Gallo-Roman villa in Reinheim

3D reconstruction of the villa complex (looking north)

The Gallo-Roman villa of Reinheim is located in the Reinheim district of the Saarland community of Gersheim , in the Bliesbruck-Reinheim settlement chamber . The villa is located on the site of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim . The villa complex of the longitudinal axial type, consisting of the main building and farm yard , covers an area of approx. 7 hectares. The complex was used between the 1st and 4th centuries AD. It is one of the largest villas of the longitudinal axis type in southwest Germany and northwest France.

Destruction from sand and gravel mining

From the 1950s to the 1970s, sand and gravel mining took place in the area on the German and French sides. In the course of this dismantling, parts of the facility, largely undocumented, were excavated. This affects the northern part of the farmyard. While an emergency excavation was carried out in 1964 after its discovery at outbuilding 13, outbuilding 12 was dredged completely undocumented. Its existence is however secured by eyewitness reports. After the emergency excavation, the annex building 13 was also completely excavated. The wall with the gate system to be postulated, which separated the farm yard (pars rustica) from the living area with the main building (pars urbana), as well as parts of the ornamental garden in front of the main building, were also removed without documentation. Only part of the wall has survived on the outbuilding 6. A gravel pond was then created, which extends over the site of the auxiliary building 13 and part of the courtyard area.

Emergence

According to archaeological findings, the villa complex was built in the 2nd half of the 1st century AD. It was built about 300 meters from the Roman vicus of Bliesbruck , located on a through road , in a valley on the river Blies . The proximity to the vicus, which in its heyday in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD with 1,500 to 2,000 inhabitants, had an urban character and was a transshipment point for regional products, the location on the through road and the one with rafts and flat roads Barges of navigable wind and the fertile soils of the area provided excellent conditions for the development of the villa and the prosperity of its owners. It is not known who the builders and later owners of the villa were. The villa complex was built in the middle of a necropolis from the late Bronze and Iron Ages. In the course of the 300 years of use, additions and modifications were made to the villa complex in several construction phases.

The approximately 2 meter deep shaft for storing food, which was created in construction phase 1 in the building that will later be the east wing of the main building

Construction phase 1

In the second half of the 1st century AD, a smaller main building (the later east wing of the villa) was erected over an east-facing courtyard area, of which only parts of it have been archaeologically proven. A simple wooden box well , dated approx. 90 AD, served to supply water . A shaft about 2 meters deep was created in one room, which was most likely used to store food.

Construction phase 2

The reconstructed water basin on the north side of the main building

Approx. Middle of the 2nd century BC The main building underwent extensive expansions. A middle wing was added to the former main building and an extension on the west side, which had the same floor space as the old building, which now represented the east wing. The new main building was thus the shape of the letter H . At that time, a 3 meter wide and 40 meter long water basin was built on the north side of the newly created central wing. This basin, which had neither inflows nor outflows, was used for purely decorative purposes and not to supply the building with water. The water basin had wall panels laid diagonally on the side facing away from the building. The bathroom in the west wing of the main building was also built during this construction phase. A portico was built on the south side of the two wings as well as on the central wing during this construction phase .

Construction phase 3

With this construction phase at the beginning of the 3rd century AD, the villa complex reached its greatest expansion stage. The total area of the villa complex was now 7 ha. The area of the main building was approx. 2,550 m². The ground floor had 50 rooms, some of which had a hypocaust system. The water basin on the north side was filled and a new portico was built on the north and south side of the central wing. The main house was separated from the farm yard by a wall with a gate system. A covered colonnade was laid out between the gate system and the main building, which led to the main building through an ornamental garden. The other areas in the west, east and north of the main building were divided into individual parcels by walls. A wall was built around the 300-meter-long and 135-meter-wide utility area and a gatehouse was built in the south as an entrance. On the east and west side of the wall, 6 outbuildings were erected. The distance between the buildings was no more than 40 meters. The outbuildings themselves stood outside the area enclosed by the wall. Only the facade of the outbuildings, with one entrance, was integrated into the wall.

