Goguryeo

Template:Goguryeo Infobox

Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom located in southern Manchuria (present-day Northeast China), southern Russian Maritime province, and the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla, and it is also considered an important regional kingdom in Manchuria by the People's Republic of China. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula as well as the foreign affairs of associated polities in China and Japan. The Samguk Sagi, a 12th century CE Goryeo text, indicate that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, although there is archaeological evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century BCE around the fall of Gojoseon, an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. It was a major regional power of East Asia until it was defeated by a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 CE. After its defeat, its territory was divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla and Balhae; some of the territory might have also been taken by the Khitan, still in tribal form at this point.

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, a prince from the kingdom of Eastern Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 BCE in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the 2nd century BCE. In the geographic monographs of the Han Shu, the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" was first mentioned in 113 BCE as a region under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu commandary. In the Old Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 BCE, a group of Yemaek tribes (a people that made up the original Goguryeo stock), which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley.

However, the weight of textual evidence from the Old and New Histories of Tang, the Samguk Sagi, the Nihon Shoki as well as other ancient sources would support a 37 BCE or "middle" 1st century BCE foundation date for Goguryeo. Archaeological evidence would support centralized groups of Yemaek tribes in the 2nd century BCE, but there is no direct evidence that would suggest these Yemaek groups were known as or would identify themselves as Goguryeo. The first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes would be a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryo revolt in 12 CE, where they break away from Xuantu influence . It was also during this time that the Goguryeo ruler, given the title of "marquis" (侯) by the Xuantu administrators, began calling himself the Chinese title of "wang" (王) or King.

At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of Buyeo and Yemaek people, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms . The San Guo Zhi, in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", states that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke the same language .

Jumong and the Foundation Myth

The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th century C.E. Stele of Great King Gwanggaeto. Jumong is the Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모).

The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and he was the son of the king of Buyeo and a daughter of the river deity Habaek . The Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa paints additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa. Jumong's biological father was a man named Hae Mosu who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." . The Samguk Sagi would state that Hae Mosu was a sky deity, who had seduced Yuhwa. Later, the King of Buyeo would give refuge to Yuhwa in the Buyeo court and would adopt Jumong as his own son, hence he would become a prince of Buyeo. According to the story, Jumong was very talented, especially in archery and equestrian arts, and made the crown prince jealous. The crown prince had plans to have Jumong killed and upon learning of the plot, Jumong fled Buyeo . The Stele and later Korean sources disagrees as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from North Buyeo and the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa says he came from East Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to the Jolbon Buyeo confederacy, where he married the daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country.

Jumong's given surname was Hae (解), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk Yusa, Jumong changed his surname to Ko (高), in conscious reflection of his divine parentage . Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BCE, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BCE, and North Okjeo in 28 BCE.

First Wave of Expansion and Centralization of Tribal Leagues

Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun river drainage. The Goguryeo homeland was said to lack arable land and could barley feed its own population. Goguryeo was known for being fond of raiding their neighbors so they could expand their resource base. In the time of King Taejo of Goguryeo in 53 CE, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Aggressive military activities may have allowed Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and to even dominate them politically and economically .

King Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of Northeast Korea as well as the Eastern Ye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Goguryo attacked Han China's commanderies of Lelang, Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies .

Generally, Taejo allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line and were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejo and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing its expansion to the northwest. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court .

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong commandary. Pressure from Liadong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley, near Mt. Wandu in current day Dongou region of China's Jilin province .

Goguryeo-Wei War

The chaos following the fall of the Han Dynasty, the former Han commandaries had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commandaries, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created Wei Dynasty of China and sent tribute in 220 CE. In 238 CE, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with the Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandary. When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. On this occasion, Wei reached and destroyed the Goguryeo capital at Wandu (Hwando) fortress (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin). It is said that the Goguryeo king, with his army destroyed, fled alone and sought refuge with the Okjeo tribes in the east .

Revival and Further Expansion

The Wei armies chose not to occupy Goguryeo and left after they believed that the kingdom was destroyed. After only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt their capital at Wandu (Hwando) and again began to raid Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commandaries. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313 . From that point on, until the 7th century C.E., territorial control of the peninsula would be contested exclusively by the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Chinese Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, (Some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, Gao Yun, briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state Northern Yan from 407 to 409.) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin), and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle.

Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). . Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered under Former Yan and Baekje, Sosurim had also instituted military reforms. .

Goguryeo territory at its height.

King Gwanggaeto

King Gwanggaeto the Great (reigned from 391 to 412 CE) was a highly energetic monarch that is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the kingdom.

Gwanggaeto's exploits have been recorded on a huge memorial stele located near present day Jilin in southern Manchuria, that was erected by his son, King Jangsu. Gwanggaetto is said to have conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya, Baekje and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. By the end of his reign, Goguryo had achieved undisputed control of southern Manchuria, and the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.

During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and much of southern Manchuria and the southeastern end of Russian maritime province. Gwanggaeto instituted the reign name of "Yeongnak", thus signifying an equality with the major Chinese dynasties.

King Jangsu, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, which is evidence to the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north.

In the late 5th century, it absorbed Bukbuyeo and several Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.

Internal strife

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and maneuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance. However, Goguryeo had lost much of the fertile Han River valley to Silla.

Conflicts of the late 6th and 7th Centuries CE

Throughout its history, Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties and was also at odds with Silla and Baekje. At times Goguryeo considered Silla and Baekje allies at alternating times. In the late 7th and early Goguryeo was often in conflict with Chinese Dynasties such as the Sui and Tang. The Sui invasions ended in failure for Sui, and effectively crippled its economic and military capability. The Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states. Xueyantuo, a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when Goguryeo was attacked by a Silla-Tang alliance near the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Goguryeo-Sui Wars

Main article: Goguryeo-Sui Wars

The Sui Dynasty was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaosuh region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful, losing 3/4ths of its military capability. 90% of the first expedition never made it back. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch -- the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered surrender and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defector, who had fled to Goguryeo, for Emperor Yang to be able to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state at that time was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule. They could not attack further because the soldiers in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.

One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General Eulji Mundeok, led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui, attacked three more times, all of which were repulsed by Goguryeo.

The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.

Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla alliance

Main article: Goguryeo-Tang Wars

After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the new dynasty that took its place, the Tang, attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Li Shih min (Tang Taizong), the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points in numerous attacks.

The Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.

In 645, Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansi Fortress. the central figure of a repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun. In the end, Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army was again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, the Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo.

Following the defection of Yeon Namsaeng, the son of Yeon Gaesomun and the surrender of numerous cities in northern Goguryeo, the Tang army bypassed the Liaoong region and captured Pyongyang, the capital of Goguryeo, while Yeon Jeongto,the Younger brother of Yeon Gaesomun, surrendered his forces to the Silla general Kim Yushin, who was advancing from the south. In November 668 Bojang, the last king of Goguryeo, Surrendered to Tang Gaozhong.

Fall

Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 660; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons.

Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Goguryeo's last king Bojang was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, or Andong protectorate, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to ferment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to Szechuan in 681, and died the following year.

Revival movements

Main Article: Goguryeo Revival Movements

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several others. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.

The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General Xue Rengui, but was later replaced by King Bojang due the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Go Jang's descendants declared independence from the Tang during the time at which An Shi Rebellion and Yi Jeonggi's establishing of the Je State occurred. The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "Lesser Goguryeo" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of Emperor Seonjong.

Geom Mojam and GoAnseung rose briefly at Hanseong, but failed, when Anseung surrendered to Silla. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. There, Anseung established the Kingdom of Bodeok. Bodeok was eventually demolished by King Sinmun, and Anseung was given the Silla Royal surname "Kim."

Dae Jung-sang and his son Dae Joyeong, both former Goguryeo generals, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the kingdom "Later Goguryeo". Later Goguryeo was renamed Great Jin, and eventually Balhae after the death of Dae Jung-sang. To the south of Balhae, Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, and Manchuria(present-day northeastern China) was conquered by Balhae. Balhae claimed themselves the successor state to Goguryeo.

In the early 10th century, Gung-ye, a rebel general, established Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla. Taebong also claimed to be a successor of Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula.

Military

The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggaeto. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel 176 military garrisons after the surrender of King Bojang.

Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax.

