face

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The face , face or countenance ( Latin facies , ancient Greek πρόσωπον prósōpon , ὤψ ōps ) is the front part of the head with eyes , nose and mouth . It is a central theme in scientific fields such as anthropology and biometrics, as well as in the fine arts and photography .

The face of man

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  • Elderly Gambian woman face portrait.jpg
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In humans, it is free from scalp hair and, as a result of the larger development of the brain, protrudes far. In humans, the forehead forms a major part of the face , although anatomically it does not belong to the face but to the skull part of the head.

The formation of the face is determined by the difference in the relationships between the individual parts of the face. The facial expressions , which change depending on the mood, are essentially based on the activity of some head muscles, which are summarized as facial muscles . Facial expressions are particularly produced by the eyes , eyebrows , forehead ( wrinkles ) and mouth as the most mobile parts of the face.

The color of the face corresponds to the rest of the skin color ; in people with light skin color it is characterized by a livelier color , mainly on the cheeks , the redness of which is due to increased blood circulation . Certain nuances of the color of the face are sometimes taken as indicators of disease .

Often certain similarities emerge in the facial formation of several individuals, for example with family members (family face).

Face shape

The face shape is the frontal contour of the face from the hairline to the chin. A distinction is made between five different basic shapes: oval, round, square, heart-shaped and trapezoidal.
The symmetry of a face is considered a characteristic of beauty in some cases, although both halves of a person's face are always different (see also idealization ). This applies to the arrangement and size of the pair of ears and eyes as well as to the nose and mouth and also to the curvature of the bone area under the eyes or the hairline, but also to the view from the left and right. There are no absolutely symmetrical faces. Selfies depict faces the wrong way round, people recognize their own mirror image (only) known to them and therefore often find the selfies "better" than normal shots.

On the oval face, the widest point is at the level of the cheekbones; from there it tapers up and down. The hairline and chin are gently rounded; the lower half of the face is a little longer.

The square face is as wide as it is long. The cheek lines are angled and have a similar width to the forehead.

The round face is characterized by a broad and full cheek area and a filled outer contour. It's rather short in relation to its width.

The trapezoidal face has a pear-shaped contour that tapers markedly towards the top. The narrowest point is in the temple area. The cheekbones are set wide and high. Compared to the full chin area, the forehead is rather narrow.

The heart-shaped face is characterized by a wide forehead and eye area. It tapers downwards over the cheeks to a narrow (pointed) chin.

Faces are individually different. The topology of the face is determined, among other things, by the growth of bone and cartilage tissue under the skin. The control of cartilage growth takes place through signal transduction of the proteins Notch-Jagged and endothelin-1 .

Psychology and Physiology of Facial Perception

Adults can reliably recognize, remember and recognize faces. You can recognize faces as belonging to the same person from different angles. Sublime changes in a face's emotional expression are perceived and understood as social signals. The ability to perceive individually different faces plays a central role in the social field. People with impaired facial perception are severely impaired, especially in social communication. For example, one of the most serious clinical impairments of the ability to interact socially, autism in early childhood, is regularly associated with massive impairments in gaze behavior.

The outstanding human faculties are the result of an evolutionary process. Primates show by far the greatest abilities to extract social information from the gaze and also the position of the head of other individuals. In the primate brain, and thus also in the human, there are special brain areas with neurons that are directly linked to various aspects of facial perception. Neurophysiologists and psychologists have found that facial perception and the like a. is associated with activations within the occipital face area (OFA) in the inferior (lower) occipital lobe and the fusifom face area (FFA) in the inferior temporal lobe . These cortical areas are discussed as being homologous to so-called cortical face patches in other primates, whose nerve cells respond selectively to different facial features. Even a 13-month-old chimpanzee can follow the gaze of an adult human looking at an external object. Such skills are the prerequisite for the complex sociocognitive communication possibilities of higher primates and humans. Facial perception has numerous functionally distinguishable aspects, such as recognizing the emotional expression or the direction in which a social partner is looking. On the neurophysiological level, facial perception is also linked to the activation of the amygdala (almond kernel), which is presumably related to the triggering of affects. In examinations using electroencephalography , the N170, as an event- related potential, reflects the neural processes in the detection of a face after about 130–200 ms.

