Peace psychology

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Peace psychology is a branch of psychology and peace research that deals with the psychological aspects of peace , conflict , violence and war . Peace psychology can be characterized by four interconnected pillars: (1) research, (2) education and training, (3) practice and (4) political influence. The first pillar, research, is the most widely documented.

Peace psychological activities are based on psychological models (theories) and methods; As a rule, they are normatively bound in their means and goals by working towards the ideal of peace with (preferably) non-violent means. Violence and peace are mostly defined in terms of Johan Galtungs's expanded concept of peace , according to which peace is not only the absence of personal (direct) violence and war (= negative peace), but also includes the absence of structural (indirect) and cultural violence (= positive peace ) (Fuchs & Sommer, 2004). The ideal of peace can also be concretized with a comprehensive realization of human rights (civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights); this should u. a. ensure the satisfaction of basic human needs, e.g. B. positive personal and social identity, control experience, security, (social) justice, well-being, but also a safe environment and adequate access to food and shelter (Tropp, 2012).

Organizations that focus on peace psychology are e.g. B. in Germany the Forum Friedenspsychologie e. V. and in the United States the Society for the Study of Peace, Conflict, and Violence (Peace Psychology Division [Division 48] of the American Psychological Association ) and the Psychologists for Social Responsibility. At the international level there is the Committee for the Psychological Study of Peace and the International Network of Psychologists for Social Responsibility. a. consists of organizations from Germany, Finland, the United States, Australia, Costa Rica, India, and Italy.

Peace Psychology Research

Peace psychological research can be analytical (research on peace) and / or normative (research for peace) oriented. Regardless of its analytical or normative orientation, it essentially deals with the psychological aspects of the emergence, escalation, reduction and resolution of conflicts (up to and including war), the psychosocial conditions that are conducive to or conducive to sustainable peace , and the psychosocial ones Effects of War and Violence . Different levels of analysis and explanation are relevant in each case: from the individual to groups, social organizations and institutions, states and state systems (e.g. European Union ), military alliances (e.g. NATO ) and collective security systems (e.g. the United Nations and the OSCE ).

Conflict formation and escalation

In its focus on the psychological aspects of the development, escalation, reduction and resolution of conflicts, peace psychology overlaps with conflict psychology . A conflict exists when the expectations, interests, needs or actions of at least two conflicting parties are perceived as incompatible by at least one of the parties. Peace psychology mostly deals with conflicts between social groups ( intergroup conflicts , among others between ethnic groups, clans, religious groups, states), e.g. B. in relation to life, power, prosperity, access to raw materials and markets, but also cultural or religious values, honor, dignity and recognition. In the case of conflicts, a distinction must be made between (superficial) positions (e.g. "we do not negotiate with X") and underlying interests (e.g. power, spheres of influence and wealth) as well as between current triggers (e.g. violence at a demonstration) ) and structural causes (e.g. systematic disadvantage of a group with regard to political participation or professional access). While conflicts are inevitable and productive confrontation can lead to positive changes (Kriesberg, 2007), the escalation of conflicts and especially the occurrence of violence can be avoided and associated with suffering and victims. Psychological processes of information processing (attention, perception, memory, thinking, judgment), emotional perception and motivation have a significant influence on how a conflict is processed and whether conflict-escalating action occurs. The different perspectives of the conflicting parties play an important role, as a result of which even positive actions by the conflict opponent are perceived as aggressive and can thus contribute to escalation. Conflicts can easily escalate. A cycle of violence can arise in which both parties are involved; original victims can become perpetrators themselves without realizing it ("victim myth"; Bar-Tal & Hammack, 2012).

Conflicts can be intensified in a targeted manner through the construction of enemy images , psychological warfare and propaganda . The media, elites in politics and society, but also the education system are important. Images of the enemy can have a true core, but exaggerate the negative side of the enemy. The core characteristics of a pronounced enemy image include: (1) a negative evaluation of the opponent (e.g. aggressive, immoral, but also inferior); (2) one-sided blame for negative events; and (3) a different assessment of comparable actions by one's own side and that of the opponent ("double standard"; e.g. one's armor is used for defense, that of the enemy for aggression); (4) Projection of own negative qualities onto the opposing nation (Bronfenbrenner 1961). These constructions can lead to the opponent becoming dehumanized and moral norms no longer valid: the other may (in extreme cases even: should) suffer suffering and death. The central function of building up images of the enemy is to justify armaments, violence and war. In addition, the individual and collective self-image is increased (Sommer, 2004).

