Alalach

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Alalach (now Tell Açana ) was a Bronze Age city ​​in Hatay in southern Turkey, the remains of which are near the modern city of Antakya . The city is now close to the Asi Nehri (the ancient Orontes). Tell Açana is an important archaeological site. The cuneiform texts found here are the most important source for the empire of Jamchad , under whose rule the city began around 1700 BC. Chr. Stood. Later Alalach was in the dominion of Mittani or the Hittites . The texts from Alalach are especially important for the history of the Middle Kingdom. Shortly after 1200 BC The city was destroyed and has not been rebuilt since then.

Syria in the 2nd millennium BC Chr.

location

Alalach is located in the Amuq plain, which is an Alluvialland bordered by hills in the south, east and west and extending about 45 km in both directions. The city has long been the regional center of this fertile area. Here the trade routes from Aleppo , Mesopotamia and from Palestine to Anatolia and the Mediterranean crossed. The city was connected to the sea via the Orontes. Trade with Cyprus is documented in writing and archaeologically. Ivory was a source of wealth . The area around Alalach was known for its elephant herds in the Bronze Age .

history

Statue of Idrimi, face

The political history of the city is difficult to reconstruct. But Alalach was from 3400 BC BC, a regional center. Until about 1700 BC With a few exceptions, there are no texts from the city, although the exceptions are limited to imported objects. The city had had a palace since at least the middle of the third millennium BC, which suggests that a king ruled here. Perhaps around 2300 the city was conquered and destroyed by Sargon of Akkad . L. Woolley attributes the end of Shift XII to this event. Naram-Sin , the last important ruler of Akkad , reports in an inscription that he was at war on the Upper Sea . Whether he also attacked Alalach remains unknown. From around 1750 the city was part of the Jamchad empire, which ruled large areas in what is now Syria, but also belonged to Mari at times (in local texts the city is called Alachtum ). A sideline of the rulers of Jamchad now ruled in Alalach. Numerous texts from the city originate from this period. They are an important source, especially for the Jamchad Empire, as its archives have not yet been found in Aleppo. The first local prince was Jarim-Lim , who was a son of Hammurabi I and younger brother of Abban of Jamchad . Jarim-Lim may have been the builder of the Layer VII palace. Shortly after 1625 BC. Chr. The city was from the Hittite king Hattusili I. destroyed. The following 150 years, until around 1500 BC. BC, are only sparsely documented. Written sources are almost entirely missing. From Egyptian sources it is learned that King Thutmose I conquered the area. However, the Egyptians do not appear in the texts of Alalach and so it should have been only an episode, possibly connected with tribute payments.

Around 1500 BC BC, with layer IV, a new ruling dynasty can be documented. During this time the city was probably in vassal relationship with the Middle Kingdom . There are now over 300 texts and the statue of Idrimi , son of Ili-ilimma I, on which the biography of this ruler is located. Idrimi came from Aleppo , fled this city because of events that he does not explicitly name. He traveled through the Levant and managed to gather followers around himself and was installed as ruler by Paratarna I , King Mittanis, in Alalach, where he ruled for over 30 years. Idrimi also reports on the construction of a palace. The successor of Idrimi was Niqmepa. Many texts from his reign have survived. Around this time, the Egyptians under Thutmose III. Campaigns to Northern Syria again, probably to push back Mittani's influence. But apparently there were no permanent conquests and Alalach remained within the sphere of influence of the Mittani Empire. Finally, Ili-ilimma II is known from an adoption document. The last vassal Mittanis was probably Itur-Addu, the contemporary of Suppiluliuma I. is occupied.

In the second half of the 14th century BC Chr. Šuppiluliuma I, king of the Hittites, succeeded in conquering the Mittani Empire. Alalach now became a vassal of the Hittites. A citadel was built under their rule. Objects with Hittite hieroglyphs are now appearing in the city. On the whole, however, life seems to have continued without major interruptions and the city enjoyed great prosperity, which can be seen above all in numerous imported goods such as Mycenaean ceramics . Shortly after 1200 BC The city was completely destroyed in the course of the sea migration. There were attempts to rebuild it, but later it was decided to move to another location. Alalach was never settled again.

