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For the plant see Cannabis.

Cannabis (also known as marijuana^[1] or ganja^[2] in its herbal form and hashish in its resinous form^[3]) is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (= C. indica Lam.). The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature inflorescences and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material.

The major biologically active chemical compound in cannabis is Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. It has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 5 mg. A related compound, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabidivarin, also known as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas. Humans have been consuming cannabis since prehistory^[4], although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that cannabis is now regularly used by four percent of the world's adult population,^[5] with estimates of up to 20% or greater of the adult population in the United States having tried the drug, and 10–30% or greater using the herb in many European countries.

The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement, almost to the point of legalization, as is the case in the Netherlands. The production of cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries. The laws in the United States vary from state to state, some having decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana although it is still a federal crime.

It has been reported that commercial hashish is often no more potent than high quality seedless marijuana.^[6] However, carefully produced and screened hashish is up to three times as potent as the highest quality herbal varieties.^[7]

Ancient history

Botanists have determined that Cannabis as a drug is native to central Asia, possibly extending southward into the Himalayas.^[8] Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, as indicated by charred Cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.^[4] The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal, and the Hashshashins (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian and Nepali languages).^[9]^[10] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.^[11]

Cannabis was also known to the Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu or the drug for sadness. Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace, are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with Cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500 to 2,800 year old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.^[12]^[13]

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians. It was also used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.^[14]. In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it as a sacrament.^[15] Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the Eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ.^[16] Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry,^[17] the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism,^[18] the Cannabis Assembly^[19] and the Church of cognizance. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion. When the ancient Hindus or Vedic "Dharmas" used this drug they would often pray for increased wisdom.

Medical use

Medical marijuana is a growing treatment for medical use. The American Marijuana Policy Project states that cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. [1] It is claimed that cannabis makes these other treatments more tolerable. The nausea suppression and mild analgesic effects of cannabis also provide a degree of relief for persons suffering from motion sickness, and it can also be used by hyperhidrosis sufferers for temporary relief of excessive sweating. A recent study by scientists in Italy has also shown that cannabidiol (CBD), a chemical found in marijuana, seriously inhibits the growth of cancer cells (including breast cancer) in animals. [2]. Both scientists and doctors agree that controlled doses of marijuana can help with Chemotherapy and Nausea Treatment, Appetite Stimulation, Glaucoma, Analgesia, and Movement Disorders.

Chemotherapy and nausea have other treatments that utilize THC, the main chemical in marijuana, such as oral TITIC. The drug "[has] been effective in treating nausea associated with cancer chemotherapy if patients are pretreated and doses are repeated every 3 to 6 hours for approximately 24 hours." ^[20]

Cannabis has also been proven to treat anorexia according to a report published by the BBC in 2003. ^[21]. Medical marijuana will help with the lack of appetite due to AIDS or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (the failure of the immune system to protect the body adequately from infection, due to the absence or insufficiency of some component process or substance.). Those with severe cancer related anorexia would benefit from using controlled doses of THC ^[22] Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues.

Glaucoma, a condition of increased pressure within the eyeball causing gradual loss of sight, can be treated with medical marijuana to decrease this intraocular pressure. There has been debate for 25 years on the subject. There's some data showing a reduction of IOP in glaucoma patients who smoke marijuana, ^[23], but the effects are short-lived, and the frequency of doses needed to sustain a decreased IOP can cause systemic toxicity. There is also some concern over its use since it can also decrease blood flow to the optic nerve. Marijuana lowers IOP by acting on a cannabinoid receptor on the ciliary body called the CB receptor.^[24] Although marijuana is not a good therapeutic choice for glaucoma patients, it may lead researchers to more effective, safer treatments. In fact, a promising study shows that agents targeted to ocular CB can reduce IOP in glaucoma patients who have failed other therapies.^[25]

Medical marijuana is used for analgesia, or pain relief. “Marijuana is used for analgesia only in the context of a handful of illnesses [e.g., headache, dysentery, menstrual cramps, and depression] that are often cited by marijuana advocates as medical reasons to justify the drug being available as a prescription medication^[26] Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, and bipolar disorder. Studies have found that cannabis can relieve tics in patients suffering from OCD and/or Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with marijuana reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. ^[27]^[28]^[29] Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior was also found. ^[27] A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease. ^[30] THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages. ^[31] Marijuana has been used for centuries to relieve pain, but scientifically controlled studies confirming this use is almost nonexistent.