Construction phase 4

In the last construction phase, which followed the Germanic invasions in the second half of the 3rd century AD, some rooms in the main building, in particular the central wing and two outbuildings, were converted into workshops. A kitchen was also installed in the middle wing. Workshops have also been set up in some of the outbuildings.

and display information about the image

Villa complex in Reinheim (facing south). In the foreground the main building. In front of the building is the square foundation on which a monument presumably stood. On the left the Celtic princess grave of Reinheim. On the right the partially reconstructed wall of the villa area with the completely reconstructed buildings 1 and 6 as well as the buildings 2 to 5 reconstructed in the lower part. In the background the reconstructed gatehouse to the farm yard of the villa complex.

investment

Overview plan of the villa complex

The complex is a villa complex of the longitudinal axial type. This means that the residential building (pars urbana) is preceded by a longitudinally axial farm yard (pars rustica). This type of construction can be found in the Gallic and Germanic provinces, but not in the Roman core area. There residential buildings and farm buildings are housed in a connected complex. The longitudinal axis construction probably goes back to Gallic and Germanic building traditions, as finds of such systems as early as the 1st century BC. Show. The system is oriented almost exactly in a north-south direction. It is divided into a main building, which consists of a central wing and two side wings and which was separated from the farm yard by a wall and a small gate system, and the farm yard, which was surrounded by a wall. A covered colonnade led from the small gate system through an ornamental garden in front of the main building to the entrance of the central wing. In the north of the central tract there was a water basin that was filled in in the 2nd century AD. There was probably a monument about 10 meters from the center of the north side of the central wing, of which only the 2.5 × 2.5 meter foundation has been preserved. Remnants of the monument are not preserved. To the right and left of the wall of the farm yard were six outbuildings each. The actual structure of the outbuildings was outside the farm yard. Only the facade, with access to the farm yard, was located between the wall. This meant that the entire area of the farmyard was free of any buildings. The wall itself was not used for defense purposes, but to prevent unauthorized access to the farm yard. A gate system in the south of the complex formed the entrance to the farm yard. The areas surrounding the main building were divided into different parcels by walls. It is not known how these parcels were used.

main building

During the period of its greatest expansion, the main building measured 80 meters by 62 meters and covered an area of approx. 2,550 m². It had 50 rooms on the ground floor. The rooms on the upper floor are no longer archaeologically verifiable. In the south and north there was a portico on the central wing and on the two wings of the building. The interior of the entire building had ceilings and wall paintings, including a fine pattern repeat.

Middle wing

As to whether the approx. 557 m² central wing was designed as a large roofed room or as an inner courtyard, it is no longer possible to make a reliable statement today, as the layers of soil in this area were too severely disturbed by the use of modern plows. Remnants of a screed floor and the 70 cm thick walls suggest, however, that a roof was present. There was a portico each on the north and south sides. In front of the portico on the north side, a 40-meter-long and 3-meter-wide water basin was created for decorative purposes, which was backfilled in the 2nd century AD.

East wing

The portico on the south side of the main building and part of the ornamental garden behind. The pillars are reconstructions

Hypocaust in the south wing of the west wing

Frigidarium in the bathing wing of the west wing

The east wing is the oldest part of the main building. Erected in the 1st century AD, it functioned as the main building before the construction of the central wing and the west wing. On the north side is the only exit of the entire main building, which leads to the open space behind the facility. Archaeological finds suggest that a forge was located in the east wing. One of the rooms in the south had a hypocaust system. The room next to it probably served as a staircase to the upper floor. In one of the rooms there was a later filled, around 2 meter deep shaft, which can best be interpreted as a storage place for food. Three rooms in the middle section, which were added later and symmetrically subdivide the originally large room in the middle section, and two rooms in the south section had screed floors. There was a portico on the inside of the north and west wing.

