Religious conversion

Religious conversion is the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the convert's previous beliefs; in some cultures (e.g. Judaism) conversion also signifies joining a group as well as adopting its religious beliefs. Conversion requires internalization of the new belief system. Proselytizing is the act of trying to convert another individual from the convertee's religion to the converter's religion.

Religious conversion in international law

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights defines religious conversion as a human right: "Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, ...." (Article 18).

Based on the declaration the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) drafted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, a legally binding treaty. It states that "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, ..." (Article 18.1). "No one shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice." (Article 18.2).

The UNCHR issued a General Comment on this Article in 1993: "The Committee observes that the freedom to 'have or to adopt' a religion or belief necessarily entails the freedom to choose a religion or belief, including the right to replace one's current religion or belief with another or to adopt atheistic views [...] Article 18.2 bars coercion that would impair the right to have or adopt a religion or belief, including the use of threat of physical force or penal sanctions to compel believers or non-believers to adhere to their religious beliefs and congregations, to recant their religion or belief or to convert." (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, General Comment No. 22.; emphasis added)

The convert/proselyte

Main article: Proselyte

A person who has undergone conversion is called a convert or proselyte. A proselyte (from the Latin word proselytus which in turn comes from the Greek word προσήλυτος, proselytos meaning "someone who has found his/her place") is in general a title given to a person who has fully embraced a certain religion, world view, ideology, metaphysics, ontology, et cetera.

On the historical meaning of the Greek word, Acts of Pilate, roughly dated from 150 to 400, in chapter 2, has Annas and Caiaphas define "proselyte" for Pilate:

"And Pilate, summoning the Jews, says to them: You know that my wife is a worshipper of God, and prefers to adhere to the Jewish religion along with you. ... Annas and Caiaphas say to Pilate: All the multitude of us cry out that he [Jesus] was born of fornication, and are not believed; these [who disagree] are proselytes, and his disciples. And Pilate, calling Annas and Caiaphas, says to them: What are proselytes? They say to him: They are by birth children of the Greeks, and have now become Jews" -Roberts Translation [1]

In the traditional sense (cf. Proselytism) this word signified people who have converted to Judaism, but is nowadays used in a wider meaning.

Usage note: While the term 'convert' is now generally used to mean any transition from one faith to another, in older usage it implies that the transition is from sin or 'false religion' to truth. For instance, the 1910 Catholic Dictionary defines 'conversion' as 'One who turns or changes from a state of sin to repentance, from a lax to a more earnest and serious way of life, from unbelief to faith, from heresy to the true faith.'[2] In this article and elsewhere in Wikipedia, the term is used in the newer sense and does not imply favour for one faith over another.

Conversion to Judaism

Procedure

Jewish law guidelines for accepting new converts to Judaism are called "giur". Potential converts should desire conversion to Judaism for its own sake, and for no ulterior motives. A male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision, and there has to be a commitment to observe the 613 commandments and Jewish law. A convert must accept Jewish principles of faith, and reject the previous theology he or she had prior to the conversion. Ritual immersion in a small pool of water known as a mikvah is required. The convert takes a new Jewish name and is considered to be a son or daughter (in spirit) of the biblical patriarch Abraham, and a male is called up in that way to the Torah.

The Reform and Conservative movements are lenient in their acceptance of converts. Many of their members are married to gentiles and these movements make an effort to welcome spouses who seek conversion. This issue is contentious in modern Israel as many immigrants from the former Soviet Union are not considered Jewish.

Conversion to Judaism in history

King David was descended from the convert Ruth, who, according to the Talmud and Midrash, was a Moabite princess. No formal conversion procedure is given in the text; modern critical historians generally hold giur, in its modern sense, to be an innovation of a later period. Joseph, the father of the most famous sage of the Talmud, Rabbi Akiva, was a convert.

Christians were forbidden to convert to Judaism on pain of death during most of the Middle Ages. In the 1700s a famous convert by the name of Count Valentin Potoski in Poland was burned at the stake. He was a contemporary and a disciple of Rabbi Elijah, known as the Vilna Gaon.