A recent epidemiological study funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH) concluded that, "the association of these [lung and upper aerodigestive tract] cancers with marijuana, even long-term or heavy use, is not strong and may be below practically detectable limits." ^[32]^[33]

Another use for medical marijuana is movement disorders, although shown to work, does not have enough clinical support to regularly use for this purpose. “In the case of multiple sclerosis, IOM acknowledged that marijuana is frequently reported to reduce the muscle spasticity associated with the disease, but then it noted that these abundant anecdotal reports are not well-supported by clinical data. Evidence from animal studies [suggests that there is] a possible role for cannabinoids in the treatment of certain types of epileptic seizures” ^[34] Medical Use of Marijuana: Policy and Regulatory Issues. The marijuana will numb the nervous system slightly so the body won’t go in to shock. A synthetic version of the major active compound in cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of cannabis administered as a sublingual spray has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. ^[35] Dr. William Notcutt states that the use of MS as the disease to study "had everything to do with politics." ^[36]

Government Debate

There are many claims regarding the use of cannabis in a medical context, both pro and con. [3][4] On April 20, 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an intra-agency advisory warning against medical cannabis, restating the Drug Enforcement Administration's position that marijuana has a very high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use, and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. [5] The FDA also asserted that "there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful".

The official position of several medical organizations including the American Medical Association [6], the National Multiple Sclerosis Society [7], the American Glaucoma Society, the American Academy of Ophthalmology [8] and the American Cancer Society [9] is that they do not support smoking the herbal form of marijuana for medical use. [10][11] On June 6, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision, which supported the Federal Government's position against "medical marijuana". [12] Justices O'Connor, Rehnquist, and Thomas filed dissenting opinions.

Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist, who was fighting thyroid cancer, disagreed with the Supreme Court ruling that allows federal prosecutions of ill medical marijuana users. Rehnquist, 80, joined a dissent written by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor that said the states should be allowed to set their own policies for cannabis use. O'Connor, who has had breast cancer, said that states should decide on their own "the difficult and sensitive question of whether marijuana should be available to relieve severe pain and suffering.” Currently the citizens of 12 states in the United States (upwards of 60 million people) have legalized cannabis for medical use, for treating certain illnesses. Additionally, six states have enacted decriminalization policies toward the drug. Because the federal government does not acknowledge any legitimate medical uses for cannabis, federal enforcement of prohibition continues in these states. United States federal law currently registers cannabis as a Schedule I drug (along with heroin and LSD), and Marinol as a Schedule III drug, despite the fact that they have the same active ingredient. [13] The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but physicians sometimes recommend it informally despite the risk of federal prosecution in the United States.

Smoking

There are a wide variety of methods and apparatus for smoking cannabis. The most popular include the joint, the blunt, the bong, the pipe (more commonly called a "bowl" or "piece"), the shotgun, the chillum, the deffy, the spot and the one-hitter or "bat." Cannabis is sometimes smoked within a small enclosed area (such as a car) to trap the smoke, so that it is inhaled with every breath. This is often referred to as "hotboxing," "fishbowling," "baking," "jeaning," "clam-baking," "green-housing", "the aquarium" (in Belgium), creating a "potmosphere," or (in Australia), a "compression session." One can also smoke marijuana in a steam-filled environment (bathroom, sauna), with the added humidity intended to produce a greater high, called a "Jamaican shower". Also, another popular method is called a "knife hit". To do this, you take two glass "paddles" and heat them either on a stove, or over a propane torch. You remove the paddles from the flame and put the end of one of them on a small bud and lift it up and smash it between the paddles. This causes the cannibus to burn. At this time you would put the paddles just under the bottom of a "horker" (usually made of the top of a plastic bottle cut in half but also they are available in blown glass form) and inhale through the top of the horker. It makes for a really big "hit".