West wing

Bathing wing in the west wing of the main building

Outbuilding 8

The annex building 1, which was reconstructed in 2007

The annex 6, which was reconstructed in 2012

The gatehouse in the south of the farm yard, reconstructed in 2006

The south wing of the west wing had several living rooms. Three of these living rooms had a hypocaust system. The two southernmost rooms were heated via a common furnace. In the middle section of the building there was a cellar room that could be reached via a wooden staircase. It had two light shafts and two wall niches. In the last phase of use of the facility, the cellar served as a waste pit. A paved path led through the middle section of the west wing to the middle section of the main building. Another entrance to the building complex was also located here. The north wing of the west wing formed the 400 m² bathroom. The condition of this part of the complex is very poor as a result of the excavations in the 19th century and the subsequent use as a source of building material by the residents of the nearby settlement. As a result, the use of only four of the rooms can be determined without any doubt. These are the basin of the cold bath as well as the warm bath and the tepidarium , both of which were heated by a hypocaust system. A latrine followed in the north. A sewer led the sewage into the Blies. An outdoor area enclosed by a wall could have been a palaestra . The remains of marble flakes and painted plaster fragments that were found indicate that the bathroom was extremely luxurious.

Farm yard

The 300 meter long and 135 meter wide farm yard adjoining the main building was surrounded by a wall. There were six outbuildings each to the right and left. A gatehouse, which was located in the wall in the south, served as access. The buildings stood outside the farm yard. They were probably built first and then the wall between the buildings was built. This can be concluded from the fact that the wall is not interlocked with the buildings. The two buildings 6 and 13 closest to the main building, 22 meters long and 12 meters wide, were the largest buildings in the farmyard. Buildings 2 to 5 on the west side and buildings 9 to 11 on the east side of the farm yard all had a floor area of 10.5 meters in length and 8 meters in width. This symmetrical construction is only interrupted by auxiliary building 1 with a length of 14 meters and a width of 9.8 meters and building 8 with a length of 22 meters and a width of 9.5 meters. To the south of the annex 6, a paved path led through a small gate system into the service yard.

Outbuilding 1

The building had a 2.3 meter wide gate on the courtyard side as well as on the outside, to which a two meter long ramp led and which made it possible to drive in from both sides with a car. A fireplace was built into the building at the end of the 3rd to the beginning of the 4th century AD. Finds show that the building was used until the middle of the 4th century AD.

Outbuilding 2

The upper floor of the building served as living space during the entire usage phase of the facility. The basement has been used for various purposes over the years. First as a storage room, after 120 AD as stables and from the second half of the 3rd century AD as a forge for processing iron and lead.

Outbuilding 3

The state of preservation of the building does not allow any conclusions to be drawn about its use during the first phase of use. The floor plan was 10.5 meters by 8 meters. Between the middle of the 3rd and the 1st half of the 4th century AD, an earth oven was installed, which was probably used to prepare food.

Outbuilding 4

The poor state of preservation of this building and the lack of installations mean that no statements can be made about the use of the building. Based on the foundation walls, only the size of 10.5 meters × 8 meters could be determined.

Outbuilding 5

Of this building, too, only the foundation walls are left, which does not allow any clarification of the original use of the building.

Outbuilding 6

The outbuilding 6 had a floor area of 22 meters × 12 meters. Due to the found situation, no further statements can be made about the use of the building. This building had a previous building which, at 12 meters in length and 30 meters in width, was larger than all the other outbuildings of the farm yard. In the wall south of the adjoining building, a paved path coming from outside led through a gate into the farm yard.

Annex 7 (gatehouse)

The gatehouse had a footprint of 5.5 meters by 5.6 meters. The passages on the north and south sides were 2.5 meters wide and had wooden gates, of which only the iron fittings have survived. The 90 cm deep foundation suggests that the gatehouse reached a considerable height.

Outbuilding 8

The 22 meter long and 9.5 meter wide building had seven rooms and extensions in its first phase of use. One of the rooms had a hypocaust system until it was later expanded. In the northeast corner of the centrally located room there was a small hip bath, which was probably heated by the hypocaust system in the adjoining room. In total, the room had two fireplaces. In the final construction phase, two double ovens were installed that were used for bronze processing. At this time, another extension was added to the southeast corner. The building had both access to the farm yard and an entrance on the east side. From this a paved path led to the path leading around the villa complex. The walls were plastered and decorated with wall paintings. The upscale equipment of the building allows the conclusion that the manager of the facility probably lived here until the building was used as a workshop in its final phase of use.

