eunuch

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kizlar Aga , the chief of the black eunuchs in the harem of the Ottoman Sultan , approx. 1763–1779 Francis Smith (1722–1822), Yale Center for British Art

A eunuch (ancient Greek εὐνοῦχος eunouchos , from εὐνή eunē "bed", and ἔχω echō "to guard, guard") is a person of the male sex (child, adolescent or adult man) who has been castrated . The phenomenon has occurred in many cultures at almost all times in world history. In some cases, eunuchs have their penis removed .

At many courts of earlier cultures, especially in Byzantium and the Empire of China , so-called “palace eunuchs” belonging to the court were coveted and valued. Since castration was usually carried out in boys' age, many of them did not survive the operation - especially because of the loss of blood and the occurrence of wound infections.

Consequences of castration

Black Eunuch, 1878. Engraving by Karl Werner, in: Georg Moritz Ebers (1837–1898): Egipto . Barcelona 1882

A distinction is made between early castrate (castrated before or during puberty ) and late castrate (castrated after the age of 20/25). Castration is most serious when done before puberty, with some, but not all, of the effects gradually decreasing as puberty progresses. When castrating adults, the changes of puberty (e.g. deeper voice , bone shape, beard growth and the development of the genitals) are retained or hardly recede.

Social position of eunuchs

The Kapu-ağası , white chief eunuch in the harem of the Turkish sultan. de Choiseul-Gouffier: Voyage picturesque de la Grèce . Paris, vol. 3 1822

The emasculation could on the one hand be a severe, highly dishonorable punishment or on the other hand it could only qualify for certain offices. It was therefore possible for a eunuch to attain high honors and great esteem, since, for example, he could not be considered a "biological" rival for a ruler. This applied to the domain of the ruler's wife (s) and in relation to his descendants, whose existence always had to be secured against rivals . In the Assyrian Empire , eunuchs could rise to the highest court positions. As the chief eunuch , Mutakkil-Marduk was even an eponym officer for the period from 798 to 797 BC. Chr.

In ancient times , eunuchs had the rank of ministers in the political and social spheres , in Byzantium they could become high officers . With the Ottomans and in China they were valued primarily as "palace eunuchs". The term eunuch itself (see above) is derived from the role of guardian in the harem , or "protector of the marital bed" of a potentate . In addition, individual eunuchs - such as the Chinese admiral Zheng He - managed to get into high political and military offices.

In the Baroque in particular , castrati were revered for their singing voice , which was considered unearthly beautiful.

Eunuchs in different cultures

Cybelecult

Priest of Cybele ( Capitoline Museums , Rome)

In the religious field, so-called eunuchs were held in high esteem in various religions : in antiquity, for example, the Galloi or Galli in the cult of Cybele . However, these differed from 'normal' or real eunuchs (such as harem guards or castrato singers) in that they lived as women and desired the castration themselves or even performed it themselves in special rites . The subject of the discussion is to what extent and to what extent Galloi, according to today's understanding, were transsexual people who actually felt themselves to be women and therefore followed this path of life, as can be seen in the hijras in India that still exist today .

As the cult of Cybele spread from Asia Minor across the entire Roman Empire , the procedure of self-mutilation also spread . Every year at the time of the spring festival there were lavish pageants of the priests and followers of Cybeles, during which "young men" in women's clothes cut off their genitals with a ceremonial sword or sharp-edged objects , which they then threw into the crowd of spectators. They then had to furnish the newcomer to the eunuch with women's clothes. It has been handed down from eunuch priests that castration often led to permanent bladder weakness .

Hijrakult

In India and other South Asian countries such as Pakistan and Bangladesh , a phenomenon similar to that of the ancient Galloi has survived to the present day: the hijra , which is also in the cultic service of a goddess . They were officially recognized as “ third sex ” in India (1994) and Pakistan (2009) (see list of third sexes ). They are often despised by the rest of society, but also feared because of their supposed magical abilities. Many hijras are not eunuchs in the sense of a castrated man, but transgender and transsexual with a female gender identity . They are often exposed to extreme human rights violations , in some cases by the Indian police and authorities.