Texts

AlT 13: Legal document of the Sauštatar of Mittani regarding the settlement of a dispute between King Niqmepa and Irip-hazi. The seal was created around 2200 BC. BC and was cut for Šuttarna I , another Mittani ruler

Numerous cuneiform texts on clay tablets come from layers VII and IV in particular . They are written in Akkadian , but Hurrian influence can be seen in the language. The texts, which were mostly found in the two respective palace buildings, represent an important source of the history and economy of the Middle and Late Bronze Age Syria. From Layer VII come about 175 panels, from Layer IV 300. The texts are mostly of an economic nature . There are lists of persons, inventory lists, lists of rations and land tenure deeds. Some of the texts also represent treaties, with the king of Alalach serving as the supreme magistrate. A document from Layer IV is of particular interest. It shows that Ili-ilimma II adopted a man as his father. He assumes all services as a son, in life and in death, and is allowed to inherit this man in return.

The texts from Layer IV also make it possible to reconstruct the local social structure. Accordingly, there was a small upper class that was close to the king and his family. The horse and the chariot played a special role for them. This layer was also characterized by land ownership. Among them there was a kind of middle class made up of free or released people. It consisted of artisans and traders and the freeborns, who were spear-bearers and archers in the event of war, but could also be used for forced labor in times of peace. Among them was the lower class, which consisted of peasants and homeless people.

The texts also show the slow advance of the Hurrians. Hurrian names appear sporadically in Layer VII. In Layer IV, however, they are widespread.

Digs

First excavations for the British Museum were carried out by Sir Leonard Woolley in 1935-1939 and 1946-1949. Woolley mainly investigated areas in the north of the city, where most of the major buildings were located. He was able to distinguish 17 layers, some of which reflect periods of different lengths in the city's history. So far, larger areas have only been excavated from layers VII to I. The layers below are often only known through small sections. Only in the case of the City Temple did Woolley's work reach the lowest strata. In the inscription of Idrimi, a city ​​goddess is spoken of without a name being mentioned. The temple must have been dedicated to her.

The finds from the excavation ended up in the Archaeological Museum of Antakya , the British Museum and, to a lesser extent, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford . The excavation results were presented in a monograph in 1955. Above all, the dating of the upper layers was discussed in detail in the following period, with Woolley in particular starting layer VII too early. Since 2000, further excavations have been carried out by the University of Chicago .

The town

The city hill is about 750 m long and 300 m wide with the axis pointing north-west. In the north of the city were the palaces, a fortress (also called citadel ) and the city temple, which was in the same place for over 2000 years. This urban area is higher than the other parts. The residential development was to the south of it. Only parts of it have been excavated. Alalach had a city wall, but it has only been examined sporadically. In layers II and I there was even an inner and outer wall. A Layer VII city gate has been excavated. The city's cemeteries are unknown, but there are numerous house burials, which are limited to poorer houses. Wealthy citizens are likely to have been buried outside the city walls. This only changes in Layer I. Now burials can also be found in the large residential buildings.

Layer XVII

The lowest stratum of the city, designated XVII, was only reached at one point during the Woolley excavations. It dates from around 3400-3300 BC. Because of the groundwater, building structures could hardly be recorded. At least there was a kind of block that reached deep into the earth and perhaps had a cultic meaning. The main finds are numerous sherds. The found pottery is produced on a potter's wheel and partially painted.

Layer XVI and Layer XV

Layer XVI dates to around 3200 BC. The ceramics of this time are decorated with geometrical, but also zoomorphic motifs. From this time the remains of a monumental temple could be excavated. Only the courtyard of the temple, which was about 20 × 7 m in size, was cut into during the excavations. In the middle of the courtyard was a kind of altar, which represented the upper part of the block from layer XVII. On the north side of the courtyard was another massive block. There must have been numerous rooms around the courtyard, but they could not be excavated. The courtyard was paved with bricks. The walls were plastered white.

Small parts of the residential town could also be excavated. An Egyptian make-up palette was found here. The next layer XV makes a poor impression. Apparently there are no new buildings, old houses have only been repaired over and over again.

Layer XIV and XIII

Layer XIV can be dated to the Jemdet Nasr period based on the ceramic . The temple and the residential buildings of the city are reoriented. The temple stood on a platform and consisted of a forecourt, a vestibule and the Holy of Holies. There were benches on the walls in the vestibule. In the Holy of Holies, the northern block of the previous temple protruded from the floor and testifies to a continuity. This block must have enjoyed a special, holy veneration, there is no other explanation for the fact that it was not simply leveled. The temple was renovated once during this shift. The walls were reinforced. The temple was used in almost unchanged form in layer XIII.

