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Der Funke — Tumult in der St Giles' Cathedral Edinburghs, angeblich von Jenny Geddes angezettelt.

Die Kriege der drei Königreiche (engl. Wars of the Three Kingdoms)[1] bildeten eine Serie aus verflochtenen Konflikten in England, Irland, und Schottland zwischen 1639 und 1651 nachdem diese drei Länder unter die „Persönliche Herrschaft“ des selben Monarchen. Der Englische Bürgerkrieg ist der bekannteste dieser Konflikte und schloß die Exekution des Monarchen der drei Königreiche, Karl I., durch das englische Parlament im Jahre 1649. Die Bezeichnung „Kriege der drei Königreiche“, wird oftmals ausgeweitet auf die Aufstände und Konflikte die sich durch die 1650er Jahre bis zur Stuart-Restauration unter der Regentschaft Karl II. zogen, 1660 (from which point the Three Kingdoms were once again under a relatively peaceful personal union led by a Stuart monarch), and sometimes until Venner's Uprising the following year. The wars were the outcome of tensions between king and subjects over religious and civil issues. Religious disputes centred on whether religion was to be dictated by the monarch or the choice of the subject, the subjects often feeling that they ought to have a direct relationship with God unmediated by any monarch or human intermediary. The related civil questions were to what extent the king's rule was constrained by parliaments — in particular his right to raise taxes and armed forces without consent. Furthermore, the wars also had an element of national conflict, as Irland and Scotland rebelled against Englands primacy within the Three Kingdoms. Der Sieg des englischen Parlaments — ultimately under Oliver Cromwell — over the King, the Irish and the Scots helped to determine the future of Great Britain as a constitutional monarchy with political power centred on London. The Wars of the Three Kingdoms also paralleled a number of similar conflicts at the same time in Europe — such as the Fronde in France and the rebellions of the Netherlands and Portugal against Spanish rule.

Die Kriege schloßen die Bischofskriege von 1639 und 1640 ein, den Schottischen Unabhängigkeitskrieg von 1644–45; die Irische Rebellion (1641), Konföderation Irland, 1642–49 und die Rückeroberung Irlands 1649 (kollektiv der Elfjährige Krieg oder Irische Konföderationskriege); und der erste, zweite und dritte Englischer Bürgerkrieg von 1642–46, 1648–49 und 1650–51.

Obwohl die Bezeichnung nicht neu ist und wurde bereits von James Heath in seinem Buch A Brief Chronicle of all the Chief Actions so fatally Falling out in the three Kingdoms, dass 1662 veröffentlicht wurde,[2] gebraucht. Die Tendenz neuerer Publikationen die miteinander verbundenen Konflikte Wars of the Three Kingdoms zu betiteln, ist stellvertretend für eine Entwicklung von Historikern die Begriffe zu vereinen, um sie nicht als bloßen Hintergrund des Englischen Bürgerkriegs hinzustellen. Some, such as Carlton, Gaunt and Royal have labelled them the British Civil Wars,[3][4][5] but this can be misleading, because although the three realms were linked by a personal union, the three kingdoms did not become a single political entity until the Act of Union 1800.

Hintergrund

Die Personalunion der drei Königreiche unter einem Monarchen entstand als eine relativ neue Entwicklung als Begriff des 17. Jahrhunderts. Seit 1541 hatten englische Monarchen auch ihre irischen Gebiete als Königreich, dass sie zusammen mit einem eigenen Iirischen Parlament regierten, während Wales unter Heinrich VIII. stärker ins Königreich England integriert wurden. Schottland, dass dritte eigene Königreich, wurde von dem Haus Stuart regiert und die drei Königreiche wurden unter dem selben Monarchen vereinigt, als König Jakob VI. Elisabeth I. 1603 auf den englischen Thron folgte. Das Regieren über diese drei mannigafaltigen Königreiche stellte sich für Jakob und seinen Nachfolger Karl I. als schwierig heraus, besonders als sie versuchten den drei Königreichen religiöse Einheit aufzuerlegen.