In Hellenistic and Roman times, some Pharisees were eager proselytizers, and had at least some success throughout the empire. Some Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism outside the Mediterranean world. It is known that some Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as many Arabs, particularly in Yemen before, converted to Judaism in the past; today in the United States, Israel and Europe some people still convert to Judaism. In fact, there is a greater tradition of conversion to Judaism than many people realize. The word "proselyte" originally meant a Greek who had converted to Judaism. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman empire (i.e., the Byzantine empire) was issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, implying that conversion to Judaism was still occurring.

In recent times, members of the Reform Judaism movement began a program to convert to Judaism the non-Jewish spouses of its intermarried members and non-Jews who have an interest in Judaism. Their rationale is that so many Jews were lost during the Holocaust that newcomers must be sought out and welcomed. This approach has been repudiated by Orthodox and Conservative Jews as unrealistic and posing a danger. They say that these efforts make Judaism seem an easy religion to join and observe when in reality being Jewish entails many difficulties and sacrifices.

Relationship with converts

The Hebrew Bible states that converts deserve special attention (Deuteronomy 10:19). The Hebrew word for "convert", ger, is the same as that for a stranger. It is also related to the root gar - "to dwell'. Hence since the Children of Israel were "strangers" - geirim in Egypt, they are therefore instructed to be welcoming to those who seek to convert and dwell amongst them.

Since around 300 CE, Judaism no longer encourages people to convert. In fact, in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, converts are often discouraged from becoming Jews and warned that being a Jew entails special obligations, as well as, at least in many places, the risk of anti-semitism. A Rabbinic tradition holds that a prospective convert should be refused three times.

Differences between Jewish and Christian views

The subject of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) is the history of the Children of Israel (also called Hebrews), especially in terms of their relationship with God. Thus, Judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan defines Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. One crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be Jewish; the Rabbinic definition of 'Jewishness' requires only that one be born of a Jewish mother, or that one convert to Judaism in accord with Jewish law. (Today, Reform and Reconstructionist Jews also include those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers if they are raised as Jews.)

To Jews, Jewish peoplehood is closely tied to their relationship with God, and thus has a strong theological component. This relationship is encapsulated in the notion that Jews are a chosen people. Although some have taken this as a sign of arrogance or exclusivity, there are Jewish scholars and theologians who have emphasized that a special relationship between Jews and God does not in any way preclude other nations having their own relationship with God. For Jews, being "chosen" fundamentally means that Jews have chosen to obey a certain set of laws (see Torah and halakha) as an expression of their covenant with God. Jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required or expected to obey these laws, and face no penalty for not obeying them. Thus, as a national religion, Judaism has no problem with the notion that others have their own paths to God (or "salvation"), though it still makes claim as to the truth or falsehood of other beliefs, and as to whether Gentiles are allowed to hold them. Thus, for example, Maimonides believed that the truth claims of Islam were largely false, but he also believed that Gentiles were not sinning by following Islam; on the other hand, he regarded idolatry not just as false, but also as a serious sin, for Jew or non-Jew. In this respect, Rabbinical sources have usually classed Christianity with Islam, rather than with idolatry, though the use of icons in many denominations has raised questions as to whether they are, in fact, idolatrous.

Christianity is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a break with Jewish identity. As a religion claiming universality, Christianity has had to define itself in relation with religions that make radically different claims about Gods. Christians believe that Christianity represents the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham and the nation of Israel, that Israel would be a blessing to all nations.

This crucial difference between the two religions has other implications. For example, conversion to Judaism is more like a form of adoption (i.e. becoming a member of the nation, in part by metaphorically becoming a child of Abraham), whereas conversion to Christianity is explicitly a declaration of faith. Of course, conversion to Judaism also entails a declaration of faith, and, in Christian churches, conversion also has a social component, as the individual is in many ways adopted into the Church, with a strong family model.

Conversion to Christianity

One becomes a Christian by ones choice to dedicate his or her life to God and accept Jesus Christ (and therefore, his teachings which can be found in the Gospels) as ones personal spiritual guide or, as many Christians put it, personal saviour. This choice is substantiated by the ritual of baptism.