LGBT historians and human rights activists have tried to classify the Hijra as transgender. They asked Hijra and other trans activists 2013/2014 in a series of meetings of the transgender expert committee of India's Ministry of Social Justice and empowerment (Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment) , that the term "eunuch" (English eunuch ) from the use in state documents is deleted because the community of the Hijra does not identify with this name.

China

The imperial widow and empress of China on her throne chair in the midst of palace eunuchs, before 1908
Li Lianying (1848–1911), famous imperial eunuch of the Qing Dynasty , China

Even for vorkaiserzeitliche period can be found in Zhouli evidence of castrati ( yān rén奄人). In the Chinese Empire (221 BC to 1911) men were only allowed to enter the inner area of ​​the imperial palaces at certain times. There were therefore eunuch officials in the rulers' palaces who were and are generally known in Chinese as huàn guān宦官 (official eunuch). In the Qing period (1644–1911 AD) the term tài jiān太監, which originally only referred to certain officials of the Tang period (618–906 AD), was used as a general term for all eunuchs. In addition, there have been many other alternative names for eunuchs at all times.

Eunuchs came from many different social backgrounds. Before the Su era (581–618 AD), eunuchs were mainly recruited from prisoners of war and hostages from neighboring countries. During the Tang and Ming times (1368–1644 AD) there were also castrated slaves from distant provinces of China, who were offered as tribute to the imperial court or the nobility or provincial governors. After the Tang Period, eunuch care was usually maintained by boys who had been castrated or sold uncastrated by their own parents, as well as by adults who voluntarily castrated themselves in order to gain employment at court and escape economic poverty. Self-castration was particularly widespread in the Qing period (1644–1911). If these castrati were given a post in the palace, whether intentionally or not, that meant livelihood and social prestige for the whole family. The procedure itself was usually carried out by trained castrateurs without anesthesia . However, since castration alone does not completely exclude erectile function, the Chinese imperial court required castration together with a penectomy .

Official eunuchs belonged to the imperial court or the households of the princes , so-called “palace eunuchs” also lived and worked in the Forbidden City itself. They performed a wide variety of activities, for example as ministers and advisers, as harem guards and bath attendants, as litter-bearers , messengers and heralds and as house servants, etc.Eunuchs also performed all sorts of low-level services as cooks, cleaners, gardeners, stable boys, park attendants, tailors, manufacture workers and the like . a.

Above all, the warlike emperor of the Han (ruled 141–87 BC) and his successors increased the presence of eunuchs in their private chambers, where usually no “real man” apart from the ruler, i.e. no regular civil servant, but only women (for example court ladies , maids and concubines ) and eunuchs were allowed to be present. In this respect, harem service, personal advisory work and the transfer of information between private apartments and the outer, more public parts of the palace, the receipt of inputs to the ruler and the promulgation of his decrees, and, based on this, the political influence of eunuchs close to the ruler (often identical to his Educators since early childhood) are closely interwoven.

During the reign of the Kangxi emperor (r. 1662–1722 AD), the eunuchs of the "Chamber for Venerable Affairs" ( jìng shì fáng敬事 房) were responsible for the administration and meticulous bookkeeping of the imperial cohabitant. During the Qing period, the imperial eunuchs were divided into 48 departments, which were prescribed number, areas of responsibility and also the specific activities in certain palaces or departments.