Outbuilding 9

The building had two gates, one to the farm yard and one outside. While it was used as a storage room in its first phase of use, it was converted into a residential building in the 2nd century AD and an extension was added on the north and east sides.

Outbuildings 10 and 11

No statement can be made about the type of use of buildings 10 and 11. Both buildings, like their counterparts opposite, had a floor space of 10.5 meters in length and 8 meters in width, as well as a gate passage on the west and east sides.

Annex building 12 and 13

Nothing is known about the use of the two buildings. The outbuilding 13, like its counterpart opposite, the outbuilding 6, had a floor space of 22 meters × 12 meters. No statement can be made about the size of auxiliary building 12, of the existence of which only eyewitness reports are available. However, it can be assumed that, like the building opposite, it had a floor area of 10.5 meters × 8 meters.

Water supply

While in the 1st century AD a well located about 8.5 meters north of the east wing was sufficient for the water supply, this had to be expanded due to the expansion of the system from the 2nd century AD become. Wooden pipes were installed inside the building to supply water. So far, no water basin in which the spring water was collected before it was piped into the villa has been found during the excavations. However, rubble was found in the Blies, which could have come from a water pipe. This leads to the assumption that the spring that was used for the water supply was on the slope on the other side of the river. This difference in height would then also have provided the water pressure necessary for the supply. The fact that water was also conducted over greater distances to the point of consumption is due to the fact that the Romans were very careful about the quality of the water and checked the quality accordingly before using a spring and laying water pipes, as the Roman architect Vitruvius did in his work De Architectura libri decem explains.

Total inventory and valuation

With a total area of 7 hectares, 13 outbuildings and the large main building, the villa complex is one of the largest in southern Germany and northwestern France. The fact that several outbuildings had apartments in addition to the functional parts allows the conclusion that including the owners around 50 to 80 people lived and worked on the property. Due to the size of the complex and the luxurious furnishings of the main building, it can be assumed that the owners of the complex had a high, socially privileged position. Another indication of this elevated position within society is the quality of the food. Based on the remains of food found, it is proven that the residents of the villa had better meat available than the residents of the nearby vicus. The size of the building erected in the first construction phase, the later east wing of the main building, indicates that the builders already held a prominent social position in the 1st century AD. Whether the villa complex was built in the middle of a necropolis of the late Bronze and Iron Ages, in the immediate vicinity of three monumental grave mounds , one of which is the Celtic princess grave of Reinheim , Walter Reinhard asks whether the owners might change the legal successor of a Celtic upper class resident here, without being able to answer this question conclusively. Although the main building had fine wall and ceiling paintings and a luxuriously equipped bathroom, the architectural elements that would otherwise be found in systems of this size, such as B. Mosaics and ornamental fountains. This suggests that the facility was not inhabited by the owners all year round. This could also be an indication that the owners held a political office within an administrative location. A total of 161 Roman homesteads are known so far within a radius of 10 kilometers from Reinheim. One of them was excavated only about 500 meters from the main building. This, like probably a few more, should have belonged to the extensive property of the owners of the villa complex and supplied them with natural goods as a lease.

Decline and destruction

Basement in the west wing of the villa, which served as a waste pit during the last phase of use

In the 2nd half of the 3rd century AD, Germanic invasions took place in the provinces. Although no direct destruction of the villa complex could be detected, a change in the use of the villa complex can be observed from this point in time. Workshops were set up in two outbuildings of the villa complex, while the others were used as living space and / or storage. The main building also lost its original function. A workshop and a kitchen were also set up in the middle wing. From this point on, the destroyed basement served as a waste pit. It can be assumed that the original owners of the villa had given up on it and that the workshops were run by craftsmen from the vicus. During the recent German invasions and the civil war, the facility was then burned down in the middle of the 4th century AD and almost completely destroyed. Only the west wing of the main building and two auxiliary buildings have been found to be used further up to the 2nd half of the 4th century AD. After that, the facility was abandoned and fell into disrepair and later served as a quarry.

Excavation history

Archaeological finds have been handed down as early as 1760, the first excavations on the area of the villa complex and its surroundings were carried out in the 19th century. Only a few finds from the early excavations have come down to us or have survived, and there is virtually no documentation.

