ed.): Lew Wygotski. Work on theoretical and methodological problems in psychology . Volume 1. Volk und Wissen, Berlin 1985, p. 204. (Originally published in Konstantin Nikolajewitsch Kornilov: Psychologie und Marxismus. Moscow-Leningrad 1925.)
  18. ↑ Rüting (2002) presented a comprehensive analysis of Pavlov's political instrumentalization.
  19. ↑ Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: On the creation of conditions that guarantee the academic work of academician IP Pavlov and his staff. Resolution of the Council of People's Commissars, January 21, 1921, published on February 11, 1921 in the Izvestia WZJK. In: Lenin, works. Volume December 32, 1920 - August 1921. Dietz, Berlin 1961, pp. 56-57.
  20. ^ IP Pavlov, In: Twenty-third lecture. Application of the results of our animal experiments to humans. All works . Volume IV, (pp. 329-344). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1953, p. 330.
  21. ↑ IP Pavlov, In: The exploration of the higher nerve activity . Lecture at the final meeting of the International Congress of Physiology in Groningen (Holland) 1913. Brit. Med. Journal . V.2, pp. 973–978, Complete Works. Volume III / 1, 1953 (pp. 182-197). Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1953, p. 196.
  22. ↑ cit. after Rüting, 2002, p. 165.
  23. ↑ Sirotkina, 1995.
  24. ↑ Vladimir Michajlovic Zaciorskij: Ob etoj kige, ee avtore i teh vremenah (About this book, its author and its time). In: Bernstein: O Lovkosti i ee razvitii . 1991, p. 6.
  25. ↑ Academy of Sciences and Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR: Scientific conference on the problems of the physiological teaching IP Pavlov. Moscow, June 28 to. July 4, 1950. Stenographic report in German translation (5 booklets), 40th booklet on “Soviet Studies”. Culture and progress, Berlin 1954, pp. 521–522.
  26. ↑ Zaciorskij, 1991, p. 5.
  27. ↑ Peter Hirtz: NA Bernstein's work and effect on the development of sports motor skills. Unpublished Presentation at the Sports Science University Day 27.-29.9. 1995 in Frankfurt am Main (PDF download under web links).
  28. ↑ Rilo Pöhlmann: Structure and rhythm problems of the motor skills - a cybernetic representation from a philosophical aspect. Scientific journal of the German University for Physical Culture Leipzig , 8th year (1966), issue 4, 54-63.
  29. ↑ Data on reception history from Loosch, 2014, pp. 45–56.
  30. ↑ Bernstein: The Development of Movement Skills. Leipzig: IAT, dvs 1996 (1958).
  31. ↑ Waclaw Petryński: The Reception of Bernstein in Poland In: Jürgen Court, Eberhard Loosch, Arno Müller (Eds.): Yearbook 2012 of the German Society for the History of Sport Science LIT, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-12437-1 , Pp. 58-68.
  32. ^ The co-ordination and regulation of movements . Pergamon Press, Oxford 1967.
  33. ↑ Bernstein: Movement Control. In: Kussmann, Kölling (Ed.), 1971, pp. 146–172.
  34. ↑ Bernstein: Problems of modeling in the biology of activity. In: Matthies, Pliquett (Ed.), 1972, pp. 163-173.
  35. ↑ cf. Hirtz, Pöhlmann, 1989.
  36. ↑ Christopher Kuhfeldt: The development of movement theory and sports motor skills in Germany. Marburg: Tectum 2010, p. 134.
  37. ↑ Hirtz, Nüske, 1997.
  38. ^ Sternad, 1997.
  39. ^ Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: Ot refleksa k modeli buduŝego (Nikolai Bernstein: From the reflexes to modeling the future.) Smysl, Moscow 2004, ISBN 5-89357-161-4 .
  40. ^ Josef M. Feigenberg: Nikolai Bernstein: From Reflex to the Model of the Future. Translator: Julia Linkova. Editors: Eberhard Loosch; Vera Talis. LIT, Münster 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-90583-3 .
personal data
SURNAME Bernstein, Nikolai Alexandrovich
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Бернштейн, Николай Александрович (Russian)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Russian physiologist and exercise scientist
DATE OF BIRTH November 5, 1896
PLACE OF BIRTH Moscow
DATE OF DEATH January 16, 1966
Place of death Moscow