Psychological warfare encompasses methods of influencing the civilian population and the military towards their own war aims. Central methods are disinformation with the help of the media (war propaganda), but also sabotage, displacement, murder and terror. War propaganda consists of two complementary strategies: (1) Information to intensify the image of the enemy or the perception of threat is repeated, assessed as typical for the enemy and embellished in detail; and (2) Information that can lead to de-escalation is withheld or devalued ("not meant seriously"). In addition, negative behavior on the part of the opponent can be provoked (e.g. through maneuvers at its national borders) or completely invented (e.g. incubator lie in the Second Gulf War in 1991) (Jaeger, 2004).

Conflict reduction and resolution (peace psychological strategies)

Various strategies are being discussed in peace psychology for resolving conflicts as non-violently as possible ( de-escalation , resolution , transformation ). One can choose between procedures on the official level (e.g. measures to reduce tension and build trust such as Charles E. Osgoods GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction), negotiations , mediation ), procedures of unofficial diplomacy (interactive problem-solving workshops; e.g. E.g. Kelman, 2002) and differentiate strategies that are applied in the civilian population (e.g. peace journalism , contact between social groups).

Official level

Osgood's GRIT model was conceived as a counter-concept to the armaments spiral of the East-West conflict , in which the superpowers at the time, the USA and USSR, constantly increased the quantity and quality of armaments, so that the annihilation of humanity through a nuclear war appeared possible. The GRIT model, on the other hand, is intended to de-escalate and create an atmosphere of mutual trust in which one party publicly announces a concrete step to reduce tension, takes it verifiably and calls on or invites the other side to do something similar (development of a trust spiral). Care is taken not to endanger one's own safety. There are indications that US President Kennedy and USSR Prime Minister Khrushchev orientated themselves on this concept in their negotiations after the Cuba crisis (Meyer, 2004).

Mediation is particularly useful in long-lasting, serious conflicts , as the parties to the conflict are no longer capable of constructive discussions. A third party (e.g. a well-known politician or scientist) supports those affected in resolving the conflict. Mediators must have a good knowledge of the conflict and its history, and they should have the confidence of the conflicting parties and be familiar with conflict analysis and communication strategies. Important strategies include establishing trust, working out the essential elements of the conflict and, if necessary, dividing up the problem so that at least partial solutions and a renunciation of violence can be achieved. It is problematic when mediators are partial and have strong interests of their own. Successful mediation is more likely if the conflict is moderately intense, the power difference between the conflicting parties is small and the mediators have high prestige (as a person or through the sending organization) (Mattenschlager & Meder, 2004).

Unofficial level

In serious, long-lasting conflicts, it can make sense to intervene at a level below official diplomacy. Interactive problem solving is such an unofficial approach to bringing members of the conflicting parties together (Kelman, 2002). This includes citizens with a high reputation from different areas of society, e.g. B. media, economy, politics or churches. A team of social scientists, u. a. Psychologists, initiates and promotes a problem-solving process with the elements of conflict diagnosis, identification of alternative courses of action and the development of non-violent possible solutions that lead to satisfactory results for everyone involved. There is an expectation or hope that those involved will influence their governments and public opinion to conduct formal negotiations. Psychologically significant components are to correct the respective self and enemy image. Interactive problem solving was used particularly in the Israel-Palestine conflict by the US psychologist Herbert C. Kelman and his team (d'Estrée, 2012).

Civilian population level

The media are often involved in creating images of the enemy and escalating conflicts. Peace journalism, on the other hand, aims to investigate and use the influence of the media to resolve conflicts in a constructive, non-violent manner when conflicts and wars escalate. Essential strategies are to adequately portray the parties involved in the conflict, including the conflict and its history, to name propaganda and to articulate the suffering of the population (Kempf, 2004).