File:Smokingthebowl3.PNG

Smoking cannabis out of a pipe

The classic bong is a tube with a small bowl (at the end of a thinner tube) inserted through the side, near the base. The bong is partially filled with water for the smoke to bubble through. The herb is placed in the bowl and ignited. After filling the tube with smoke, it is "cleared" by removing one's finger from a hole in the side called a "choke" (or "carb" or "shottie" or "rushie"), or by pulling the bowl up and out which is called a slide (or a "pull-carb"). Homemade bongs are sometimes made with plastic soda bottles. Smoking marijuana through a bong concentrates the smoke, and it is often followed by fits of coughing and laughter. Variants include the gravity bong (also known as a bucket bong or "buckey"), which consists of a cone atop a perforated or cut water bottle. This method of cannabis smoking is one of the most efficient, as the presence of a chamber and "carburetor" hole reduce smoke waste. With a bong, one can consume greater amounts of cannabis in one "hit" than with an ordinary pipe. Another similar smoking device is known as a "waterfall bong". This is usually made by poking a hole in the bottom of a plastic water bottle and either sticking a bowl through a hole in the cap, or resting the bowl over the top. The hole in the bottom is covered with a finger, and the bottle filled with water. The bowl is placed on top of the bottle and lit by holding a flame over it and moving the finger covering the hole. As the water drains out, a vacuum is created, pulling smoke into the bottle. When the water has all drained out, the bowl is removed and the smoke is sucked out of the bottle, often very quickly. The effects of this type of bong are usually felt almost immediately, and often very intensely. Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Glass pipes often have a "carburetor" hole, colloquially referred to as a carb, rush, choke, shotgun, or shooter (British use) that is covered for suction and then released to draw a mixture of smoke and air into the lungs. Some users prefer vertically held pipes (chillums), or improvised pipes (e.g., "tinnies" or "foilies") made from aluminium foil, small plumbing fittings, soda cans, crisp fruits or vegetables, or the cardboard tubes from bathroom-tissue or aluminium foil rolls.

A "one-hitter" is a device that enables a small amount of cannabis to be burned and inhaled in a single breath. The cannabis is loaded into one end of a small screenless tube (usually brass), and the entire amount is smoked at once. This is repeated for each hit. This method is useful for carefully titrating the desired dose. One-hitters are often disguised to fool people into believing that one is smoking an authentic cigarette. This deception is more effective (but less healthy) if the cannabis is mixed with a little tobacco. The "apple Bowl" is yet another way of smoking cannabis. An apple is poked from the top and side creating a tube. Marijuana is then placed in the top opening and lit. The user then inhales the smoke from the other opening.

Spotting is a form of smoking Marijuana usually used when there is only a small quantity available. Small "spots" of the herb are made and metal knives are heated either by gas flame or stove top element. When the knives are red hot, they are used to sandwich the "spot", burning it and releasing smoke. The smoke is inhaled via a "spottle", usually a liquor bottle with no base. This method of smoking is thought to have orginated in New Zealand, and is generally regarded as a "mint hit".

Marijuana has many psysical and psychological effects. Physical effects may include a dry mouth, dry and bloodshot eyes, puffy eyelids, and increased heart rate. Psychological effects include relaxation, euphoria, altered time perception, and alteration of visual, auditory, and olfactory senses. Marijuana does not seem to cause any major chronic effects. Short-term side effects of Marijuana use include short-term memory loss, anxiety, and irritation.

Immediate effects of consumption

The nature and intensity of the immediate (as opposed to long-term) effects of cannabis consumption vary depending on such factors as dose, potency, cannabinoid (and possibly terpenoid) composition, method of consumption, length of time since last usage, the user's mental and physical state, and their surroundings. These last two factors are sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis material in different frames of mind (set) or in different locations (setting) can alter the effects of the drug, or one's perception of the effects. What the user does while under the influence of cannabis can also alter the effects. If the user is inactive they may feel relaxed and sleepy, whereas if the user engages in physical or mental activity they may feel energized. The effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that sativa drug varieties tend to produce greater cognitive or perceptual effects than indica varieties, which tend to produce more physical effects. ^{[citation needed]}

The high

Cannabis intoxication is the state of being intoxicated to a degree that mental and physical facilities are noticeably altered due to the consumption of cannabis. Each user experiences a different high, and the nature of it may vary upon factors such as potency, dose, chemical composition, method of consumption and set and setting.