In the imperial palace complex, the palace eunuchs lived in strict hierarchies . At the top were the general eunuchs, who were able to secure other income in addition to the imperial allowances, partly also through fraud. Because of this income, some general eunuchs led a lifestyle like aristocrats , are said to have even lived with women and were in command of the chief eunuchs. These too received an imperial salary from which they could live, and they had authority over the common eunuchs. These in turn were divided into different ranks and performed the “lower” physical work, for example as cooks, litter-bearers or house servants. Their incomes were often low and their lives were poor. Worst of all were the Sulas , the simple cleaning slaves of the Forbidden City. As a further specialty of the Chinese palace eunuchs of the Forbidden City, they were not allowed to be employed anywhere else, in contrast to the eunuchs employed by the princes, for example if they were dismissed for misconduct. As a result , the Sulas in particular fell into poverty, became beggars and died of starvation.

Furthermore, a distinction was made in the Forbidden City as “young eunuchs”, also known as “eunuch newcomers”. They had only recently been castrated and penectomized, then come to the imperial palace and mostly did menial jobs such as litter bearers or kitchen servants.

Although emphasis has been placed on limiting the power of eunuchs throughout Chinese history, many eunuchs are known to have played an important role in politics. In the 14th century, the Chinese eunuch Zheng He was given the highest honors by becoming admiral of the fleet and exploring parts of the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia on imperial orders .

Judaism

In Judaism, however , castration ("intersection") is strictly forbidden, even that of animals. According to the law of Moses , a eunuch was also not allowed to be accepted as a convert ; he was excluded from the temple service and was only allowed to enter the outer courtyard of the Jerusalem temple . In addition in the 5th book of Moses, chapter 23, verse 2 ( Dtn 23,2  EU ): No man or blemish should come into the church of the Lord. Only gradually did a change of this view begin:

“And the stranger who has turned to the Lord should not say: The Lord will keep me apart from my people. And the cut one should not say: See, I am a withered tree. For thus says the Lord: To those who have been cut off, who keep my Sabbaths and choose what is right for me and hold fast to my covenant, I will give them a monument and a name in my house and within my walls; that is better than sons and daughters. I want to give them an eternal name that should not perish. "

- Bible : Isaiah and wisdom

Christianity

Jesus addresses the eunuchs in Matthew 19:12:

"For there are those who have been cut off from birth; and there are those who have been cut off by men; and there are those who have cut themselves off for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Whoever can grasp it, grasp it! "

The Ethiopian eunuch the Kandake , a dignitary at court, was the first pagan to be baptized according to the biblical Acts of the Apostles ( Acts 8.27-40  EU ) .

In the history of Christianity , men who had been castrated voluntarily were not allowed to receive ordination offices such as the priesthood since ancient times. According to the First Council of Nicaea 325, however, involuntarily castrated people were allowed to do so . The baptism of a eunuch was permitted. After his involuntary castration and entering the monastery in 1119, the Paris logician Abelard was ordained a priest, became abbot and continued his militant life as a philosopher.

Since late antiquity and later, especially in the Baroque era , many boys in Italy , for example, have been castrated before puberty with the aim of enabling them to pursue a career as successful opera or church choirs (so-called castrati ). It was not until November 22nd, 1903 that Pope Pius X wrote in his Motu Proprio Tra le sollecitudini (“On Church Music ”) that only boys should be used for the cast of soprano and alto voices and thus practically forbade the employment of castrati in church choirs. This prohibition removed the basis of castration practice to promote a singing career.

On religious emasculation in Christianity, see also: Skopzen and Uta Ranke-Heinemann's polemic Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven .

Palace eunuchs in Byzantium

Eutropios († 399), first and only eunuch to reach the consulate . KHM Vienna

In the Byzantine Empire , too , some eunuchs held high positions such as chamberlain or troop commanders , including Narses , a general of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I.

Byzantine eunuchs usually only had their testicles removed; additional penis removal was rare. Castration was officially forbidden in Byzantium, but the import of eunuch slaves from abroad was permitted. However, freeborn, Byzantine boys were also castrated because eunuchs could reach high offices in state and church. Even some patriarchs were eunuchs. At the beginning of the 9th century the sons of overthrown emperors were castrated several times. These boys had to be emasculated so that they could no longer succeed to the throne.