Newborns and toddlers

Newborns can see immediately after birth (and probably prenatally). They prefer the human face, which is known as the facial preference. Even in the first few weeks of life, the mother's face receives more attention than the face of a stranger. Infants can mimic their mother's gestures with their face and hands as early as about a month old. Newborns stick their tongues out when an adult sticks out their tongues, opens their mouths, or opens their eyes wide. These imitation skills are not learned, but are genetically determined and part of the human evolutionary heritage.

The ability to imitate directly is based on the existence of so-called mirror neurons . These special neurons fire in practically the same way both when seeing another person's action and when motor imitating that action. Thus these neurons link the external experience of an observed movement with the internal experience during its imitation. They form a neural basis for social learning, empathy, empathy and the experience of works of art : looking at pictures of expressive faces has been proven to activate the facial muscles of the viewer.

The area of ​​facial perception also includes the “specific, selective social smile ” developed early on , which initially only applies to the mother , and the increasing refusal to smile at strangers' faces. Babies back away from a rapidly approaching face as early as two weeks old and react with defenses. Babies regulate the intensity of emotional relationship experiences by avoiding or reciprocating eye contact .

The face plays an important role in the development of drawing skills. Children often name their earliest drawings (i.e. already at the age of around two years) a face, even if there is little resemblance to a real face. So-called cephalopods , drawn creatures consisting of head and legs with a strong emphasis on the face, emerged early on, with no distinction between head and torso (“belly”).

recognition

Face recognition almost always goes hand in hand with the distinction between men and women .

Much research has been carried out to systematize differences in face recognition based on “ race ”. Recognition of individual faces from a different “race” than the person assigned to the test person is limited in comparison to the recognition of faces from one's own “race”. It is discussed whether this so-called cross-race effect comes about by looking at different facial features in the faces of the other “races” than in the faces of the own “race”. A study published in 2007 came to the conclusion that classifying people as members of an in-group had a positive effect on recognition regardless of actual familiarity.

Prosopagnosia is the (pathological) inability to recognize faces .

In legal proceedings , a morphological comparison of images or an anthropological-biometric report is created in the event of doubts about identity .