Goguryeo had a significant amount of cavalry and mounted archers, and infantry were known to have horned helmets. They also had spikes attached to the bottom soles of their boots.

Culture

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.

Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses.

Festivals and pastimes

A mural of a three-legged bird in a Goguryeo tomb.

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.

Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.

Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.

Religion

A Goguryeo tomb mural.

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. (MyGoguryeo & Unknown year, p. culture.htm) Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.

Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the Chinese three-legged bird of Zhou dynasty was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

Buddhism was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372 The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.

Cultural impact

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces were influenced by designs found throughout Northern China and Northeast Asia.

Goguryeo roof-tile

Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, ondol, Goguryeo's floor heating system, and hanbok(Brown 2006, p. 18).

Legacy

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in present-day China, for example at Wunushan ("Five Maiden Peaks"), suspected to be the site of Jolbon, near Huanren in Liaoning province on the present border with North Korea. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the Gwanggaeto Stele, which is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Name

The modern English name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo Dynasty (935-1392), which itself took one of the various names which Goguryeo had used in diplomatic language with its neighbours. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo (高麗) in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.

Language

Detail of a rubbing of the Gwanggaeto Stele (414 AD), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in Classical Chinese.

Main article: Goguryeo language

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Along with many other kingdoms in east Asia, Goguryeo used Chinese characters and wrote in Classical Chinese. The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon. Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.

The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese (Beckwith & August 2003). Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe).

Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.

See also: Korean language

The Political and Cultural relationship with Chinese Kingdoms

Template:Totally-disputed According to Wei Cuncheng, a researcher of the Northeast Project, in addition to the almost incessant wars during its existence,Goguryeo also had close political connections with the Chinese Central Plains dynasties, manifested by tribute and the conferring of dynastic titles on Goguryeo kings. Goguryeo for a long time regularly paid tributes, such as horses and jewelries, to show its submissiveness to the Central Plains dynasties. And Goguryeo’s receiving of the titiles matter-of-factly was a demonstration of its subjugation to the Chinese dynasties.

Research conducted by a Japanese scholar shows that from 32 BC to 666 AD Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Central Plains dynasties. From 32 BC to 391 AD, Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 AD and 666 AD, 188 tributes were paid. According to the analysis of Chinese historians, Goguryeo paid few tributes in its early stage because Goguryeo was treated as a local government of the Han dynasty, and did not need to pay tributes.

Both Korean and Chinese historical records state that the kings of Goguryeo regularly paid tributes to and were conferred titles by the Central Plains dynasties during its later era. According to both The Book Of Jin and Samguk Sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), in 355 AD, the Yan dynasty conferred the title of “Lord of Lelang”(乐浪公) on King Gogugwon. In 413 AD, Eastern Jin Emperor Jinan conferred the titles of “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王), “Lord of Lelang” (乐浪公), and “Eastern Expedition General” (征东大将军) on King Jangsu. After King Jangsu died in 491 AD, the Northern Wei Dynasty conferred the following titles upon King Munjamyeong: “Eastern Expedition General”(征东将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公),and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王).

In 520 AD, Munjamyeong’s son, King Anjang, was conferred by Northern Wei the titles of “Pacifying East General”(安东将军), “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王),and “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公). After King Anjang died in 531 AD, the next year Northern Wei conferred on King Anwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 550 AD, the Northern Qi Dynasty conferred on King Yangwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 560 AD, King Pyeongwon was conferred by Northern Qi the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公) and “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王). In 590 AD, the Sui Dynasty conferred on King Yeongyang the title of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公). After the Tang Dynasty was established, Goguryeo King Yeongnyu was conferred by Tang the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公) and “King of Goryeo”(高丽王).

The last titles conferred on the king of Goguryeo was in 643 AD by Tang Emperor Taizong. He conferred the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡王) and “King of Goryeo” (高丽王) on King Bojang. The historical records in both Korean and Chinese ancient books show that title-conferring had been a way that the Central Plains tried to impose indirect rules over Goguryeo, and it had been institutionalized from the Eastern Jin dynasty to the Tang dynasty, with every Goguryeo king from Jangsu to Bojang holding titles conferred by the Chinese Central Plains dynasties.