The commitment of the population to peaceful ends and means can - especially in democracies - influence the decisions of those in power. The engagement depends on a. of offers for collective action, of individual value orientations (e.g. non-violence, social justice), models or role models and of the subjectively perceived probability of success of one's own actions (Preiser, 2004).

Contacts between opposing groups (e.g. at the level of cities, clubs, universities, trade unions) can help to build positive relationships and reduce prejudices (contact hypothesis; Allport, 1954; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011; Wagner & Hewstone, 2012 ). Particularly favorable conditions are: the actors have a similar social status, common goals are developed and the contacts are supported by social authorities.

Particularly in asymmetrical conflicts in which one party to the conflict is clearly superior politically, economically and / or militarily, there is a risk that the stronger party will not be interested in a truly sustainable conflict solution. In conflict management, the deeper causes of the conflict may not be sufficiently taken into account and structural violence persists. For such situations, approaches have been developed as nonviolent resistance and the resulting in Latin America and with the liberation theology allied liberation psychology (Montero & Sun, 2009).

In non-violent resistance it comes to public, non-violent behavior towards a Erlebtes injustice, exposing one's own intentions, striving for establishing communication with the other side, and finally to the willingness negative consequences to bear their own actions without violence (Blasi, 2004). Methods of non-violent resistance range from protest (e.g. demonstrations) to refusal to cooperate (e.g. strike, boycott of purchases) to civil resistance (e.g. chaining, traffic blockade). The work (acting, speaking, writing) of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King are particularly well known .

Effects of War and Violence

Peace psychology also explores wars and intergroup violence in order to clarify the psychological and social costs of war and violence and to raise awareness of the human suffering it causes. The psychological consequences include in particular trauma (these mainly affect the civilian population, but also military personnel), cognitive and emotional damage and the destruction of trusting social relationships (Gurris, 2004). Wars usually do not solve the underlying problems; they often provoke new violence and new wars. So z. For example, in post-war societies there was an increased level of domestic and social violence (Wessells, 2004). In addition, resources for civilian tasks are lost, including a. in the education, health and social system. The consequences and costs of wars have so far hardly been examined comprehensively and objectively (Kantner, 2007; Sommer, 2008).

Psychosocial Conditions of Sustainable Peace

In order to prevent the danger of a renewed escalation even after the end of violence or a peace treaty , socio-political and psychosocial measures are required in addition to material and economic reconstruction, aimed at healing psychosocial war wounds, building trust, and developing a common collective memory and recognition of injustice committed, reconciliation and forgiveness (Hamber, 2009). These include B. Trauma Therapy and Truth and Reconciliation Commissions .

Independent of specific conflicts and violence, research in the field of peace psychology focuses on which psychosocial conditions make sustainable peace difficult and favorable. Basically, the aim is to transform cultures of violence into cultures of peace (Boehnke, Christie & Anderson, 2004; see also UN Decade for a Culture of Peace ).

The following cultural characteristics are a hindrance to the development of sustainable peace: the assessment of one's own group (ethnicity, religion, nation, etc.) as superior and valuable, that of others as inferior and of little value (in extreme cases: worthless); This is accompanied by the development of images of the enemy, the dehumanization of others and the legitimation of violence and harm; underlying beliefs (ideologies) such as ethnocentrism , social dominance orientation, authoritarianism , nationalism and militarism ; a security mindset based on the belief that military strength (weapons, military alliances) guarantees security; social elites, media, and an educational system that promote these ideologies; Differences in power that are defended or expanded by the powerful and that may a. lead to unequal conditions in the areas of prosperity, health, education and political participation (so-called structural violence ) (Fuchs, 2004).

The following are considered to be conducive to the development of sustainable peace: the basic conviction that conflicts are frequent but that they can be resolved non-violently and for the benefit of the different parties to the conflict; the concept of humanism with the characteristics of human dignity, pacifism, empathy, respect, tolerance and solidarity with regard to all people or humanity as a whole; Critical closeness to one's own group, which - in addition to positive identification - also integrates one's own weaknesses, mistakes and crimes in the collective self-concept (Boehnke et al., 2004).