Highs vary from:

A feeling of euphoria
Intense relaxation
Most experience pleasure, but one out of five users experience a great deal of anxiety.^[37]
Decrease in nausea (used medicinally for treatment of nausea)
Laughter, sometimes uncontrollable
Sensory enhancement (colours, taste, sensation)
Increased appreciation of music
Playful thought process
Closed-eye visuals
Things may seem dimmer

Side effects include:

Forgetfulness
Laziness
Distorted perception
Trouble with concentration (some users may experience enhanced concentration)
Paranoia
Increased heart rate (Tachycardia)
Dry mouth and throat^[38]
Increased appetite^[37]
Sensory confusion (random bad tastes, smells, sensations)
Auditory hallucinations

"Munchies"

The "Munchies" is a term that is often used to describe the increased appetite that comes from using Cannabis. Research performed by the National Institutes of Health claimed that marijuana increases food enjoyment and the number of times a person eats each day. Recently, scientists have claimed to be able to explain what causes the increase in appetite, concluding that "endocannabinoids in the hypothalamus activate cannabinoid receptors that are responsible for maintaining food intake."^[39]. Additionally, studies have suggested that consumption of chocolate results in a dopamine-serotonin release in the brain that is magnified greatly during the high.^{[citation needed]}

Toxicity

According to the Merck Index,^[40] the LD50 (dosage lethal to 50% of rats tested) of Δ⁹-THC by inhalation is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is the equivalent of a man weighing 75 kg (165 lb) inhaling the THC found in 21 grams of extremely high-potency (15% THC) marijuana all in one sitting, assuming no THC is lost through smoke loss or absorption by the lungs. For oral consumption, the LD50 for male rats is 1270 mg/kg, and 730 mg/kg for females—equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC marijuana.^[41] The ratio of cannabis material required to saturate cannabinoid receptors to the amount required for a fatal overdose is 1:40,000.^[42] There have been no reported deaths or permanent injuries sustained as a result of a marijuana overdose. It is practically impossible to overdose on marijuana, as the user would certainly either fall asleep or otherwise become incapacitated from the effects of the drug before being able to consume enough THC to be mortally toxic. While it has never been reported, it is theoretically feasible for concentrated THC (hash or oil) to cause an overdose. We also learn by comparing LD50s that the toxicity of the cannabis is significantly lower than that of alcohol or other frequently consumed products.

Cannabis is currently recognized as a psychologically addictive drug. There is no cannabis withdrawal disorder in the DSM-IV, but studies have demonstrated that cannabis use can induce withdrawal symptoms similar to other drugs with recognized physical dependence. Cannabis withdrawal symptoms are similar in magnitude and time-course to the well-established tobacco withdrawal syndrome.^[43]

The most obvious confounding factor in cannabis research is the prevalent usage of other recreational drugs, including alcohol and tobacco.^[44] Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. ^[45] Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis that have stronger controls, and investigations into the symptoms of cannabis use that may also be caused by tobacco. Most cannabis research within the USA is funded by government agencies who in turn publish position papers citing research studies that spotlight the negative consequences of cannabis use.^[46]^[47] In light of this, some people question whether these agencies make an honest effort to present an accurate, unbiased summary of the evidence, or whether they "cherry-pick" their data, and others caution that the raw data, and not the final conclusions, are what should be examined.^[48]

On 23 May 2006, Donald Tashkin, M.D., Professor of Medicine at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA in Los Angeles announced that the use of Marijuana does not appear to increase the risk of developing lung cancer, or increase the risk of head and neck cancers, such as cancer of the tongue, mouth, throat, or esophagus.^[49]The study involved 2252 participants, with some of the most chronic marijuana smokers having smoked over 22,000 marijuana cigarettes.^[49]^[50] ^[51]^[52] The finding of Donald Tashkin, M.D., and his team of researchers in 2006 refines their earlier studies published in a Dec. 17 2000 edition of the peer-reviewed journal Cancer Epidemiology Biomarker and Prevention.[14] Many opponents of marijuana incorrectly cite the original finding of UCLA Medical Center from 2000 as "proof" that marijuana use leaves the users at higher risk for cancer of the lung, and cancerous tumors^[53], even though the researchers at the UCLA Medical Center have revised their finding with a more in-depth study on the effects of the use of marijuana.^[49]