Excavations in the 19th century

The so-called Heidenhübel (corridor Allmend), on which the villa complex was located, was already known at that time as a rich site of Roman artifacts. Excavations have been handed down from the years 1806, 1809, 1841 and 1879. Many of the finds remained in private hands. The excavations in 1879 were carried out by the Historisches Verein der Pfalz . The first existing excavation plan comes from these excavations. The bathroom and part of the residential wing in the west wing were uncovered. Both were left open after the excavation was completed. Residents used the exposed parts of the building in the following years as a source for building materials, which today makes it difficult to make statements about the bathroom equipment. Some finds from this excavation, such as the stone statue of the goddess Cybele , went to the Museum Speyer. No further excavations took place until the 1950s.

Excavations in 1950 and 1986

In 1964, remnants of the wall were found while mining sand and gravel. The auxiliary building 13 was uncovered in an emergency excavation and the excavation find was documented and then excavated in the course of the sand mining. In the period that followed, there were repeated emergency excavations in the area. After the vicus of Bliesbruck was discovered during gravel and sand mining on the French side in 1970, the area around Heidenhübel came back into the focus of archaeologists. After a site inspection in 1985, it was decided to set up an excavation area, in particular to prevent further damage from the agricultural use of the area, and to begin excavations.

Excavations from 1987 to the present

From 1987 Erwin Strahl started a corresponding excavation project, which includes the museum presentation of the excavations with regard to the European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim, which is currently being founded. In 1988 excavations were carried out on three buildings, the outbuildings 2, 3 and 4. It was only discovered during exploratory excavations in 1990 that these were the outbuildings of a longitudinally axial farm yard belonging to the main building. Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller, who headed the excavation from 1993 to 1995, started an excavation campaign in 1995 to investigate the farmyard. The excavation and research activities have been ongoing since 2011 under the direction of Michael Ecker.

Archaeological finds

Sandstone statue of the goddess Cybele. Excavation find from the 19th century

Finds from excavations in the 19th century

Some of the finds from the excavations in the 19th century went to the Museum Speyer , while others remained in private ownership, with very few finds being documented. The well-known finds include a stone statue of the goddess Cybele ( only the feet of whose companion Attis have survived ), the bronze sculpture of Cupid riding a panther , a golden finger ring and small bronzes of Mars , Venus and Mercury , as well as Roman coins made of copper, silver and gold, the number of which has not been recorded and which are considered partially lost.

Ceramics

As in almost all excavations of Roman buildings, the ceramic finds represent the majority of the finds. The ceramics found consisted of the genera Terra Sigillata , Gallo-Belgian, glossy, red-gobed, flamed, rough-walled clay-ground and smooth-walled clay-ground goods, later Terra Nigra and Corkware together. The finds range from plates, bowls, drinking vessels and jugs to vases. The occurrence of Gallo-Belgian goods that imitate Roman shapes can be seen as evidence that the villa complex was already inhabited in the 1st century AD. The Argon sigillata found , the youngest ceramic found, can be used to date the end of the use of the villa complex in the 4th century AD.

Wall and ceiling paintings

Only fragments of the ceiling and wall paintings have survived. However, these indicate that the main building of the villa is of high quality and colorful. Fragments were found in the colors dark red, ocher, green, blue, brown, black and white. Based on the findings, it can be assumed that there were wall paintings with figurative representations and still lifes in addition to ornaments . Fragments of borders have also been preserved. Since the bathing tract was excavated in the 19th century and subsequently served as a source of building material through agricultural use and use by the population, only fragments of the wall and ceiling paintings have survived. These fragments, however, indicate that this area was also decorated with figurative representations. Fragments of a pattern repeat, which were used both on the walls and to design the ceilings, allow the conclusion that the bathing wing and / or a living room in the west wing was designed with this.