See also

literature

  • Hans Belting: Faces: A History of the Face . C. H. Beck 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-64430-6 .
  • Arash Afraz, Edward S. Boyden, & James J. DiCarlo. Optogenetic and Pharmacological Suppression of Spatial Clusters of Face Neurons Reveal Their Causal Role in Face Gender Discrimination . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Volume 112, No. 21, 2015, pp. 6730-5 ( PDF ).
  • Seyed-Reza Afraz, Roozbeh Kiani, & Hossein Esteky. Microstimulation of Inferotemporal Cortex Influences Face Categorization . In: Nature , Volume 442, No. 7103, 2006, pp. 692-5 ( PDF ).
  • John Bowlby : Attachment: an analysis of the mother-child relationship , Frankfurt am Main 1975.
  • Louis Cozolino: The Neuroscience of Human Relationships: Attachment and the Developing Social Brain , New York, London 2006.
  • NJ Emery: The eyes have it: the neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze . Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews 24 (2000), pp. 581-604.
  • Peter Fonagy, Mary Target: Reassessing the evolution of affect regulation in light of Winnicott's concept of the "false self" . Psyche 56 (2002), pp. 839-862.
  • WA Freiwald, DY Tsao: Functional compartmentalization and viewpoint generalization within the macaque face-processing system. In: Science. Volume 330, number 6005, November 2010, pp. 845-851, doi: 10.1126 / science.1194908 , PMID 21051642 , PMC 3181095 (free full text).
  • WA Freiwald, DY Tsao, MS Livingstone: A face feature space in the macaque temporal lobe. In: Nature Neuroscience . Volume 12, number 9, September 2009, pp. 1187-1196, doi: 10.1038 / nn.2363 , PMID 19668199 , PMC 2819705 (free full text).
  • Heidi Keller: developmental psychopathology : the emergence of behavioral problems in early childhood , in: Heidi Keller (ed.): Handbuch der Kleinkindforschung , Berlin 1989, pp. 529-543.
  • Heidi Keller: Psychological Development Theories of Childhood: An attempt at an evolutionary biological integration . in: Manfred Markefka, Bernhard Nauck (ed.): Handbuch der Kindheitsforschung , Neuwied 1993 31–43.
  • EB Issa, JJ DiCarlo: Precedence of the eye region in neural processing of faces. In: The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. Volume 32, number 47, November 2012, pp. 16666–16682, doi: 10.1523 / JNEUROSCI.2391-12.2012 , PMID 23175821 , PMC 3542390 (free full text).
  • Nancy Kanwisher, & Galit Yovel. The Fusiform Face Area: A Cortical Region Specialized for the Perception of Faces . In: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences , Volume 361, No. 1476, 2006, pp. 2109-28 ( PDF ).
  • Fritz Lange : The language of the human face. Scientific physiognomy and its practical use in life and in art . JF Lehmanns Verlag , 1937, 4th edition 1952, Spanish 1957.
  • Joseph D. Lichtenberg: Psychoanalysis and Infant Research , Berlin 1991.
  • Rolf Oerter ; Leo Montada, (Ed.): Developmental Psychology , 3rd, fully revised. Edition Munich 1995.
  • Sanae Okamoto, Masaki Tomonaga, Kiyoshi Ishii, Nobuyuki Kawai, Masayuki Tanaka, Tetsuro Matsuzawa: An infant chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) follows human gaze . Animal Cognition 5 (2002), pp. 107-114.
  • David Pitcher, Vincent Walsh, & Bradley Duchaine. The Role of the Occipital Face Area in the Cortical Face Perception Network . In: Experimental Brain Research , Volume 209, No. 4, 2011, pp. 481-93 ( PDF ).
  • Oliver Sacks: The man who mistook his wife for a hat . Reinbek 1990.
  • Henning Saß , Hans-Ulrich Wittchen , Michael Zaudig , (edit.): Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV , Göttingen 1994 (quoted as: DSM-IV)
  • Martin Schuster: The psychology of children's drawing . Berlin 1993.
  • Doris Y. Tsao, Sebastian Moeller, & Winrich A. Freiwald. Comparing Face Patch Systems in Macaques and Humans . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Volume 105, No. 49, 2008, pp. 19514-9 ( PDF ).
  • Kevin S. Weiner, & Kalanit Grill-Spector. The Evolution of Face Processing Networks . In: Trends in Cognitive Sciences , Volume 19, No. 5, 2015, pp. 240–1 ( PDF ).
  • G. Yovel, WA Freiwald: Face recognition systems in monkey and human: are they the same thing? In: F1000prime reports. Volume 5, 2013, p. 10, doi: 10.12703 / P5-10 , PMID 23585928 , PMC 3619156 (free full text).

Web links

Wiktionary: face  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Commons : Faces  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wikiquote: Face  Quotes