However, contrasting studies have linked the smoking of cannabis to lung cancer and the growth of cancerous tumors.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56] A 2002 report by the British Lung Foundation estimated that three to four cannabis cigarettes a day were associated with the same amount of damage to the lungs as 20 or more tobacco cigarettes a day.^[57] Other studies have suggested that cannabis use by expectant mothers does not appear to cause birth defects or developmental delays in their newborn children.^[58]^[59] According to a United Kingdom government report, using cannabis is less dangerous than tobacco, prescription drugs, and alcohol in social harms, physical harm and addiction.^[60]

Cannabis is known to act on the hippocampus (an area of the brain associated with memory and learning), and impair short term memory and attention for the duration of its effects and in some cases for the next day. In the long term, some studies point to enhancement of particular types of memory.^[61] Cannabis was found to be neuroprotective against excitotoxicity and is therefore beneficial for the prevention of progressive degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease.^[62] A 1998 report commissioned in France by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner and directed by Dr. Pierre-Bernard Roques determined that, "former results suggesting anatomic changes in the brain of chronic cannabis users, measured by tomography, were not confirmed by the accurate modern neuro-imaging techniques," (like MRI). "Moreover, morphological impairment of the hippocampus [which plays a part in memory and navigation] of rat after administration of very high doses of THC (Langfield et al., 1988) was not shown (Slikker et al., 1992)" (translated). He concluded that cannabis does not have any neurotoxicity as defined in the report, unlike alcohol and cocaine.^[63]^[64]^[65]

Research between the use of cannabis and mental illness has also brought significant results. Cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but the causality between the two has not been established.^[66]^[67] Another study concluded that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among genetically predisposed individuals has been associated with a variety of mental illness outcomes, ranging from psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia.^[68]^[69]

A current doctoral theses from Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, of the neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure, gives support for the cannabis gateway hypothesis in terms of adult opiate abuse. THC exposed rats in the experiment, showed an increased motivation for drug use under conditions of stress. The findings do not support the cannabis gateway hypothesis in regard to subsequent amphetamine exposure.^[70]

Pregnancy

Earlier studies have already found that children of marijuana-smoking mothers more frequently suffer from permanent cognitive deficits, concentration disorders, hyperactivity, and impaired social interactions than non-exposed children of the same age and social background. A recent study with participation of scientists from Europe and the United States,have now identified that endogenous cannabinoids, molecules naturally produced by our brains and functionally similar to THC from cannabis, play unexpectedly significant roles in establishing how certain nerve cells connect to each other. The formation of connections among nerve cells occurs during a relatively short period in the fetal brain. The study give a closer understanding of if and when cannabis damages the fetal brain.^[71]