Telling non-Christians about Christianity has been seen as a duty of Christians since the time of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus commanded his disciples to "go into the world and make disciples of all nations". Evangelism, or 'spreading the Good News' has been a central part of the life of Christians since that time. In Christianity conversion is properly seen as the work of God. Humans may preach and teach, but it is considered to be God who brings the convert to faith.

In the times of Jesus, all his disciples were Jews. On occasion, he performed miracles for Gentiles without requiring their conversion; in one conversation with a Samaritan woman, he downplayed the differences between Jews and Samaritans (John 4). Gentiles who sought to join the early Church were often required to undergo conversion to Judaism (or conversion to the practices of Jesus) first including circumcision for men. Some believe this requirement was later dropped entirely after Paul forced the issue. (See the "Incident at Antioch" of Galatians 2 where Paul publicly condemned Peter for Judaizing.)

The origin of Christian Baptism in water is derived from the Jewish law requiring a convert to submerge themselves in pure water (of a mikvah) in order to receive a new pure soul from God. In the first centuries there was a live debate with Jewish-Christians being labeled as Judaizers at one extreme and Marcionism at the other extreme with Orthodoxy somewhere in between.

Christianity and Islam are two religions that encourage preaching their faith in order to convert non-believers. In both cases, this missionary property has been used as a justification for religious wars (cf. Crusades, jihad) on other countries. This property encourages evangelists to convert people of other faiths, and history has shown that the motives were not always pure. Because of this, evangelism is sometimes viewed scornfully by modern society.

In the year 1000, the Viking age parliament of Iceland decided that the entire country should convert to Christianity, and that sacrifice to the old gods, while still allowed, should no longer be made in the open. Similar mass conversions in other Scandinavian countries and in the rest of Europe were not as democratic, see Religious persecution by Christians.

Nowadays, conversions to Christianity in non-Christian countries are on the rise, e.g. in China, Iran and Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Washington Times [3] some American muslims are converting to Christianity.

Reception of baptized persons into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church

The Code of Canon Law (canon 206) provides for the reception of baptized persons into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church. It should, however, be noted that, technically, baptized non-Catholics (for example Anglicans, Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists) who seek full communion with the Catholic Church are not "converts", though they are usually referred to by this term in common parlance. This is because, as taught in the Bible, those who are baptised in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are considered by the Catholic Church to be baptised and therefore, their 'conversion' is merely a coming home.

Conversion of Catholics to Protestantism

Prior to Vatican Council II (and after), Catholics who convert to Protestantism are called Apostates. In some Protestant churches, a Catholic requires re-baptism in order to qualify for acceptance.

Conversion to Islam

Also see List of converts to Islam, Islamization

One becomes a Muslim by believing Allah (Allah is the sole deity in Islam) is the only God and Muhammad is Allah 's messenger. A person is considered a Muslim from the moment he sincerely makes this witness, the shahada. Of course a new Muslim has to familiarize himself/herself with the practices of Islam, but there is no formal requirement for that. It is a personal process; acceptance of all of that is taken to follow from the original statement, since all of Islam is considered to derive from either divine inspiration, in the form of the Qur'an, or for prophetic example, in the form of the hadith and sunnah of Muhammad. Muslims believe that a new Muslim is free from sins.

According to some Muslims, one of the important doctrines of Islam is "la ikraha fiddeen" (Qu'ran, 2:256), meaning "no compulsion (or coercion) in religion". They believe that this verse implies that no nation can coerce another nation or individuals to change their religion.^{[citation needed]} Similarly, they believe that no spouse can coerce his or her spouse into religion. ^{[citation needed]} The doctrine is stated in such general terms it can also influence the policies of an Islamic nation towards two challenging parties and not having the other one being coerced into the other's religion.^{[citation needed]} Some Muslims don't agree with that interpretation and believe that the verse has been abrogated by later verses such as Ayat al-Sayf (the verse of the sword). [4]

According to many Muslim sources and several non-Muslim ones^{[citation needed]}, Islam is gaining converts, especially in U.S. prisons [5]. According to the World Network of Religious Futurists, the U.S. Center for World Mission Islam is growing faster numerically than any of the other major world religions. According to those sources, the numerical growth in the number of Muslims, however, is mainly because of the higher birthrates in Muslim countries.