Modern politics

Main article: Goguryeo controversies

Goguryeo at territorial prime and modern political boundaries

Goguryeo has been conventionally viewed as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. (Britannica & Unknown Year, Encarta 2007, CIA World Factbook 2007, and Columbia Encyclopedia 2005)

Chinese characterization of Goguryeo as a regional power of China in modern times has spawned heated disputes with both North Korea and South Korea. At heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo was a part of the greater Chinese nation, or an independent Korean kingdom.

China views Goguryeo as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean. Chinese historian Sun Jinji in 1986 suggested that Goguryeo is separate from the history of the Three Kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula. He argued that “the people of Buyeo and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the Silla lineage.”(Sun 1986, Yonson 2006) This view has since been supported by many other prominent Chinese historians. However, Chinese scholars are not all of one voice on this issue. There are also many Chinese historians who acknowledge Goguryeo history as being shared by both Korea and China within “a framework of the dual elements of a single history” (一史两用论, yishi liangyong lun).(Sun 2004a). More recently, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) generated new controversy through its Northeast Project study of China's three Northeast provinces. The Chinese argument for Goguryeo’s historical heritage in the Northeast Project is based on two main points: the first is that the Goguryeo state grew out of the Han Chinese commandary of Xuantu; and also the Chinese consider Goguryeo and Barhae to be founded by the Mohe (Malgal) peoples, a purported ancestor of modern day Manchus, who ruled China's Qing Dynasty. (Sun 2004b, Yonson 2006) The conclusions of the CASS study have created tensions in China-South Korea relations.

In his email to Koreanstudies mailing list, Mark Byington, when completing a postdoctoral program at the Korea Institute, an autonomous non-departmental entity located at Harvard University, has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy", historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined greater Chinese nation of the remote past", and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" (Byington 2004a).

References

• Byeon, Tae-seop (1999), 韓國史通論(Outline of Korean history), 4th ed., Unknown Publisher, ISBN 89-445-9101-6

• US Library of Congress, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), South Korea:The Three Kingdom Periods, Unknown Publisher {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Metropolitan Museum, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Korea, 1-500 A.D) Korea, 1-500AD, Unknown Publisher {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help); Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Yonson, Ahn (2006), Korea China Textbook War. What's It All About?, History News Network

• Ramzy, Austin (Unknown Year), Rewriting History, Time Magazine {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Klingner, Bruce (2004), China Shock for South Korea, Asia Time

• Shin, Hyoung-Sik (2003), History of Koguryo, Ewha Womans University Press, South Korea

• Lee, Wha (Unknown Year), Forgotten Glory of Koguryo, Kimsoft.com {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Brown, John (2006), China, Japan, Korea. Culture and Custom, BookSurge Publishing, ISBN 1419648934

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (August 2003), Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean (PDF), Michigan State University, retrieved 2006-03-12 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

• Britannica, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Koguryo, Britannica Encyclopedia {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Encarta, Unknown Author (2007), Koguryo (HTML), MSN, retrieved 2007-03-12 {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help)

• Columbia Encyclopedia, Unknown Author (2005), Korea, Bartleby.com, retrieved 2007-03-12 {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help)

• CIA World Factbook (2007), Korea, South, CIA, retrieved 2007-04-27

• Sun, Jinji (2004a), Dongbei minzu yuanliu (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe

• Sun, Jinji (1986), Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe

• Sun, Jinji (2004b), Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi (History Department of People’s Education Press), Zhongguo lishi (Chinese History) II, Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe

• MyGoguryeo, Unknown (Unknown Year), The Pride History of Korea, MyGoguryeo.net (WWW) {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Byington, Mark (2004a), Koguryo Part of China?, Koreanstudies mailing list (WWW)

• Byington, Mark (2004b), The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided, History News Network (WWW)

• ScienceView, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms, ScienceView (WWW) {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)

• Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites, edited by C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee, pp. 191-196. WSU Press, Pullman ISBN 0-87422-092-0.

See also

• List of Korea-related topics
• Cheolli Jangseong

• Template:En icon Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Template:En icon Encarta
• Template:En icon Columbia Encyclopedia
• Template:Ko icon Information about the ancient kingdom
• Template:En icon Goguryeo of Korea