Verschiedene religiöse Bedingungen prägten die jeweiligen Länder. Mit der Englischen Reformation, machte König Heinrich VIII. sich selbst zum Oberhaupt der protestantischen Church of England und ächtete den Katholizismus in England und Wales. In dem Verlauf des 16. Jahrhunderts wurde der Protestantismus eng verbunden mit der nationalen Identität in England: Das englische Volk sah den Katholizismus, besonders in Verkörperung Spanien und Frankreichs generell als nationalen Feind an. Jedoch blieb der Katholizismus die Religion der meisten Iren und stellte für einige von ihnen ein Symbol des nationalen Widerstandes gegen die Tudorbesetzung Irlands inm 16. Jahrhundert da. Im Königreich Schottland war diethe Reformation eine von John Knox geführte Volksbewegung. The Scottish Parliament legislated for a National Presbyterian church, the presbyterian Church of Scotland or "Kirk", and the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate in favour of her son James VI of Scotland. He grew up under a regency disputed between Catholic and Protestant factions, then took power and aspired to be a "universal King" favouring the English Episcopalian system of bishops appointed by the king. In 1584, he introduced bishops, but met vigorous opposition and had to concede that the General Assembly running the church should continue to do so. Calvinists reacted against the formal liturgy of the Book of Common Order moving increasingly to extempore prayer, though this was opposed by an Episcopalian faction.

Religiöse Konfrontation in Schottland

Jakob VI. blieb Protestant, wobei er darauf achtete seine Hoffnungen auf den englischen Thron zu wahren. 1603 wurde er rechtmäßig Jakob I. von England und zog nach London. Seine diplomatischen und politischen Fähigkeiten konzentrierten sich nun vollständig auf den Umgang mit dem englischen Hof und Parlament, zur gleichen Zeit regierte er Schottland, indem er an das Privy Council of Scotland schrieb und das Parliament of Scotland durch die Lords of the Articles. Er stoppte die schottische Generalversammlung durch ein Treffen, darauf verstärkte er die Anzahl schottischer Bischöfe und 1618 hielt er eine Generalversammlung ab und drückte die Five Articles episkopaler Praktiken durch, die weitestgehend boykottiert wurden. 1625 folgte ihm sein minderbefähigter und zurückhaltender Sohn, Karl I., der 1633 St Giles Cathedral Edinburgh mit vollem anglikanischem Ritus gekrönt wurde, auf den Thron. In Opposition zu seinen Versuchen den anglikanischen Ritus zu erzwingen erreichte einen Aufschwung, als Karl das Book of Common Prayer einzuführen versuchte. Karls Konfrontation mit den Schotten kam 1939 zum Höhepunkt, als Karl beim Versuch Schottland mit militärischen Mitteln zu bezwingen scheiterte.

England

Karl teilte den Glauben seines Vaters an das Gottesgnadentum, und aufgrund seine Beteuerung von diesem führte zu einem ernsten Bruch zwischen der Krone und dem englischen Parlament. Während die Church of England dominant blieb, wurde eine machtvolle puritanische Minderheit von einem Drittel der Mitglieder Parlaments, die viel mit den presbyterianischen Schotten gemein hatten, vertreten.

Die Konflikte des englischen Parlaments mit dem König über Besteuerung, Militärausgaben und die Rolle des Parlaments in der Regierung, wiederholten sich. Während Jakob I. die gleichen Auffassungen wie sein Sohn hatte, While James I had held the same opinions as his son with regard to royal prerogatives, he had enough charisma to persuade the Parliament to accept his policies. Charles did not have this skill in human management and so, when faced with a crisis in 1639–42, he failed to prevent his Kingdoms from sliding into civil war. When Charles approached the Parliament to pay for a campaign against the Scots, they refused, declared themselves to be permanently in session and put forward a long list of civil and religious grievances that Charles would have to remedy before they approved any new legislation.