Slave trade in the Middle Ages

In the High Middle Ages , pagan Slavs who had been captured in the course of the Slavic Wars and that of the German Eastern Settlement were enslaved in Germany . Of Jewish merchants , they were taken to slave caravans to Venice or Arles, where they by sea to al-Andalus imported and in the rest of the Muslim culture. Some of them were neutered. The historian Charles Verlinden calls Verdun a “real 'factory' for eunuchs”.

Ottoman Empire

The Serbian Janissary Konstantin from Ostrovitza describes in his work Memoirs of a Janissary a partial aspect of the boy reading in the Balkans:

“ The Sultan ( Mehmed II ) held back 320 boys and 704 women ; […] Some of those other boys had their male limbs cut off, and one of them died of it. And so the Turks call them hadimlar , that means hammers, they guard the sultan's wives. "

- Konstantin von Ostrovitza : Memoirs of a Janissary
A eunuch of the Ottoman Sultan

Most of the eunuchs in the Ottoman Empire, however, came from Africa. They formed the large group of "black eunuchs" in the sultan's harem , along with the "white eunuchs". One of the most important people in the harem was the head of the black eunuchs ( Kızlar Ağası ). This supervised the work of all other eunuchs, whose job it was to teach the women of the harem and to take care of their personal hygiene as well as to regulate financial matters of the harem. The Kızlar Ağası was also the link between the harem and the outside world.

In 1651, rebellious sipahis allied themselves with the harem's black eunuchs, who arranged the murder of Kösem Mahpeyker .

The chronicler Ahmed İbrahim Resmî wrote his work Hamıletü'l-kübera in 1749 , a biographical listing of all the Supreme Black Eunuchs of the Sultan's harem, from Mehmed Ağa (1574-1590) to Moralı Beşir Ağa II (1746-1752). 38 eunuchs are listed with a short biography.

When troops of the Young Turks stormed the harem of the deposed Sultan Abdülhamid II on April 24, 1909 , they hung the head eunuch on a lantern on the Galata Bridge and released the slaves. A group of these women and eunuchs could be seen at a Völkerschau in Vienna before the First World War .

Eunuchs in modern times

The fact that eunuchs still exist today has so far only been reliably proven in India for some of the hijras . However, according to today's understanding, these are mostly transgender or transsexual. They suffer from poor social standing, discrimination (and even state abuse and sexual abuse), a lack of social security, poverty, loneliness and social isolation.

Some men have the desire to undergo castration and continue to live as eunuches, some of which turn to semi-professional castrateurs or "doctors" or mutilate themselves . Many underestimate the blood loss and the risk of infection .

See also: Castration & Law ; " Skopzen syndrome" (no  ICD-10 cipher).

Familial eunuchoidism

Classification according to ICD-10
E23.0 Hypopituitarism
E29.1 Testicular hypofunction
ICD-10 online (WHO version 2019)

It is rare for a boy to suffer from testosterone deficiency or androgen resistance ( ICD-10 E 29.1 ) from birth , for example in hypogonadism ( ICD-10 E 23.0 or ICD-10 E 29.1 ) or in familial eunuchoidism ( e.g. the Pasqualini syndrome , ICD-10 e 23.0 ). The feminization ( ICD-10 E 29.1 ) can have symptoms that are similar to the effects of castration.

Myths and Legends

Many myths and half-truths entwine around this topic. On the one hand, eunuchs were often said to have insidious behavior and intrigue , on the other hand they were already considered loyal under Constantine I (because they could not found their own dynasty and thus did not represent any competition for the ruler), as loyal and sincere, but also dispensable. For these reasons, some rulers surrounded themselves with eunuchs and entrusted them with political and military tasks.