Parts of the residential town of Layer XIII were cut into during the excavations. The houses are more solid than in previous periods. There were numerous painted ceramics. Layer XIII can only be clearly distinguished from layer XIV in the residential area. New residential buildings were built, which indicates a restructuring of the city. An important house with a large interior comes from this layer. A cylinder seal was found that is typical of the Sumerian early dynastic period and provides a clue for dating.

Layer XII

The excavated section of the palace

Layer XII is only known from limited sections of the excavation field. The layer probably dates to the middle of the third millennium BC. The phase seems to have lasted a relatively long time. In any case, another three layers could be distinguished in the residential area. A monumental palace was built in the excavation section on which residential buildings were previously located, but little can be said about its architecture. There was a row of four mud-brick pillars and a meter-thick wall that perhaps delimited a courtyard. There were also other small rooms. The palace has been renovated at least twice. The temple of this layer consisted of three parts. The front part was entered in the east through an entrance that led into a corridor. From there you got into an anteroom with a fireplace and a side room. This was followed by two more rooms with particularly strong walls, which probably carried another floor. The temple was also renewed several times.

Layer XI

Layer XI is somewhat at the same time as the Sumerian Akkad period, as an imprint of a seal from this epoch was found in it. Alalach was probably part of the Akkadian Empire at this time. A new palace and a new temple were built. Not much of the temple has survived, however, as it stood on a massive platform. The platform was partially excavated, all superstructures had disappeared. Only a small section of the palace could be excavated. Accordingly, it was a building with extremely thick mud brick walls. Some of the rooms, six of which were cut, were paved with fired bricks.

Layers X to VIII

These three layers are partially severely disturbed. In Layer X, which dates to the end of the third millennium BC, the palace was renewed. Only single, vaulted rooms could be found. Only the platform was found of the temple of that time. All superstructures have passed a long time. The same picture emerges for Layer IX, which dates from around 2000 BC. Is to be dated. In Layer VIII, which dates back to the first half of the second millennium BC, BC, the temple was rebuilt, of which some monumental walls were found, without it being possible to get an exact picture of this building. What has been preserved of the palace shows that it was designed in a similar way to the previous buildings.

Layer VII: vassal of Jamchad

The Temple and Palace of Layer VII, partially reconstructed; gray: basalt wall cladding
Minoan style frescoes
Ceramic from layer VII

This layer dates back to the time of Abban von Jamchad (approx. 1750 BC). It ends with layers of destruction that may have been caused by a campaign by Hattušili I. It is the first layer from which larger buildings have been preserved. The palace, the temple and a city gate were excavated. Numerous cuneiform texts were found in the palace and in the temple, proving that Alalach was a vassal of Jamchad at that time. The texts found here even form the most important source for this realm, about which little is otherwise known.

The palace stood in the north-east of the city, directly on the city wall, with parts of the palace walls also forming the city wall. The palace was an elongated building (approx. 20 × 60 m) with two courtyards around which other rooms were grouped. Several alterations were found. The northern part was probably used for representative purposes, the southern part was the business part. In the northern part of the building in particular, the lower part of numerous walls has been clad with basalt slabs. The private rooms of the ruler and his family were probably on the upper floor. Many rooms were once decorated with wall paintings. A room had a basement. This basement could be entered via a staircase and was clad with large stone slabs.

At least two rooms on the upper floor were decorated with frescoes, which are stylistically very similar to Minoan wall paintings. It is precisely these frescoes that have recently aroused the interest of research. The technique of frescoes is also typically Minoan, while the Secco technique predominated in the Middle East at that time . Woolley dated them before the frescoes in Knossos and suggested that Syria influenced the Minoan culture. However, this was due to the palace being dated too early. Recent studies have shown that the palace and the frescoes are a good 150 years younger and therefore at least at the same time as the Minoan frescoes. It can be assumed that they were executed by wandering artists who also made the Minoan frescoes in Qatna , Tel Kabri and Auaris . The frescoes are poorly preserved. Two rooms were painted, which can be deduced from two background colors. The first room was white and had purple and yellow-brown ribbons on the top. The second room had a red background and perhaps showed figurative scenes. There are remains of a tree, a bull's horn and maybe a griffin. The palace burned down before the fall of Layer VII. The site remained undeveloped for a long time. Residential buildings were only built here from Layer IV onwards, but they are not well preserved.