Religious reasons for conversion

Muslim converts cite religious, social and emotional reasons for their conversion. ^{[citation needed]}

Islam as the successor of Judaism and Christianity. Islam claims that it is the successor religion to Judaism and Christianity, of which it claims that they deviate from a hypothetized original monotheistic religion, which it claims is Islam itself. Several former Jewish and Christian converts report that they believe this is true, citing alleged corrupted bible texts^{[citation needed]}.
Alleged less confusing theology. Former Christian converts to Islam report that they are dismayed with e.g. the Christian concept of trinity and the divinity of Jesus Christ. Others choose to remain within Christianity, see Ebionites^{[citation needed]}.
Appeal of Islamic lifestyle. Several former secular converts report that they prefer the Islamic attitude towards sex and societal conduct above the prevalent Western equivalents ^{[citation needed]}.
Appeal of Muhammad as a person. Several converts report that their admiration for Muhammad and his lifestyle as a person were the main motivation for their conversion, while several apostates cite their dismay with Muhammads personality and lifestyle as the chief reason, they left Islam.
Mental tranquillity. Several former secular and Christian converts report an increased tranquillity after their conversion, as they claim Islam is more straightforward in its demands from its adherents. ^{[citation needed]}.

In Islamic culture there is no such label or word found that means convert, probably ^{[citation needed]} since new converts to Islam soon found their way to mainstream or even leadership ranks among Muslims. In other words, there was no need for the label in dealing with newcomers. This welcoming attitude towards new Muslims stimulates conversions to Islam. One example to this is the family of the late Iqbal of Pakistan^{[citation needed]}.

Other reasons for conversion

Conversion can change the social position of the convert in the society in which he or she lives. Critics of Islam, such as Ibn Warraq, Robert Spencer and Bat Yeor, emphasize non-religious resons for conversion to Islam, while Muslims emphasize the religious reasons and deny or deemphasize non-religious reasons. Non-religious reasons for conversion to Islam include:

Social pressure. As is the case with most religious groups, Muslims tend to be friendlier towards a fellow Muslim than towards a non-Muslim.
Conversion by the parent. According to Islamic law, minors have to follow the religion of their guardian (usually their father), which implies that a Muslim parent has the right to register his minor children as Muslim even without their permission. Cases have been reported in e.g. Malaysia [6] and several cases of alleged or proven child abduction in which the children were transferred to a Muslim country by a Muslim parent and the children were assumed Muslim by the local administration (publications by Betty Mahmoody).
A more favourable legal position within Islamic jurisdiction. In general, Islamic law awards non-Muslims less rights than it does to Muslims (e.g. by dismissing their testimony before court in a case in which Muslims are involved), see dhimmitude, which, critics like Cooper claim, makes conversion to Islam appealing for non-Muslims living under Islamic law. ^{[citation needed]}
Personal safety. Critics claim [7] [8] that as Shari'ah dictates that political enemies of Muslims which convert to Islam before they get captured or defeated must be released and left unharmed, thus making conversion to Islam an effective means to escape enslavement or the forfeiture of possessions. Shari'ah forbids enslavement of fellow Muslims. [9]. As, by orders of Muhammad, all non-Muslims had to leave the Hejaz, this might have been an additional reason to convert as well for those non-Muslims wishing to stay at the Hejaz.
Tax evasion. Non-Muslims under Islamic administration have to pay the jizya tax (nominally 12 to 48 Islamic Dirhams of silver per capita per year, at times of war much higher), while Muslims do not have to pay this tax. Kharaj tax applied originally for dhimmi landowners only, but when this tax base eroded by mass conversions of tax-weary Zoroastrians and Christians to Islam, Caliph Umar II decided to make dhimmi-tenured land non-transferable to Muslims (Cooper, 1976). For a detailed treatise, see kharaj, jizya.
Islamic marriage law. According to shari'ah, becoming Muslim is mandatory for non-Muslim men wishing to marry an Islamic woman. [10]. Several reports [11] [12] indicate that several non-Muslim men converted to Islam in order to marry their Islamic beloved.
Divorce. Muslim men can obtain a divorce with relative ease by proclaiming 'talaaq' three times [13], which is more problematic in most Christian congregations, especially those in Muslim countries, such as the Copts and the Nestorians, as well under Hindu secular law in India. According to an Indian analysis [14], several conversions to Islam in India were prompted by the wish of an easy divorce.
Polygamy. Muslim men can marry more than one wife[15], which is prohibited in virtually all Christian congregations and Indian secular law, which applies for Indian Hindus. According to Hindu publications, [16] men wishing to marry more than one wife convert to Islam in order to be able to practize polygamy.