Juvenal writes in his work Satires that some Roman women castrated slaves after puberty in order to use them as sterile lovers. According to legend, late castrati were still capable of erection and penetration . Although it carried with them an orgasm for secretion could come excrement, this secretion contained no sperm , so that women no fear of unwanted pregnancy have had. In addition, it was said that these eunuchs could erect their penis longer than men who still had their testicles . For this reason, among other things, some women valued late castrati as servants. From a medical point of view, it is entirely possible that a castrated man remains potent to a more or less limited extent , since the adrenal cortex also produces a small amount of testosterone. Historically, however, Juvenal's satire is probably an exaggeration of the “ immoral ” way of life of some Roman women.

Known eunuchs

Philetairos of Pergamon. Naples , Museo Archeologico Nazionale

literature

  • A. Ezgi Dikici: The making of Ottoman court eunuchs: Origins, recruitment paths, family ties, and 'domestic production'. In: Archivum Ottomanicum. Volume 30, 2013, pp. 105-136 ( online ).
  • Christine Doran: Chinese palace eunuchs: shadows of the emperor. In: NEBULA. A Journal of Multidisciplinary Scholarship. Volume 7, No. 3, Nebula Press, 2010.
  • Roswitha Gost: The History of the Harem. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2002, ISBN 3-491-96044-4 .
  • Frans Jonckheere: L'Eunuque dans l'Égypte pharaonique. In: Revue d'Histoire des Sciences. Volume 7, No. 2, April-June 1954, pp. 139-155 ( English translation: Eunuchs in Pharaonic Egypt. ).
  • Ulrike Jugel: Political function and social position of the eunuchs for the later Hanzeit. Steiner, Wiesbaden 1976.
  • Shaun Marmon: Eunuchs and Sacred Boundaries in Islamic Society. Oxford University Press, New York / Oxford 1995, ISBN 0-19-507101-8 .
  • Kathryn M. Ringrose: The Perfect Servant. The Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium. Chicago University Press, Chicago / London 2003, ISBN 0-226-72015-2 (Distribution and social significance of eunuchs in late antiquity and in early Byzantium).
  • Piotr O. Scholz: The emasculated Eros. A cultural history of the eunuchs and castrati. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf et al. 1996, ISBN 3-538-07056-3 .
  • Dieter Simon : Praise of the eunuch (= writings of the historical college , lectures, 24). Munich 1994 ( digitized version ).
  • Yu Huaqing 余華青: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai renmin chubanshe, Shanghai 1993.
  • Fariba Zarinebaf-Shar in: Jonathan Dewald (Ed.): Europe 1450 to 1789: encyclopedia of the early modern world. Volume 3: Gabrieli to Lyon. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York 2004, ISBN 0-684-31200-X .
  • Hiroshi Wada: Considerations on the eunuch being at the late antique and Byzantine imperial court. In: Cordula Scholz, Georgios Makris (Ed.): Polypleuros nous. Miscellanea for Peter Schreiner on his 60th birthday (= Byzantine Archives. Volume 19). Saur, Munich / Leipzig 2000, ISBN 3-598-77742-6 , pp. 395-403.
  • Hiroshi Wada: “Eunuchs for the sake of the heavenly kingdom” in Byzantium? In: Orient. ISSN  1884-1392 (The Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan) Volume 41, 2006, pp. 5-19, doi: 10.5356 / orient.41.5 ( full text as PDF file ).