Irland

Mittlerwiele begannen auch im Königreich Irland (als solches 1541 proklamiert, abererst 1603 vollständig von der Krone erobert), die Spannungen zu eskalieren. Karl I. dortiger Lord Deputy, Thomas Wentworth, hatte die einheimischen Irischen Katholiken verärgert, durch wiederholte Iniatiativen ihr Land zu konfiszieren und es den englischen Kolonisten zuzuschlagen. Er hatte auch die Katholiken verärgert, durch das Auferlegen neuer Steuern und He had also angered Roman Catholics by enforcing new taxes but denying them full rights as subjects. This situation became explosive in 1639 when Wentworth offered the Irish Catholics the reforms they had desired in return for them raising and paying for an Irish army to put down the Scottish rebellion. Although plans called for an army with Protestant officers, the idea of an Irish Catholic army enforcing what many saw as tyrannical government horrified both the Scottish and the English Parliaments, who in response threatened to invade Irland.

Der Krieg bricht aus

Moderne Historiker betonen die Unvermeidlichkeit der Bürgerkrieg, mit Hinweis darauf, dass alle Seiten in einer Situation des gegenseitigen Misstraunes und Paranoia auf Gewalt zurückgriffen. Karls anfängliches Scheitern, den Bischofskrieg zu einem schnellen Ende zu bringen, zeigte auch anderen unzufriedenen Gruppen, dass Gewalt ihren Zwecken förderlich sein könnt.

Alienated by English/Protestant domination and frightened by the rhetoric of the English and Scottish Parliaments, a small group of Irish conspirators launched the Irish Rebellion of 1641, ostensibly in support of the "King's Rights". The rising featured widespread assaults on the Protestant communities in Ireland, sometimes culminating in massacres. Rumours spread in England and Scotland that the killings had the King's sanction and that this foreshadowed their own fate if the Kings' Irish troops landed in Britain. As a result, the English Parliament refused to pay for a royal army to put down the rebellion in Ireland and instead raised their own armed forces. The King did likewise, rallying those Royalists (some of them members of Parliament) who believed that loyalty to the Legitimate King outweighed other important political principles.

The English and Scots armies lovingly embrace each other

The English Civil War broke out in 1642. The Scottish Covenanters, as the Presbyterians called themselves, sided with the English Parliament, joined the war in 1643, and played a major role in the English Parliamentary victory. The King's forces found themselves ground down by the efficiency of Parliament's New Model Army — backed by the financial muscle of the City of London. In 1646, Charles I surrendered. After he failed to compromise with Parliament, the Parliamentary party had him detained and then executed him in 1649. In Ireland, the rebel Irish Catholics formed their own government — Confederate Ireland — with the intention of helping the Royalists in return for religious toleration and political autonomy. Troops from England and Scotland fought in Ireland, and Irish Confederate troops mounted an expedition to Scotland in 1644, sparking the Scottish Civil War. In Scotland, the Royalists had a series of victories in 1644–45, but were crushed with the end of the first English Civil War and the return of the main Covenanter armies to Scotland.

After the end of the Second English Civil War in January 1649 the victorious Parliamentary forces, now commanded by Oliver Cromwell, invaded Ireland and crushed the Royalist-Confederate alliance there in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649. The English Parliament's alliance with the Scottish Covenanters had broken down, and the Scots crowned Charles II as king, sparking renewed hostilities with England. Cromwell embarked on a conquest of Scotland in 1650–51 and on 3 September 1651 defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester after the latter had led a Scottish army south in the hope that a Royalist rising in England would allow him to regain the English throne.

At the end of the wars, the Three Kingdoms emerged as a unitary state called the English Commonwealth, ostensibly a republic, but having many characteristics of a military dictatorship.