The temple stood next to the palace and was a building with a large central hall and a narrow anteroom. It had massive walls. The remains of various sculptures were found in the temple. One head seems to show Egyptian influence. Another head is a local work. It is the so-called head of Jarimlin , who probably represents a palace servant . It is one of the most important works of art in this region around 1600 BC. A large square in front of the temple also adjoined the palace. From this layer on, ceramics from Cyprus can be found.

Layer VI

Goddess, glass, layer VI

This layer dates to the end of the seventeenth century BC. The buildings of this layer are not well preserved. Only one wall of the temple remained. There were modest remains of a citadel. The ceramics of this phase are richly decorated. It is characterized by red and black patterns and animals on a beige background. There are also imported ceramics from Cyprus . Glazed vases with relief images of women also come from this layer. There was also an example of a glass vessel modeled over a core. It is one of the oldest examples of this technique, but it must be expected that the glass comes from a later time.

Layer V

The transition from layer VI to layer V seems to have taken place without any particular incisions. There is no horizon of destruction, but simply numerous new buildings have been built. Layers VI and V are culturally almost identical. The city's citadel was renewed during this period. The city's temple was not well preserved. It consisted of a courtyard with rooms around it. Parts of the residential city could be uncovered. A city gate was also excavated. Here there were two extremely primitive figures made of basalt . Fragments of an Egyptian faience vase , which shows an official and an inscription, come from this layer . The official's name has been broken off; it is probably an import item.

Layer IV: mid-rule

Vessel, Nuzi goods

The Tier IV city is best preserved. Cuneiform tablets from the city tell of a king Niqmepa, who may also be regarded as the builder of the palace of this layer. Other important buildings of this period are the temple and the citadel.

The palace erected a little south of the palace building by Layer VII was about 20 × 40 m in size. A courtyard led to a monumental entrance decorated with two columns. From there into a kind of anteroom and then into another vestibule, which on the one hand led to a staircase and on the other hand also to the inner courtyard of the palace. Most of the rooms were arranged around this. In the east there was an extension that was probably built a little later. Here, too, the rooms are grouped around an inner courtyard. The thickness of the walls, but also two stairwells, prove that the palace had at least two floors.

To the west of the royal palace were the remains of the so-called citadel, which is older than the palace and was partially overbuilt by it. The building was not well preserved and apparently consisted of two courtyards around which the individual rooms were grouped.

The temple of this layer is not well preserved. It was square and showed two elongated vestibules and the Holy of Holies, which had a wide niche in the back wall.

The excavated residential buildings were once two stories high and made of adobe bricks. The individual rooms were grouped around a courtyard. One house had a particularly wide entrance, which in turn was decorated with polished basalt. One of the rooms in this house had wall paintings.

The houses of poorer sections of the population were mostly poorly preserved, so that it was seldom possible to reconstruct a floor plan. Notable among the latter are numerous burials under the floors that were not found in the homes of the wealthy. The dead were laid on their side with their hands in front of their faces. As a rule, simple jewelry was found. From this layer on you can find the Nuzi goods . It is a ceramic style, the vessels of which are slim and have a small foot. The painting is flat and dark. Geometric patterns are painted white on this dark ground.

Examples of finds from Layer IV

  • AlT 15: Legal decision of the Niqmepa regarding Qabia's appointment as mariannu

  • tripod

  • Cosmetic jar, from the palace

  • Mycenaean import vessel

Layer III and Layer II: Hittite rule

Seal with Luwian hieroglyphic inscription, the owner is Paluwa, sovereign and son of the king
Vessel, atchana ware

From Layer III, Alalach was ruled by the Hittites who called the city Mukisch / Mukiš . In the northwest of the city a large complex, which Woolley calls the Citadel , has now been built. The building is more than 80 × 80 m in size, but has been poorly preserved. The limits of the building are not reached on either side. All the rising masonry has disappeared and the foundation walls were found below the level of the door sills, giving a plan with numerous rooms but no doors. It is the largest structure found in the city to date.