Coins

Of the coins found during the excavations within the villa complex, 252 coins come from the main building and 288 from the auxiliary building 9. It can be assumed that there were originally significantly more coins in the area of the main building. Finds of Roman coins made of gold, silver and copper have come down to us from the excavations in the 19th century, but neither their number has been documented, nor is it possible to clarify the whereabouts of these finds. Likewise, many coin finds that were not reported are likely to be in private hands. From the 252 coins found in the main building, three coins from the Middle Ages and two coins that cannot be determined must be subtracted. The coins were found in the west wing and in the middle wing of the main building. No coins were found in the east wing of the building. The time spectrum of the Roman coin finds extends from the 2nd century AD to the 4th century AD. Although the coin finds suggest that the villa was used from the 2nd century AD, this is not the case the archaeological evidence on the oldest part of the building, which dates to the end of the 1st century AD. The following coin units were found in the main building: denarii , sesterces , dupondias , aces , antoninians and follies .

Theater mask

During the excavation work on the water basin on the north side of the main building, shards of a theater mask made of clay were uncovered. The right part could be reconstructed from these. The mask has a hooked nose. Holes have been drilled through the ears and forehead to enable an actor to carry it. The mask was dated using the ceramics that were in the backfill layer together with the shards. Accordingly, the theater mask was made before the 2nd century AD. The exact use of the mask is unclear. A similar mask was found in a residential building in the nearby vicus, but there is no evidence of a theater in the vicus. It is most likely that the mask was used for decorative purposes inside the building.

Reinheim's equestrian mask. Excavation find at the outbuilding 9

Equestrian mask

The 17 cm high and 22 cm wide equestrian mask from the 1st century AD was found during excavations in 2000 directly next to the courtyard wall, 50 cm south of the outbuilding 9. The mask is made of forged iron and was originally coated with a layer of brass on the outside . At the front there is a hinge for attachment to a helmet. Five holes are drilled in the mask at the ears. Such masks were used by the Roman cavalry on the one hand in parades and equestrian games and on the other hand they were used in fights, which is shown, for example, by the discovery of a rider's mask from the 1st century AD on a battlefield in Kalkriese . The hinges found in the immediate vicinity, the remains of five glass vessels, eleven half-disks made of gagat belonging to a bracelet , six hairpins made of bone and parts of iron scissors and an iron key suggest that this was a hoard , the this place, possibly in a wooden box, was buried.

Other finds

Various everyday objects were also found during the excavations. These include a hoe, hatchet and pick (all three made of iron), iron nails, iron parts of a door (key, bolt, lock, hinges), needles made of bone and ornate bone whorls . Several bronze fibulae were also found, the oldest of which dates back to the 1st century AD, a bronze ring, parts of a glass bangle, melon glass beads, a bronze pendant, bone hairpins, the handle of a mirror and a bronze ear spoon . In a pit on the south corner of the outbuilding 5, a handle shell and a casserole made of bronze and a chopping knife made of iron were found.

Stand today and museum presentation

To date, the main building and the farmyard, as far as they have not been destroyed by sand and gravel mining, with its ancillary buildings and the wall surrounding it have been uncovered in several excavation campaigns. The excavation work continues to this day in the vicinity of the villa complex. In addition to parts of the east wall of the farmyard, the gatehouse, which led to the farmyard, was reconstructed in 2006. In 2007, the reconstruction of the auxiliary building 1 followed. Excavation finds of similar buildings from excavations in Lebach and Oberndorf-Bochingen served as a template for the reconstruction . In 2012, the reconstruction of the outbuilding 6 followed. This reconstruction is based on the original dimensions of the findings. The rest of the reconstruction was carried out in accordance with today's use. In the building there is a restaurant in the basement and exhibition rooms upstairs. The ornamental garden in the area in front of the main building as well as the pillars of the portico on its south side and the water basin on the north side of the central wing were also reconstructed. As part of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim, the villa complex is integrated into its overall museum concept. It can be visited either alone or as part of a circular path with information boards that leads across the entire site. It is also possible to book guided tours for a fee. All exposed parts of the building, with the exception of the interior of the annex 1 and the gatehouse, are accessible. For didactic reasons, the floors of the interior areas of the individual buildings in the complex and the main building were filled with colored gravel. On the upper floor of the annex building 6 there is a permanent exhibition with various finds from the villa complex. In addition, various events take place several times a year in which life in the time of Roman settlement is presented.

literature

Jean-Paul Petit, Sara Santoro-Bianchie: From Pompeii to Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Editions Errance, Paris 2007, ISBN 978-2-87772-361-9 .
Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 .
Andreas Stinsky : Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 .