Zeitleiste

  • 1637: Karl I. versucht den anglikanischen Ritus der presbyterianischen Church of Scotland, aufzuerlegen, unter Jenny Geddes beginnen Unruhen.
  • 1638: Unterzeichnung des National Covenant in Schottland.
  • 1639: Konflikt zwischen den Covenanters und Royalisten in Schottland, beginnend mit der Einnahme von Aberdeen im Februar durch die Covenanters.
  • 1639: Der Bischofskrieg: Karl bringt seine Truppen nach Schottland, aber entschließt sich zu verhandeln, statt zu verhandeln. Unterzeichnung des Vertrags von Berwick am 18. Juni 1639.
  • 1640: Karl beruft das englische Parlament wieder ein, um neues Geld für seinen Krieg mit Konflikt zu gewinnen. Das Parlament stimmt Karl finanziell zu unterstützen, aber nur unter der Bedingung dasParliament agrees to fund Charles, but only on condition he answer their grievances relating to his 11-year "personal rule" or "tyranny". Charles refuses and dissolves Parliament after a mere 3 weeks, hence the name of the "Short Parliament"
  • 1640: The Second Bishops' War or "Second War of the Covenant" breaks out in August. Responding to Charles' attempt to raise an army against them, an army of Covenanters crosses the Tweed and overruns an English force at the Battle of Newburn (28. August 1640), marching on the city of Newcastle.
  • 1640: The Treaty of Ripon (26 October 1640) leaves Newcastle in the hands of the Scots, who also receive a large tribute from Charles. Charles has no option but to recall Parliament in order to raise the necessary funds. Parliament convenes in November and remains convened, in one form or another, until 1660, thus earning the name of the "Long Parliament".
  • 1641: 23. Oktober, Irish Rebellion breaks out in Ulster, with violence marked by the massacre of Protestants by Catholics. The rebels win a battle against Crown forces at Julianstown Bridge near Drogheda in December.[6]
  • 1641: 1. Dezember, Parliament issues the Grand Remonstrance to Charles, which someVorlage:Who see as a direct challenge to the King's authority. Charles refuses to address the grievances it raises.
  • 1642: The Covenanters send a Protestant Scots army to Ulster to defend the Protestant plantations
„Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles“ von Anthony van Dyck
  • 1642: Charles enters the House of Commons to arrest five "traitors". The news of his "assault" on Parliament causes uproar in London. Charles leaves the city in fear for his life. In his absence Parliament passes the Militia Bill which, in effect, seizes control of the London arsenal and places the trainbands and militia under its authority. Charles retaliates by appointing individuals to take control of other regional militias in the King's name. From this moment both sides actively raise troops and gather munitions.
  • 1642–1646: The First English Civil War
  • 1642: An alliance of Irish Catholics; Gaelic Irish and the Old English forms the Catholic Confederation, based at Kilkenny, meeting first in March 1642.
  • 1642: 23. Oktober: the Battle of Edgehill, the inconclusive first battle in the English Civil War
  • 1643: Ceasefire between the English Royalists and Irish Confederates declared
  • 1643: 25. September: an alliance between the English Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters — the Solemn League and Covenant — declared. Scottish troops march into England to support the English Parliamentarians
  • 1644: 2. Juli: the Battle of Marston Moor, a major defeat of the royalists by the Parliamentarians and Scots
  • 1644: Scottish Civil War started by the Scottish Royalist Montrose, with the aid of Irish Confederate troops under Alasdair MacColla, including the Scots-Irish forces serving under Manus O'Cahan
  • 1645: the English Parliament forms the New Model Army
  • 1645: 14 June: the Battle of Naseby: the New Model Army crushes the Royalist army, effectively ending the First English Civil War
  • 1645: 15 August, Montrose wins Royalist control of Scotland at the Battle of Kilsyth; subsequently Covenanter armies returned from England defeat him at the Battle of Philiphaugh (13. September 1645)
  • 1646: May: Charles I surrenders to Scots Covenanters, who hand him over to the English Parliament
  • 1646: 5 June: in the battle of Benburb, an Irish Confederate army under Owen Roe O'Neill defeats the Scottish Covenanter army in Ulster
  • 1647: in the Battle of Dungans Hill (August) and the Battle of Knocknanauss (November) English Parliamentarian forces smash the Irish Confederate armies of Leinster and Munster respectively
  • 1648–1649: The Second English Civil War
  • 1648–1649: Ormonde Peace — formal alliance between Irish Confederates and English Royalists declared
  • 1648: the Battle of Preston (August): Scottish Covenanter (Engagers faction) army invades England to restore Charles I; defeated by the Parliamentarians
  • 1649: 30. Januar: Execution of Charles I by the English Parliament
  • 1649: 2. August: in the battle of Rathmines, Parliamentarians rout an Irish-Royalist force outside Dublin; 15 August, New Model Army lands in Ireland — begins Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.
  • 1649: 11 September: Cromwell takes Drogheda; followed by Wexford on 11 October
  • 1650: Montrose tries to launch a Royalist uprising in Scotland; the Covenanters defeat, arrest and execute him
  • 1650: Charles II takes the oath in support of the Solemn League and Covenant and repudiates his alliance with the Irish Confederates. (The Scots subsequently crown him at Scone on New Year's Day, 1651.)
  • 1650: Third English Civil War breaks out between the Scots and the English Parliament. Cromwell invades Scotland and smashes the Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar (3 September 1650)
  • 1651: Henry Ireton besieges Limerick
  • 1651: June: Capture of the Isles of Scilly by Admiral Robert Blake
  • 1651: 3. September: the defeat of Charles II and the Scots at Worcester ends the Third Civil War. Charles II goes into exile in France
  • 1652: Kapitulation der letzten irischen Festung in Galway — Der Guerrilla-Krieg setzt sich fort.
  • 1653: Surrender of the last organised Irish troops in Cavan.
  • 1654: The end of the Royalist rising of 1651 to 1654 in Scotland
  • 1655: March: Penruddock uprising in southwest England
  • 1658: 3. September: Oliver Cromwell dies. Succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard.
  • 1659: August: Booth's Uprising along Welsh border
  • 1660: 25. Mai: Charles II lands at Dover. The Restoration of England, Scotland, Ireland, and the English colonies commences.
  • 1661: 1–4 Januar: Venners Aufstand in London.