The Layer III temple consists of a front courtyard with an altar. The entrance to the actual temple consists of pillars, through which one came into two anterooms and then into the Holy of Holies. The walls of the temple are extremely thick. This and a staircase occupy at least another floor.

In layer II the first bullae were found , which are stamp seals, which in this case bear Hittite hieroglyphs. The great citadel was still in use. The temple in Layer II stood on the site of the old temple, only this time there was not one, but two Holy of Holies, and no stairs to an upper floor are occupied. The temple shows no Hittite influences.

Parts of the residential town were excavated that can be assigned to a socially upper class. Most belong to the courtyard type, the rooms are grouped around an open inner courtyard. Stairs and wall thicknesses show that most of the houses were at least two-story. The excavated residential area was near the city wall, with the houses and city wall separated by a street. A number of rooms have sewer pipes, some of which end outside the city. Burials were found inside the houses, something that had rarely happened before in the residential buildings of the wealthy. The function of individual rooms can usually not be determined. At least there were fireplaces pointing to kitchens and bathing rooms with cement floors. Garbage pits were found everywhere, which were particularly rich in finds.

Atchana goods, which are a special form of Nuzi goods, are typical of Layer II. The painted motifs are now based strongly on Minoan vase painting. There are mainly floral motifs.

Layer I: The End

Plan of the Temple, Layer I
Statue of Idrimi, British Museum

This is the top layer of the city and it's not well preserved in many places. It dates to the 13th century BC. The excavations show that the city continued to flourish. The disappearance of the nuzi and atchana goods is striking. The local pottery is now completely undecorated. Mycenaean pottery is evidence of a flourishing trade, while Cypriot pottery is disappearing. Another innovation is the appearance of cremation burials, which were rarely seen before.

The Layer I temple shows two phases of construction. The old temple was torn down. The new building consisted of a courtyard, an entrance decorated with a column, a wide vestibule and the Holy of Holies, the entrance of which was decorated by two columns and on the back wall of which there were three niches. This temple burned down but was immediately rebuilt. In the second construction phase, the pillars of the entrances were removed and the vestibule was divided by two transverse walls. In front of the temple entrance there was a low, stone platform, which was flanked by two monumental lion sculptures. One of the local platform blocks was a reused relief and shows the Hittite king Tudhalija IV.

Next to the courtyard of the temple there were some rooms of unknown use, in the floor of which there were several pits. One of them contained the famous statue of Idrimi , which may have been hidden here shortly before the city fell. The king, dressed in a Syrian beaded cloak, sits on a throne with the lion at his side.

Alalach was completely destroyed shortly after 1200; mostly the sea ​​peoples are held responsible for it. The city was never rebuilt to its old proportions. Although there are a few later tombs here and there, and there are indications that attempts were made to rebuild the temple and citadel (Layer 0), this was not continued and the site was abandoned forever. The residents founded a new city near Tell Tayinat .

Kings of Alalach

The chronology is based on synchronisms with Egypt and Hatti and is not completely certain.

  • Jarim-Lim , son of Hammurabi I of Jamchad, 18th century BC Chr.
  • Ammi-taqum
  • Ili-ilimma I., ca. 1520-1500
  • Idrimi , son of Ili-ilimma I, contemporary of Paratarna I of Mittani , approx. 1495–1475 BC Chr.
  • Niqmepa, son of Idrimi, approx. 1474–1450
  • Ili-ilimma II, son of Niqmepa, approx. 1450–1425
  • Itur-Addu, around 1350 BC Chr.