When transforming cultures of violence into cultures of peace, human rights orientation is of great importance. Human rights are inalienable rights that apply to all people, regardless of gender, skin color, ethnicity, language, religion, political convictions or social origin (prohibition of discrimination). The UN Human Rights Charter contains the essential documents: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR; 1948) and the Twin Pacts (1966; international pact on economic, social and cultural rights and international pact on civil and political rights ). The UDHR consists of 30 articles with more than 100 individual rights, including a. civil and political rights (e.g. right to life, prohibition of torture, right to a fair and public trial, right to asylum, freedom of expression, regular elections); also social, economic and cultural rights (including the right to work, recreation, paid leave, protection against unemployment, the right to food, clothing, housing, medical care and free primary schooling). What is particularly important about the United Nations concept of human rights is that all human rights are significant (indivisibility) and that they apply to all people (universality). Psychological research on human rights examines knowledge, attitudes and willingness to act in particular. Representative surveys (in Germany) on human rights show that the realization of human rights is seen as very important, while knowledge about human rights is low and imprecise. A "halving" of human rights can be seen: some civil rights are known, but economic and social rights are hardly seen as human rights (Sommer & Stellmacher, 2009; Stellmacher & Sommer, 2011). In terms of peace psychology, analyzes of the problem of whether human rights are used in the sense of peace or whether they are misused to create images of the enemy or to justify wars are also significant.

Peace Psychology in Education

Findings in peace psychology flow into peace education and upbringing activities at various levels, from primary school through secondary and tertiary education (e.g. in the form of peace psychology courses at universities) to professional training.

With the Beyond Intractability project, the Conflict Information Consortium at the University of Colorade offers an openly accessible, cooperative learning platform.

Peace Psychology Practice

Peace psychology practice relates e.g. B. on trauma therapeutic work , the implementation of training in non-violent conflict management or activities as a conflict mediator or civil peace worker . The collaboration between research and practice is of particular importance. B. in the form of evaluation research to contribute to continuous improvement in practice.

Political influence in peace psychology

Peace psychologists sometimes try, as part of the peace movement , to influence political decision-makers and social processes in the sense of normative orientation towards the ideal of peace. This can e.g. This can be done, for example, by participating in peace campaigns, publishing political statements, and drafting expert reports as part of policy advice.

literature

Overview works

  • Daniel Bar-Tal: Intractable conflicts: Socio-psychological foundations and dynamics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2013.
  • Daniel Bar-Tal (Ed.): Intergroup conflicts and their resolution: A social psychological perspective. Psychology Press, New York 2011.
  • Herbert H. Blumberg, A. Paul Hare, Anna Costin: Peace psychology: A comprehensive introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006.
  • Diane Bretherton, Nikola Balvin (Eds.): Peace psychology in Australia. Springer, New York 2012.
  • Daniel J. Christie (Ed.): The encyclopedia of peace psychology. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, MA 2012.
  • Daniel J. Christie, Joám Evans Pim (Eds.): Nonkilling Psychology. Center for Global Nonkilling, Honolulu, HI 2012, ( PDF file; 1.8 MB ).
  • Daniel J. Christie, Richard V. Wagner, Deborah Dunnan Winter: (Eds.): Peace, conflict, and violence: Peace psychology for the 21st century. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 2001 ( online ).
  • Peter T. Coleman, Morton Deutsch: (Ed.): Psychological components of sustainable peace. Springer, New York 2012.
  • Morton Deutsch, Peter T. Coleman, PT, Eric C. Marcus Marcus: The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice. 2nd edition, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ 2007.
  • Rachel M. MacNair: The psychology of peace: An introduction. 2nd edition, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, CA 2011.
  • Cristina Jayme Montiel, Noraini M. Noor (eds.): Peace psychology in Asia. Springer, New York 2009.
  • Olivera Simić, Zala Volčič, Catherine R. Philpot (eds.): Peace psychology in the Balkans: Dealing with a violent past while building peace. Springer, New York 2012.
  • Gert Sommer, Albert Fuchs (Ed.): War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology. Beltz, Weinheim 2004 ( online ).
  • Ervin Staub: Overcoming evil: Genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013.
  • Linda R. Tropp (Ed.): The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2012.