Nachwirkungen

Während die Kriege der drei Königreiche die Voraussetzungen für die vielen Veränderungen setzten, die die modernen Britischen Inseln prägen würden,bewirkten sie auf kurze Sicht wenig. Der Commonwealth of England erreichte einen relativ unstabilen, zwischen einer Monarchie und einer Republik. In practice, Oliver Cromwell exercised political power because of his control over the Parliament's military forces, but his legal position remained unclear, even when he became Lord Protector. None of the several proposed constitutions ever came into effect. Thus the Commonwealth and the Protectorate established by the victorious Parliamentarians left little behind it in the way of new forms of government.

Two important legacies remain from this period:

  1. after the execution of King Charles I for high treason, no future British monarch could expect that his subjects would tolerate perceived despotism;
  2. the excesses of New Model Army, particularly that of the Rule of the Major-Generals, left an abiding mistrust of military rule in England.

English Protestants experienced religious freedom during the Interregnum, but not English Roman Catholics. The new authorities abolished the Church of England and the House of Lords. Cromwell dismissed the Rump Parliament and failed to create an acceptable alternative. Nor did Cromwell and his supporters move in the direction of a popular democracy, as the more radical fringes of the Parliamentarians (such as the Levellers) wanted.

The New Model Army occupied Ireland and Scotland during the Interregnum. In Ireland, the new government confiscated almost all lands belonging to Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion of 1641; harsh Penal Laws also restricted this community. Thousands of Parliamentarian soldiers settled in Ireland on confiscated lands. The Commonwealth abolished the Parliaments of Ireland and Scotland. In theory, these countries had representation in the English Parliament, but since this body never received real powers, such representation remained ineffective. When Cromwell died in 1658 the Commonwealth fell apart without major violence, and Charles II returned as King of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1660.

Under the English Restoration, the political system returned to the constitutional position of before the wars. The new régime executed or imprisoned for life those responsible for the regicide of Charles I. Neo-Royalists dug up Cromwell's corpse and gave it a posthumous execution. Religious and political radicals held responsible for the wars suffered harsh repression. Scotland and Ireland regained their Parliaments, some Irish retrieved confiscated lands and the New Model Army disbanded. However, the issues that had caused the wars — religion, the power of Parliament and the relationship between the three kingdoms — remained unresolved, only postponed to re-emerge as matters fought over again in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Only after this point did the features of modern Britain seen in the Civil Wars emerge permanently: a Protestant constitutional monarchy with England dominant and a strong standing army.