Individual evidence

^ ^A ^b ^c ^d ^e Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 .
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 .
↑ Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of the Saarland University, 2016. ( online )
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 49 f.
↑ Vitruv, De Architectura libri decem 8,4,1 In: Vitruv. Ten books on architecture. De Architectura libri decem. Latin German. Edited and translated by Franz Reber. Krais & Hoffmann, Stuttgart 1865. Digitized
↑ Walter Reinhard: Owner of the Roman villa a legal successor to the princess? In: Celts, Romans and Teutons in Bliesgau. (= Preservation of monuments in Saarland. Volume 3). Foundation European Cultural Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim, Gersheim 2010, ISBN 978-3-9811591-2-7 , p. 215.
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 48.
^ Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , pp. 82-86.
^ Jean-Paul Petit: Bliesbruck-Reinheim. From an emergency excavation to a European cultural park. In: Jean-Paul Petit (Ed.): European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celts, Romans and Franks in Lorraine and Saarland. 2500 years of history (= Dossiers d'Archéologie. ´Special issue 24). Éditions Faton, Dijon 2013, ISSN 1141-7137 , pp. 4-7.
↑ Friedrich Schröter: About the Roman branches and the Roman roads in the Saar areas. In: Communications from the Historical-Antiquarian Association for the cities of Saarbrücken and Sankt Johann and their surroundings. (= Communications from the Historical-Antiquarian Association for the cities of Saarbrücken and Sankt Johann and their surroundings. Second departments). Anton Hofer, Saarbrücken 1852, p. 89. ( digitized version )
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 37.
^ Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , p. 13 Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.
^ Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , p. 115.
^ ^A ^b Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 115-118.
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , pp. 37-40.
↑ Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of Saarland University, 2016, p. 186. ( online )
↑ Diana Busse: The Gallo-Roman Villa of Reinheim (Saarpfalz district) and its furnishings. Observations on the painting finds from the main building. In: Michael Koch (Hrsg.): Archäologentage Otzenhausen (= Archäologentage Otzenhausen. Volume 2). European Academy Otzenhausen, Nonnweiler 2016, ISBN 978-3-941509-13-9 , pp. 215-220. ( online )
^ Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 118-128.
↑ Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of the Saarland University, 2016, p. 179. ( online )
^ Erwin Strahl: A theater mask from the Gallo-Roman villa in Reinheim; Community of Gersheim, Saarpfalz district. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 209-213.
↑ Arrian , Taktike Techne 34,2-4 In: Arrianos / Asklepiodotos The art of tactics. Greek-German. Edited and translated by Kai Brodersen. DE GRUYTER, Berlin / Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-056216-3 , pp. 90–91.
↑ Arrian , Taktike Techne 41.1 In: Arrianos / Asklepiodotos The art of tactics. Greek-German. Edited and translated by Kai Brodersen. DE GRUYTER, Berlin / Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-056216-3 , pp. 106-107.
↑ Astrid Bongartz: Studies on Roman helmets: Investigations into the finds of Roman infantry and cavalry helmets from the end of the republic to the 3rd century AD. University of Cologne, Cologne 2013, p. 110 f. ( online ).
↑ Mask / visor of a rider's helmet. Saarländischer Museumsverband eV, accessed on January 19, 2020 .
↑ Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The tab mask of Reinheim. In: Jean-Paul Petit (Ed.): European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celts, Romans and Franks in Lorraine and Saarland. 2500 years of history (= Dossiers d'Archéologie. ´Special issue 24). Éditions Faton, Dijon 2013, ISSN 1141-7137 , p. 80 f.
^ Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , p. 58.

[anstkomp-1] A ^b ^c ^d ^e Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 .

[2] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 .

[3] Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of the Saarland University, 2016. ( online )

[4] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 49 f.

[5] Vitruv, De Architectura libri decem 8,4,1 In: Vitruv. Ten books on architecture. De Architectura libri decem. Latin German. Edited and translated by Franz Reber. Krais & Hoffmann, Stuttgart 1865. Digitized

[6] Walter Reinhard: Owner of the Roman villa a legal successor to the princess? In: Celts, Romans and Teutons in Bliesgau. (= Preservation of monuments in Saarland. Volume 3). Foundation European Cultural Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim, Gersheim 2010, ISBN 978-3-9811591-2-7 , p. 215.