Muslims dispute some or all of those reasons. ^{[citation needed]}

Conversion to religions of Indic origin

Religions of Indic origin such as Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism do not believe in conversion as a form of expansion, although they welcome anybody to join their faiths. The reason for this is the strongly held belief that "all religions are true and are only different paths to the same truth". Followers also believe the religion you follow is to be chosen based on an individual's temperament, birth etc. Also, what would be very strange and foreign to non-Indic origin faiths is that people can claim to be follower of multiple religions. For example in Japan which was influenced by the Indic faith of Buddhism, it is easy to find people who follow both Buddhism and Shinto. It is also common to find people in India claming to be both Hindu and Buddhist or Hindu and Sikh etc. This inclusivism is in direct contrast to the belief that the ordained path in the book is the only true paths, found in exclusivistic belief systems. This inclusivism also makes any conversion unnecessary. It should be noted that the above does not apply for some sects of Indic faiths, like Soka Gakkai and Hare Krishna/ISKCON.

Conversion to the Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'í Faith prohibits "proselytism" and "missionaries" but encourages its members to "teach the faith" and serve as "Bahá'í pioneers". Such distinctions can be very subtle at times. Although recognizing the divine origins of various world religions, Baha'is believe that these occurred sequentially (see Progressive revelation), with each new revelation superseding its predecessors. Bahá'ís regard their own faith as the most recent, and therefore as the one most suitable for all others to convert to. In most countries conversion is a simple matter of filling out a Bahá'í declaration card, stating one's awareness and acceptance of various figures, institutions, and laws in this tradition. It sometimes happens that inquirers fill out the card without understanding that the Bahá'ís understand this as an act of religious conversion.

Conversion to new religious movements and cults

Conversion to new religious movements (NRM's) is riddled with controversies. The anti-cult movement sometimes uses the term thought reform or even brainwashing, though the latter term has now become discredited. Often they will call certain NRM's cults. However, the definition of a cult has become so broad in many instances it is almost meaningless and is used to define anything outside Orthodoxy. NRMs are very diverse and it is not clear whether conversion to NRMs differs from conversion to mainstream religions. See also Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements

Research both in the USA and the Netherlands has shown there is a positive correlation between lack of involvement in mainstream churches in certain areas and provinces and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence of New Age centers. [1],[2] The Dutch research included Jehovah's Witnesses and the Latter Day Saint movement/Mormonism to the NRM's.

Research in the USA has shown disproportionally large numbers people of Jewish descent join NRM's which worries the Jewish community. [3]

Professor Eileen Barker believes the psychological changes as described in converts of the Divine Light Mission can be generalized for other NRMs, however she has supplied no proof of such claims.

Conversion to Scientology

The Church attempts to gain converts by offering "free stress tests" (see picture at auditing). In contrast to other religions, which require one to sign a card (e.g. Unitarian Universalism) or be baptised (e.g. Catholic Church), Scientology requires converts to sign contracts before attending church.

Prohibition of conversion

Several ethnic religions don't accept converts, like the Yazidis, the Druze, and Zoroastrians. The only way to become a Yazidi is to be born in a Yazidi family. Conversely, the Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods don't allow procreation, so every member is a convert. Mainstream Islam forbids converting from Islam to another religion. In some Islam-controlled states, such as Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Pakistan, conversion from Islam is punishable by death or imprisonment.

Proselytism

The English language word proselytism is derived ultimately from the Greek language verb προσέρχομαι 'to approach, to come toward'. It generally describes attempts to convert a person from one point of view to another, usually in a religious context.