Einzelnachweise und Fußnoten

  1. ↑ Ian Gentles, citing John Morrill's reminder, states, „there is no stable, agreed title for the events.... They have been variously labeled the Great Rebellion, the Puritan Revolution, the English Civil War, the English Revolution, and most recently, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.“ See Ian Gentles, The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1652, Modern Wars in Perspective, ed. H. M. Scott and B. W. Collins (Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman, 2007), 3.
  2. ↑ Joad Raymond (2005). The invention of the newspaper: English newsbooks, 1641–1649, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-928234-X, 9780199282340. S. 281
  3. ↑ Vorlage:Citation.
  4. ↑ Vorlage:Citation. An 88 page pamphlet.
  5. ↑ Vorlage:Citation, alternatively Vorlage:Citation.
  6. ↑ November 1641 according to http://www.julianstown.com/images/plaque_bridge.jpg, retrieved 2 March 2008

Weiterführende Literatur

Britische Inseln

  • Martyn Bennett: The Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland, 1638–1651. Blackwell, Oxford 1997, ISBN 0-631-19154-2.
  • Martyn Bennett: The Civil Wars Experienced: Britain and Ireland, 1638–1661. Routledge, Oxford 2000, ISBN 0-415-15901-6.
  • Charles Carlton: Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–1651. Routledge, London 1992, ISBN 0-415-03282-2.
  • John Kenyon, and Jane Ohlmeyer (eds.): The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1638–1660. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1998, ISBN 0-19-866222-X.
  • Trevor Royle: The Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1660. Little, Brown, London 2004, ISBN 0-316-86125-1.
  • Conrad Russell: The Fall of the British Monarchies, 1637–1642. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1991, ISBN 0-19-822754-X.
  • David Stevenson: Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates: Scottish-Irish Relations in the Mid-Seventeenth Century. Ulster Historical Foundation, Belfast 1981, ISBN 0-901905-24-0.
  • John R. (ed.) Young: Celtic Dimensions of the British Civil Wars. John Donald, Edinburgh 1997, ISBN 0-85976-452-4.

England

Irland

  • Pádraig Lenihan: Confederate Catholics at War, 1641–1649. Cork University Press, Cork 2000, ISBN 1-85918-244-5.
  • Tadhg Ó hAnnracháin: Catholic Reformation in Ireland: The Mission of Rinuccini, 1645–1649. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002, ISBN 0-19-820891-X.
  • Micheál Ó Siochrú: Confederate Ireland, 1642–1649: A Constitutional and Political Analysis. Four Courts Press, Dublin 1999, ISBN 1-85182-400-6.
  • Micheál (ed.) Ó Siochrú: Kingdoms in Crisis: Ireland in the 1640s. Four Courts Press, Dublin 2001, ISBN 1-85182-535-5.
  • M. Perceval-Maxwell: The Outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641. Gill & Macmillan, Dublin 1994, ISBN 0-7171-2173-9.
  • James Scott Wheeler: Cromwell in Ireland. Gill & Macmillan, Dublin 1999, ISBN 0-7171-2884-9.

Schottland

  • David Stevenson: The Scottish Revolution, 1637–1644: The Triumph of the Covenanters. David & Charles, Newton Abbot 1973, ISBN 0-7153-6302-6.
  • David Stevenson: Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century. John Donald, Edinburgh 1980, ISBN 0-85976-055-3.

Andere

{{SORTIERUNG:Kriege der drei Königreiche}}
[[Category:Wars of the Three Kingdoms| ]]

[[da:Krigen i de tre kongeriger]]
[[en:Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]
[[es:Guerras de los Tres Reinos]]
[[fr:Guerres des Trois Royaumes]]
[[it:Guerre dei tre regni]]
[[ja:清教徒革命]]
[[sv:Trekungakrigen]]
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