literature

  • Celia J. Bergoffen: The Cypriot bronze age pottery from Sir Leonard Woolley's excavations at Alalakh (Tell Atchana) (Contributions to the Chronology of the Mediterranean Volume 5, Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie Volume 21). Publishing house of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, ISBN 3-7001-3245-X , Vienna 2005.
  • Dominique Collon : The Alalakh cylinder seals: a new catalog of the actual seals excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley at Tell Atchana, and from neighboring sites on the Syrian-Turkish border . Oxford 1982.
  • Edward L. Greenstein: Alalakh Texts. In: Eric M. Meyers (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archeology in the Near East . New York / Oxford 1997, pp. 59-61.
  • Marlies Heinz : Tell Atchana / Alalakh: the layers VII-XVII . Butzon & Bercker, Kevelaer 1992, ISBN 3-7666-9711-0 ( Old Orient and Old Testament . Vol. 41).
  • Horst Klengel : Syria 3000 to 300 B. C. Akademie Verlag, Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-05-001820-8 .
  • Mirko Novák : Mittani Empire and the Question of Absolute Chronology: Some Archaeological Considerations . In: Manfred Bietak, Ernst Czerny (Ed.): The Synchronization of the Civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B. C. III. Vienna 2007, pp. 389–401. ISBN 978-3-7001-3527-2 .
  • Sidney Smith : The statue of Idir-mi . British Institute of Archeology at Ankara, London 1949 ( Occasional publications of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara . Vol. 1).
  • Diana L. Stein: Alalakh . In: Eric M. Meyers (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archeology in the Near East. New York / Oxford 1997, pp. 55-59.
  • Donald John Wiseman: The Alalakh tablets. British Institute of Archeology at Ankara, London 1953 ( Occasional publications of the British Institute of Archeology at Ankara . Vol. 2).
  • Leonard Woolley : A forgotten kingdom: being a record of the results obtained from the excavations of two mounds, Atchana and Al Mina, in the Turkish Hatay . Penguin Books, London a. a. 1953. (popular illustration) (German: A forgotten kingdom. The excavation of the two hills Atschana and al-Mina in Hatay, Turkey. FA Brockhaus, Wiesbaden 1954.)
  • Leonard Woolley: Alalakh, An Account of the Excavations at Tell Atchana in the Hatay, 1937-1949 . Society of Antiquaries of London , Oxford 1955 ( Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London . Vol. 18). (the excavation publication)
  • Frank Zeeb: The palace economy in Old Syria according to the late Old Babylonian grain delivery lists from Alalah (Layer VII) . Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 2001, ISBN 3-934628-06-0 ( Old Orient and Old Testament . Vol. 282).

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 17-20.
  2. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . P. 61.
  3. ^ ME Astour: Hittite History and Absolute Chronology of the Bronze Age . 1989, p. 10.
  4. ↑ J. Nougayrol: text accadiens the archives sud (archives international) . Paris 1956, ( Mission de Ras Shamra . Vol. 9) pp. 48-52.
  5. ↑ For the history of the city, see last: Stone: Alalakh . In: Eric M. Meyers (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archeology in the Near East. New York / Oxford 1997, pp. 55-59.
  6. ↑ In summary: Greenstein: Alalakh Texts. In: Eric M. Meyers (Ed.) The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archeology in the Near East . New York / Oxford 1997, pp. 59-61; on society: M. Drower: Syria, c. 1550–1400 BC In: Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 2, 1 . Cambridge 1973, pp. 493-506.
  7. ^ Woolley: Alalakh, An Account of the Excavations . Pp. 33-90.
  8. ^ Woolley: Alalakh, An Account of the Excavations . Pp. 132-172.
  9. ↑ Plan of the hill of ruins .
  10. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 40-41.
  11. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 41-45.
  12. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . P. 46.
  13. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 46-51.
  14. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 52-59.
  15. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 61-63.
  16. ^ WD Niemeier: Minoan Artisans Traveling Overseas: The Alalakh Frescoes and the Painted Plaster Floor at Tel Kabri (Western Galilee) . In: R. Laffineur and L. Basch (eds.): Thalassa, L'Égée préhistorique et la mer . Liège / Austin 1991, ( Aegaeum . Vol. 7) p. 190; online ( Memento from May 24, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 3.3 MB).
  17. ↑ W.-D. and B. Niemeier: Minoan Frescoes in the Eastern Mediterranean . In: EH Cline and D. Harris-Cline (eds.): The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium . Liège / Austin 1998, ( Aegaeum . Vol. 18) p. 78.
  18. ↑ image ( memento from September 11, 2004 in the Internet Archive ).
  19. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 86-95.
  20. ↑ PRS Moorey: Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries . Winona Lake 1999, p. 193.
  21. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 95-104.
  22. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 103-137.
  23. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 138-161.
  24. ↑ Fig .
  25. ↑ Woolley: Forgotten Kingdom . Pp. 162-71.
  26. ↑ See in detail Zeeb: Palastwirtschaft in Old Syria . Pp. 67-124.

Coordinates: 36 ° 14 ′ 24 ″  N , 36 ° 22 ′ 56 ″  E