History

In the Bible, the word proselyte denotes a person who has converted to Judaism, without overtly negative overtones. In our day, however, the connotations of the word proselytism are almost exclusively negative. Nonetheless, many people use the words interchangeably. An Orthodox writer, Stephen Methodius Hayes has written: "If people talk about the need for evangelism, they meet with the response, "The Orthodox church does not 'proselytize' as if evangelizing and proselytism were the same thing."

Many Christians consider it their obligation to follow what is often termed the "Great Commission" of Jesus, recorded in the final verses of the Gospel of Matthew: "Go to all the nations and make disciples. Baptize them and teach them my commands." The early Christians were noted for their evangelizing work.

The difference between the two terms is not easily defined. What one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper.

Illustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State University's 'Journal of Law and Health': "According to the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Jesus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates for deprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing . . . are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus and Campus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis". [17]

Views on the propriety of proselytism, or even evangelism, differ radically. Some feel that freedom of speech should have no limits and that virtually anyone, anywhere should have the right to talk about anything they see fit. Others see all sorts of evangelism as a nuisance and an intrusion and would like to see them proscribed. Thus, Natan Lerner observes that the issue is one of a clash of rights - the right of a person to express his views versus the right of a person not to be exposed to views that he does not wish to hear.

From a legal standpoint, there do appear to be certain criteria in distinguishing legitimate evangelization from illicit proselytism:

All humans have the right to have religious beliefs, and to change these beliefs, even repeatedly, if they so wish. (Freedom of Religion)
They have the right to form religious organizations for the purpose of worship, as well as for promoting their cause (Freedom of Association)
They have the right to speak to others about their convictions, with the purpose of influencing the others. (Freedom of Speech).

By the same token, these very rights exercise a limiting influence on the freedoms of others. For instance, the right to have one's religious beliefs presumably includes the right not to be coerced into changing these beliefs by threats, discrimination, or similar inducements.

Hence a category of improper proselytizing can be discerned.

It would not be proper to use coercion, threats, the weight of authority of the educational system, access to health care or similar facilities in order to induce people to change their religion.
It would be improper to try to impose one's beliefs on a 'captive audience', where the listeners have no choice but to be present. This would presumably require restraint in the exercise of their right to free speech, by teachers in the classroom, army officers to their inferiors, prison officers in prison, medical staff in hospitals, so as to avoid impinging on the rights of others.
It would not be proper to offer money, work, housing or other material inducements as a means of persuading people to adopt another religion.

Issues involving proselytism

Since the collapse of the former Soviet Union and the rise of democracy in the Eastern Bloc, the Russian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by the Roman Catholic Church, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses and other religious movements [18] in what it refers to as its canonical territory.

Greece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses but also with some Pentecostals over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness, Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of US $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested repeatedly for the 'offence' of preaching his faith from door to door. In another case, Larissis vs. Greece, a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European Court of Human Rights.

Some Islamic countries with Islamic law outlaw and carry strict sentences for proselytising. Several Islamic countries under Islamic law, e.g. Saudi Arabia [19] [20], Yemen [21], Afghanistan, Pakistan [22], Egypt [23], Iran [24] [25] and Maldives [26] outlaw apostacy and carry imprisonment or the death penalty for those leaving Islam and those enticing Muslims to leave Islam.

References

1. Schepens, T. (Dutch) Religieuze bewegingen in Nederland volume 29, Sekten Ontkerkelijking en religieuze vitaliteit: nieuwe religieuze bewegingen en New Age-centra in Nederland (1994) VU uitgeverij ISBN 90-5383-341-2
2. Starks, R & W.S. Bainbridge The future of religion: secularization, revival and cult formation (1985) Berkely/Los Angeles/London: University of California press
3. Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions (2001) UK, Cassell & Co [27]
4. Cooper, Richard S. "The Assessment and Collection of Kharaj Tax in Medieval Egypt" (Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 96, No. 3. (Jul. – Sep., 1976), pp. 365–382.

External links

Jewish Encyclopedia: Proselyte
"Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human Rights", by Natan Lerner, PhD (legal aspects of defining illicit proselytism)
Choosing Judaism: Resource Center for Prospectice Converts