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^ National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. Marijuana Abuse. Research Report, Series 3. NIH Pub. No. 05-3859. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. Marijuana Abuse. Research Report, Series 3. References. pp. 1-6. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ Public opinion on drugs and drug policy. Transform Drug Policy Foundation: Fact Research Guide. "Data is notoriously easy to cherry pick or spin to support a particular agenda or position. Often the raw data will conceal all sorts of interesting facts that the headlines have missed." Transform Drug Policy Foundation, Easton Business Centre, Felix Rd., Bristol, UK. Retrieved on 24 March 2007.
^ ^a ^b ^c . 26 May 2006 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
^ Fred Gardner (2006-07-06). "Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
^ Tashkin, D. P., Simmons, M. S., Sherrill, D. L., and Coulson, A. H. 1997. Heavy habitual marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 155(1): 141-148. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ "Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link". Washington Post. 2006-05-26. Retrieved 2006-07-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ ^a ^b Dr. Steven M. Dubinett (June 20, 2000). "Study Finds Marijuana Ingredient Promotes Tumor Growth, Impairs Anti-Tumor Defenses". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
^ Sridhar, K.S.; Raub, W.A.; Weatherby, N.L., Jr.; Metsch, L.R.; Surratt, H.L.; Inciardi, J.A.; Duncan, R.C.; Anwyl, R.S.; and McCoy, C.B. 1994. Possible role of marijuana smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at a young age. "Journal of Psychoactive Drugs" 26(3):285-288
^ Hoffman, D.; Brunnemann, K.D.; Gori, G.B.; and Wynder, E.E.L. 1975. On the carcinogenicity of marijuana smoke. In: V.C. Runeckles, ed., "Recent Advances in Phytochemistry." New York: Plenum
^ Cohen, S. 1981. Adverse effects of marijuana: Selected issues. "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences" 362:119-124
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6551327.stm
^ J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan (1991). "Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy". West Indian Medical Journal. 40 (3): 120–3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Dreher, M. C., Nugent, K., Hudgins, R. 1994. Prenatal marijuana exposure and neonatal outcomes in Jamaica: an ethnographic study. Pediatrics 93(2): 254-260. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ "UK government report" (PDF). House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-08-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)]
^ Iversen, L. 2003. Cannabis and the brain. Brain 126(6): 1252-1270. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ [21] Neuroprotection by 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, the Main Active Compound in Marijuana, against Ouabain-Induced In Vivo Excitotoxicity, M. van der Stelt, W. B. Veldhuis, P. R. Bär, G. A. Veldink1, J. F. G. Vliegenthart, and K. Nicolay, The Journal of Neuroscience, September 1, 2001
^ INSERM-CNRS. Released June 1998. Excerpts from the Roques report. Hemp Info. Retrieved 5 Mar 2007
^ Rapport Roques sur la dangerosité des drogues. (in French). Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ L'alcool aussi dangereux que l'héroïne. (in French) Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ Henquet, C., Krabbendam, L., Spauwen, J., Kaplan, C., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H.-U., and van Os, J. 2005. Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ 330(7481): 11. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007
^ Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., Lynskey, M., and Hall, W. 2002. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. BMJ 325(7374): 1195-1198. Retrieved 45 Mar 2007
^ Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton R., Murray R., Caspi, A., and Moffitt, T. E. 2002. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 325(7374): 1212-213. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., Williams, B., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R., and Craig, I. W. 2005. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset Cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Society of Biological Psychiatry 57: 1117-1127. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007
^ Ellgren, Maria: Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis 2007
^ Hardwiring the Brain: Endocannabinoids Shape Neuronal Connectivity Science, May 25, 2007

[1] Random House Unabridged dictionary: marijuana, n. 1. hemp. 2. the dried leaves and female flowers of the hemp plant, used in cigarette form as a narcotic or hallucinogen. Also, marihuana. [1890-95, American < MexSp marihuana, mariguana]

[2] The Oxford English Dictionary: Any of various preparations of different parts of the hemp-plant which are smoked, chewed, sniffed or drunk for their intoxicating or hallucinogenic properties and were formerly used medicinally; bhang (marijuana), ganja, and charas (hashish) are different forms of these preparations." It is also notes that "cannabis" was elliptical reference (i.e. slang) for Cannabis sativa.

[3] ttp://www.idmu.co.uk/can.htm

[rudgley1999-4] Richard Rudgley. 1999. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Touchstone, New York. ISBN 0-684-85580-1

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[hashibe2006-32] Hashibe, M., H. Morgenstern, Y. Cui, D. P. Tashkin, Z.-F. Zhang, W. Cozen, T. M. Mack, and S. Greenland. 2006. Marijuana use and the risk of lung and upper aerodigestive tract cancers: results of a population-based case-controlled study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 15(10): 1829-1834. Retrieved on Feb 26 2007

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[high-37] ttp://www.hightimes.com/ht/news/content.php?bid=1202&aid=10

[38] ttp://www.drugfree.org/Portal/drug_guide/Marijuana

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[45] Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 8(12):1071-1078. Retrieved 4 Mar 2007

[NIDAresearchreport-46] National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. Marijuana Abuse. Research Report, Series 3. NIH Pub. No. 05-3859. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[NIDAresearchreportrefs-47] National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2005. Marijuana Abuse. Research Report, Series 3. References. pp. 1-6. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[Transform-48] Public opinion on drugs and drug policy. Transform Drug Policy Foundation: Fact Research Guide. "Data is notoriously easy to cherry pick or spin to support a particular agenda or position. Often the raw data will conceal all sorts of interesting facts that the headlines have missed." Transform Drug Policy Foundation, Easton Business Centre, Felix Rd., Bristol, UK. Retrieved on 24 March 2007.