[7] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 48.

[8] Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , pp. 82-86.

[9] Jean-Paul Petit: Bliesbruck-Reinheim. From an emergency excavation to a European cultural park. In: Jean-Paul Petit (Ed.): European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celts, Romans and Franks in Lorraine and Saarland. 2500 years of history (= Dossiers d'Archéologie. ´Special issue 24). Éditions Faton, Dijon 2013, ISSN 1141-7137 , pp. 4-7.

[10] Friedrich Schröter: About the Roman branches and the Roman roads in the Saar areas. In: Communications from the Historical-Antiquarian Association for the cities of Saarbrücken and Sankt Johann and their surroundings. (= Communications from the Historical-Antiquarian Association for the cities of Saarbrücken and Sankt Johann and their surroundings. Second departments). Anton Hofer, Saarbrücken 1852, p. 89. ( digitized version )

[11] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , p. 37.

[12] Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , p. 13 Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.

[13] Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , p. 115.

[keram-14] A ^b Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 115-118.

[15] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The Gallo-Roman villa complex of Reinheim. In: Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. (= Saarpfalz. Sheets for history and folklore. Special issue). Saarpfalz-Kreis, 2000, ISSN 0930-1011 , pp. 37-40.

[16] Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of Saarland University, 2016, p. 186. ( online )

[17] Diana Busse: The Gallo-Roman Villa of Reinheim (Saarpfalz district) and its furnishings. Observations on the painting finds from the main building. In: Michael Koch (Hrsg.): Archäologentage Otzenhausen (= Archäologentage Otzenhausen. Volume 2). European Academy Otzenhausen, Nonnweiler 2016, ISBN 978-3-941509-13-9 , pp. 215-220. ( online )

[18] Andrei Miron, Florian Müller, Auguste Schäfer: The Villa of Reinheim: An archaeological-numismatic preliminary report. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 118-128.

[19] Florian Müller: The villa complex of Reinheim - the construction history of a large villa of the longitudinal axis type. Publications of the Saarland University, 2016, p. 179. ( online )

[20] Erwin Strahl: A theater mask from the Gallo-Roman villa in Reinheim; Community of Gersheim, Saarpfalz district. In: Jean Michel Massing (Hrsg.), Jean-Paul Petit (Hrsg.): Festschrift Jean Schaub (= BLESA, publications of the European Culture Park Bliesbruck Reinheim. Volume 1). Edition Serpenoise, Metz 1993, ISBN 2-87692-158-8 , pp. 209-213.

[21] Arrian , Taktike Techne 34,2-4 In: Arrianos / Asklepiodotos The art of tactics. Greek-German. Edited and translated by Kai Brodersen. DE GRUYTER, Berlin / Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-056216-3 , pp. 90–91.

[22] Arrian , Taktike Techne 41.1 In: Arrianos / Asklepiodotos The art of tactics. Greek-German. Edited and translated by Kai Brodersen. DE GRUYTER, Berlin / Boston 2017, ISBN 978-3-11-056216-3 , pp. 106-107.

[23] Astrid Bongartz: Studies on Roman helmets: Investigations into the finds of Roman infantry and cavalry helmets from the end of the republic to the 3rd century AD. University of Cologne, Cologne 2013, p. 110 f. ( online ).

[24] Mask / visor of a rider's helmet. Saarländischer Museumsverband eV, accessed on January 19, 2020 .

[25] Florian Sărăţeanu-Müller: The tab mask of Reinheim. In: Jean-Paul Petit (Ed.): European Culture Park Bliesbruck-Reinheim. Celts, Romans and Franks in Lorraine and Saarland. 2500 years of history (= Dossiers d'Archéologie. ´Special issue 24). Éditions Faton, Dijon 2013, ISSN 1141-7137 , p. 80 f.

[26] Andreas Stinsky: Reinheim's villa. A rural domicile of the Gallo-Roman upper class. Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag & Media, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945751-20-6 , p. 58.