Web links

Commons : Eunuchs  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Eunuch  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A. Sachs: Absolute Dating from Mesopotamian Records. In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Volume 269, No. 1193, Dec. 17, 1970, A Symposium on the Impact of the Natural Sciences on Archeology. Pp. 19-22.
  2. ↑ Filippo Carla-Uhink: Crossing Gender. Transvestism in the Roman Empire as a strategy for the construction of inequality. In: Antje Dresen, Florian Freitag (eds.): Crossing. About staging cultural differences and identities. transcript, Bielefeld 2017, pp. 11-38; here: pp. 25–27.
  3. ↑ Shaun Tougher: Eunuchs. In: Bonnie G. Smith (Ed.): The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History. Volume 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008, p. 201.
  4. ^ Dig reveals novel transvestite. Report of the discovery of the skeleton of a Cybele priestess in Yorkshire. In: news.bbc.co.uk. May 21, 2002, accessed November 12, 2019 .
  5. ↑ Samira Shackle: Politicians of the third gender: the “shemale” candidates of Pakistan. In: NewStatesman.com. May 7, 2013, accessed November 10, 2019.
  6. ↑ Basim Usmani: Pakistan to register 'third sex' hijras. In: theguardian.com . July 18, 2009, accessed November 10, 2019.
  7. ↑ Eva Fels, Traude Pillai-Vetschera: Hidschras: the third generation of India. In: FrauenSolidarität. Issue No. 78, April 2001, pp. 18/19 ( online at transgender.at ).
  8. ↑ Lynn Conway: History and Evidence of Transsexuality in Different Cultures. In: ai.eecs.umich.edu. May 26, 2011, Retrieved November 10, 2019 (translated from English by Vivian Silver).
  9. ↑ Human Rights violations against the Transgender Community: A Study of Kothi and Hijra Sex Workers in Bangalore - Sept. 2003 ( Memento of February 26, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) In: pucl.org. January 2004, accessed November 10, 2019.
  10. ^ Rajesh Talwar: The Third Sex and Human Rights. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi 1999, ISBN 81-212-0642-1 , pp. ??.
  11. ^ RB Towle, LM Morgan: Romancing the Transgender Native: Rethinking the Use of the “Third Gender” Concept. In: S. Stryker, S. Whittle: Transgender Studies Reader. Routledge, New York / London 2006, pp. ??.
  12. ↑ a b U. Jugel: Political function and social position of the eunuchs in the later Hanzeit. Wiesbaden 1976, p. 4.
  13. ↑ Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 19.
  14. ↑ For terminology see Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 9 f.
  15. ↑ Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 10.
  16. ↑ U. Jugel: Political function and social position of the eunuchs to the later Hanzeit. Wiesbaden 1976, p. 182; Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 12.
  17. ↑ Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 468.
  18. ↑ C. Doran: Chinese palace eunuchs: shadows of the emperor. 2010, p. 18.
  19. ↑ Pu Yi (Ed.): I was Emperor of China. (Translation by Richard Schirach and Mulan Lehner) Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-423-20701-9 .
  20. ↑ Yu Huaqing: Zhongguo huanguan zhidushi. Shanghai 1993, p. 451.
  21. ↑ Isaiah Chapter 56, verses 3–5 ( Isa 56,3  EU ); see also Wisdom , Chapter 3, Verse 14 ( Weish 3,14  EU )
  22. ↑ Etienne Gilson, S. Thieme-Paetow: Heloise and Abälard. At the same time a contribution to the problem of medieval humanism. Herder, Freiburg 1955, p. 66, quoted from the research database Alkuin of the University of Regensburg (accessed on October 28, 2014)
  23. ↑ Tra le sollecitudini . Paragraph V: “The Singers”, Section 13; From: vatican.va , last accessed October 28, 2014.
  24. ↑ Charles Verlinden: Was Medieval Slavery a Significant Demographic Factor? In: Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte 66. Heft 2 (1979), pp. 153–173, here p. 159.
  25. ^ Renate Lachmann: Memoirs of a Janissary or Turkish Chronicle. Styria, Graz / Vienna / Cologne 1975, ISBN 3-222-10552-9 , p. 113 f.
  26. ↑ Fariba Zarinebaf-Shahr in: Jonathan Dewald (Ed.): Europe 1450 to 1789: encyclopedia of the early modern world. Vol. 3: Gabrieli to Lyon. P. 132.
  27. ↑ Roswitha Gost: The history of the harem. Düsseldorf 2002, p. 72.
  28. ↑ Suraiya Faroqhi, Bruce McGowan, Donald Quataert, Şevket Pamuk: An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 1997, ISBN 0-521-57455-2 , pp. 414 f .
  29. ↑ Roswitha Gost: The history of the harem. Düsseldorf 2002, pp. 261-263.