[Study_Finds_No_Link_Between_Marijuana_Use_And_Lung_Cancer-49] . 26 May 2006 http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/05/060526083353.htm. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)

[Tobacco-50] Fred Gardner (2006-07-06). "Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)

[tashkin1997-51] Tashkin, D. P., Simmons, M. S., Sherrill, D. L., and Coulson, A. H. 1997. Heavy habitual marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 155(1): 141-148. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[UCLA_study-52] "Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link". Washington Post. 2006-05-26. Retrieved 2006-07-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[TumorGrowth-53] Dr. Steven M. Dubinett (June 20, 2000). "Study Finds Marijuana Ingredient Promotes Tumor Growth, Impairs Anti-Tumor Defenses". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)

[Sridharetal-54] Sridhar, K.S.; Raub, W.A.; Weatherby, N.L., Jr.; Metsch, L.R.; Surratt, H.L.; Inciardi, J.A.; Duncan, R.C.; Anwyl, R.S.; and McCoy, C.B. 1994. Possible role of marijuana smoking as a carcinogen in the development of lung cancer at a young age. "Journal of Psychoactive Drugs" 26(3):285-288

[Hoffmanetal-55] Hoffman, D.; Brunnemann, K.D.; Gori, G.B.; and Wynder, E.E.L. 1975. On the carcinogenicity of marijuana smoke. In: V.C. Runeckles, ed., "Recent Advances in Phytochemistry." New York: Plenum

[Cohen-56] Cohen, S. 1981. Adverse effects of marijuana: Selected issues. "Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences" 362:119-124

[57] ttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6551327.stm

[BirthDefects-58] J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan (1991). "Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy". West Indian Medical Journal. 40 (3): 120–3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[BirthDefects2-59] Dreher, M. C., Nugent, K., Hudgins, R. 1994. Prenatal marijuana exposure and neonatal outcomes in Jamaica: an ethnographic study. Pediatrics 93(2): 254-260. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[UK_government_report-60] "UK government report" (PDF). House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-08-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)]

[iversen2003-61] Iversen, L. 2003. Cannabis and the brain. Brain 126(6): 1252-1270. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[Nepr-62] [21] Neuroprotection by 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol, the Main Active Compound in Marijuana, against Ouabain-Induced In Vivo Excitotoxicity, M. van der Stelt, W. B. Veldhuis, P. R. Bär, G. A. Veldink1, J. F. G. Vliegenthart, and K. Nicolay, The Journal of Neuroscience, September 1, 2001

[roques1998-63] INSERM-CNRS. Released June 1998. Excerpts from the Roques report. Hemp Info. Retrieved 5 Mar 2007

[lesverts-64] Rapport Roques sur la dangerosité des drogues. (in French). Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[esculapepro-65] L'alcool aussi dangereux que l'héroïne. (in French) Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[henquet2005-66] Henquet, C., Krabbendam, L., Spauwen, J., Kaplan, C., Lieb, R., Wittchen, H.-U., and van Os, J. 2005. Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ 330(7481): 11. Retrieved on 4 Mar 2007

[patton2002-67] Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., Degenhardt, L., Lynskey, M., and Hall, W. 2002. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. BMJ 325(7374): 1195-1198. Retrieved 45 Mar 2007

[arseneault2002-68] Arseneault, L., Cannon, M., Poulton R., Murray R., Caspi, A., and Moffitt, T. E. 2002. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 325(7374): 1212-213. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[caspi2005-69] Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Arseneault, L., Williams, B., Braithwaite, A., Poulton, R., and Craig, I. W. 2005. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset Cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Society of Biological Psychiatry 57: 1117-1127. Retrieved on 5 Mar 2007

[70] Ellgren, Maria: Neurobiological effects of early life cannabis exposure in relation to the gateway hypothesis 2007

[71] Hardwiring the Brain: Endocannabinoids Shape Neuronal Connectivity Science, May 25, 2007

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