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ L. Barske, A. Askary, E. Zuniga, B. Balczerski, P. Bump, JT Nichols, JG Crump: Competition between Jagged-Notch and Endothelin1 Signaling Selectively Restricts Cartilage Formation in the Zebrafish Upper Face. In: PLoS genetics. Volume 12, number 4, April 2016, p. E1005967, doi: 10.1371 / journal.pgen.1005967 , PMID 27058748 .
  2. ↑ On neurologically caused deficits in perception (agnosia) cf. Sacks, (1990), p. 23 ff.
  3. ↑ Cf. DSM-IV 103 ff. With Kanner autism and also with Asperger's autism, which is less socially impairing, there are problems with recognizing facial expressions. Cf. Fonagy & Target (2002), p. 850 on the disturbed gaze behavior of autistic children, Emery (2000), p. 597 ff. And Cozolino (2006), p. 197 f.
  4. ↑ See Emery (2000), p. 581 ff.
  5. ↑ Afraz et al. (2006)
  6. ↑ Afraz et al. (2015)
  7. ↑ Pitcher et al. (2011)
  8. ↑ Kanwisher and Yovel (2006)
  9. ↑ Tsao et al. (2008)
  10. ↑ G. Yovel, WA Freiwald: Face recognition systems in monkey and human: are they the same thing? In: F1000prime reports. Volume 5, 2013, p. 10, doi: 10.12703 / P5-10 , PMID 23585928 , PMC 3619156 (free full text).
  11. ↑ Weiner and Grill-Spector (2015)
  12. ^ WA Freiwald, DY Tsao, MS Livingstone: A face feature space in the macaque temporal lobe. In: Nature Neuroscience . Volume 12, number 9, September 2009, pp. 1187-1196, doi: 10.1038 / nn.2363 , PMID 19668199 , PMC 2819705 (free full text).
  13. ^ WA Freiwald, DY Tsao: Functional compartmentalization and viewpoint generalization within the macaque face-processing system. In: Science. Volume 330, number 6005, November 2010, pp. 845-851, doi: 10.1126 / science.1194908 , PMID 21051642 , PMC 3181095 (free full text).
  14. ^ EB Issa, JJ DiCarlo: Precedence of the eye region in neural processing of faces. In: The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. Volume 32, number 47, November 2012, pp. 16666–16682, doi: 10.1523 / JNEUROSCI.2391-12.2012 , PMID 23175821 , PMC 3542390 (free full text).
  15. ↑ Okamoto et al. (2002), p. 107 ff.
  16. ^ Emery (2000), p. 596
  17. ↑ Oerter & Montada (1995), p. 204 ff.
  18. ↑ Lichtenberg (1991), p. 13 ff.
  19. ^ Oerter & Montada (1995), p. 190
  20. ^ Keller (1993).
  21. ↑ Cozolino (2006), p. 186 ff.
  22. ^ Cozolino (2006) 202.
  23. ↑ Bowlby (1975) 261 ff.
  24. ↑ Lichtenberg (1991), p. 48
  25. ^ Keller (1989) 539.
  26. ↑ Schuster (1993), p. 18.
  27. ↑ Schuster (1993), p. 29.
  28. ↑ Charles Stangor, Laure Lynch, Changming Duan, Beth Glass: Categorization of worth individuals on the basis of multiple social features . In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology . tape 62 , no. 2 , 1992, p. 207-218 , doi : 10.1037 / 0022-3514.62.2.207 .
  29. ↑ Kara Weisman, Marissa V. Johnson, Kristin Shutts: Young children's automatic encoding of social categories . In: Developmental Science . December 1, 2014, doi : 10.1111 / desc.12269 .
  30. ^ Christian A. Meissner, John C. Brigham: Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review . In: Psychology, Public Policy, and Law . tape 7 , no. 1 , 2001, p. 3-35 , doi : 10.1037 / 1076-8971.7.1.3 .
  31. ^ Caroline Blais, Rachael E. Jack, Christoph Scheepers, Daniel Fiset, Roberto Caldara: Culture Shapes How We Look at Faces . In: PLoS ONE . tape 3 , no. 8 , August 20, 2008, p. e3022 , doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0003022 .
  32. ↑ Why all Asians look so similar to Europeans. August 16, 2007, accessed September 8, 2019 . Wissenschaft.de
  33. ↑ Michael J. Bernstein, Steven G. Young, Kurt Hugenberg: The Cross-Category Effect. Mere Social Categorization Is Sufficient to Elicit an Own-Group Bias in Face Recognition . In: Psychological Science . tape 19 , no. 8 , 2007, p. 706-712 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1467-9280.2007.01964.x .
  34. ↑ u. a. OLG Hamm , decision of June 20, 2008, Az. 3 Ss OWi 434/08.