Book series

Magazines

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Resources. In: peacepsych.org. Retrieved July 8, 2016 .
  2. ^ Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research, 6 (3), 167-191.
  3. ^ Galtung, J. (1990). Cultural violence. Journal of Peace Research, 27 (3), 291-305.
  4. ^ Fuchs, A. & Sommer, G. (2004). Approach - goals and tasks - controversies. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 3–17). Weinheim: Beltz.
  5. ^ Tropp, LR (2012). Understanding and responding to intergroup conflict: Toward an integrated analysis. In LR Tropp (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict (pp. 3–10). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  6. ↑ Kriesberg, L. (2007). Constructive conflicts: From escalation to resolution (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
  7. ^ Bar-Tal, D. & Hammack, PL (2012). Conflict, delegitimization, and violence. In LR Tropp (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict (pp. 29–52). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  8. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, U. (1961) The mirror image in Soiel-American relations: A social psychologists report. J. soc.issues 17, 45-56
  9. ↑ Sommer, G. (2004). Enemy images. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 303-316). Weinheim: Beltz.
  10. ↑ Jaeger, S. (2004). Propaganda and war reporting. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 317–329). Weinheim: Beltz.
  11. ↑ a b Kelman, HC (2002). Interactive problem solving: Informal mediation by the scholar practitioner. In J. Bercovitch (Ed.), Studies in international mediation: Essays in honor of Jeffrey Z. Rubin (pp. 167–193). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/node/831
  12. ↑ Meyer, B. (2004). Stress reduction and confidence building. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 452–465). Weinheim: Beltz.
  13. ^ Mattenschlager, A. & Meder, G. (2004). Mediation. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 494–507). Weinheim: Beltz.
  14. ↑ d'Estrée, TP (2012). Addressing intractable conflict through interactive problem-solving. In LR Tropp (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict (pp. 229-251). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  15. ↑ Kempf, W. (2004). Peace journalism. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 439–451). Weinheim: Beltz.
  16. ^ Preiser, S. (2004). Political commitment to peace. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 399–411). Weinheim: Beltz.
  17. ^ Allport, GW (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  18. ^ Pettigrew, TF, & Tropp, LR (2011). When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup contact. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  19. ^ Wagner, U., & Hewstone, M. (2012). Intergroup contact. In LR Tropp (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict (pp. 193-209). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  20. ^ Montero, M., & Sonn, CC (Eds.) (2009). Psychology of Liberation: Theory and Applications. New York: Springer.
  21. ^ Bläsi, B. (2004). Nonviolent Resistance. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 412–424). Weinheim: Beltz.
  22. ↑ Gurris, NF (2004). Extreme traumatization. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 369–382). Weinheim: Beltz.
  23. ^ Wessells, M. (2004). Post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 522-540). Weinheim: Beltz.
  24. ↑ Kantner, E. (2007). Shock and awe hits home: US health costs of the war in Iraq. Washington, DC: Physicians for Social Responsibility. Archived copy ( memento of the original from October 19, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.psr.org
  25. ↑ Sommer, G. (2008). Human rights violations in the third Gulf War. In JM Becker & H. Wulf (eds.), Destroyed Iraq - Future of Irak? (Pp. 85-103). Münster: LIT.
  26. ↑ Hamber, B. (2009). Transforming societies after political violence: Truth, reconciliation, and mental health. New York: Springer.
  27. ↑ a b Boehnke, K., Christie, DJ, & Anderson, A. (2004). Psychological Contributions to a Culture of Peace. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 31–43). Weinheim: Beltz.
  28. ^ Fuchs, A. (2004). Culture and war. In G. Sommer & A. Fuchs (eds.), War and Peace: Handbook of Conflict and Peace Psychology (pp. 383–396). Weinheim: Beltz.
  29. ↑ Sommer, G. & Stellmacher, J. (2009). Human rights and human rights education. Wiesbaden: VS publishing house for social sciences.
  30. ^ Stellmacher, J. & Sommer, G. (2011). Human rights and human rights violations, psychological aspects of. In D. Christie (Ed.), Encyclopedia of peace psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 514-518). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
  31. ^ Education. In: peacepsych.org. Retrieved July 8, 2016 .
  32. ↑ Beyond Intractability. Retrieved July 8, 2016 .