Japanese librarianship
The history of the Japanese library system is closely interwoven with the history of the written word - the history of the book. The influences of China are evident at the latest with the introduction of the Chinese script in the 4th century and numerous texts, especially religious ones .
history
Beginning
The history of Japanese librarianship is in direct context with the flourishing of various main features of Chinese culture - including Buddhism , Confucianism , scripture, and administration. The model was the Tang Dynasty , 619–907. We encounter an example of the earliest form of library in the beginning of the written copying of Buddhist texts, which, due to their high demand and locality, led to a flourishing dissemination of the temples , whose members they copied.
The most important library in ancient Japan was founded by Hōjō Sanetoki ( 北 条 実 時 , 1224-1276), who held various posts in the Kamakura government . He is said to have built a building for it on his property in Kanazawa, not far from Kamakura. This library, Kanazawa Bunko ( 金澤文 庫 ), was also maintained by his descendants. The inventory is said to have exceeded twenty thousand volumes and included all the knowledge of that time. After the fall of the Kamakura government in 1333 and the associated fall of the Hōjō , the neighboring temple Shōmyō-ji continued to take care of the holdings. Large parts of it were gradually taken away, whereby the stocks removed at that time are easily recognizable by the stamp Kanazawa Bunko . After 1868 the Bunko was rebuilt with its own building at the old location. It was initially subordinated to the Kanagawa Prefectural Library, since 1955 it has been run as a museum of the prefecture, in which art objects from the Kamakura period are also shown. The current building was erected in 1990. It successfully combines library and museum functions. The library has a collection of 29,000 old books and documents.
The most important library of the Edo period was founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu , who was not only a capable general and politician, but also had a great interest in books. In 1602 he set up a library within the castle area in Edo , which was named Fujimi-tei Bunko after it was housed in the Fujimi Pavilion . The library was moved in 1639 under Ieyasu's grandson Iemitsu to the “Autumn Foliage Mountain” ( 紅葉 山 , Momijiyama ) area of the castle, from which it received its new name and stamp. The library was under the "Commissioner for Publications" ( 書 物 奉行 , Shomotsu bugyō ), whose position had been set up in 1633 within the Tokugawa Shogunate.
Among the 90 or so leaders who were counted until the office was dissolved, there were scholars such as Aoki Konyō (1698–1769), known for his botanical knowledge , the explorer of Hokkaidō and the Kurils, Kondō Jūzō (1771–1829) and the Astronomer and geographer Takahashi Kageyasu (1785–1829). Takahashi, who published the maps based on the first exact land survey of Japan by Inō Tadataka (1745-1818), is also known in the West through the "Siebold Incident" .
The holdings of the Momijiyama Library are now partly in the National Archives and partly in the Archives of the Imperial Court Office.
Meiji period
The Meiji period (1868–1912) is synonymous with a strong will to reform - it describes the renewed strengthening of the emperor and the end of the sword nobility . Orientation towards political, educational and military practices of the West ( USA , Prussia and France ) sought to bring the country closer to the industrial powers.
During this time, when numerous officials were posted abroad, points of contact with the librarianship of Europe and America developed, especially the American public library left a strong impression that was carefully reflected in the home country.
The social dynamism of the new constitution of the new school system and the increasing opening of the country gave birth to numerous newspaper reading places in 1872. Public dialogue and the production of newspapers and printed matter increased by leaps and bounds, and the first association libraries were founded. The Kyōto bookstore founded the book collection company, in which books could be borrowed for an annual fee or a "media fee". But as early as 1875 a decree to control the newspapers and the prohibition of criticism of the government noticeably inhibited this development.
Also in 1872, on the advice of an official of the Ministry of Culture, the Shojakukan was founded, an early form of the national and parliamentary library , a library set up in a lecture hall of the University of Tokyo .
Despite the restrictions imposed, there were numerous positive developments, such as the establishment of the Nihon Toshokan Kyōkai (English Japan Library Association , JLA) in 1892, the establishment of the Imperial Library ( Teikoku Toshokan ) in 1898 and the ratification of the library ordinance following in 1899 to establish public and private Libraries. These were given the opportunity to levy fees. The first initiatives arose in Akita Prefecture . Influences of the American librarianship were felt particularly early in Tokyo thanks to Kichiro Yuasa (1858–1943), who received his training in America. The 1910 ordinance “Guidelines for the Establishment of Libraries” stimulated the growth of public libraries and additionally promoted this development in 1919 by establishing the public education department under the Ministry of Culture .
Taisho period and militarism
The global economic crisis and the subsequent rebellion of materially disadvantaged sections of the population, who also organized themselves in the public libraries, led to an adjustment of the library ordinance. Prefectural libraries underwent changes in central libraries under new control requirements. The “Proletarian Library” founded in 1931 was closed, employees and teachers who published, administered and communicated Marxist, communist, pacifist content were relieved of their positions or arrested. In addition to state officials, librarians were also actively involved in cleaning up the library holdings.
During the Second World War , the libraries primarily served to disseminate propaganda and war ideology; military and nationalistic documents were brought to the addressees via traveling libraries . Valuable inventory segments were outsourced, library buildings were converted by the state, employees were drafted or entrusted with the production of ammunition. The consequences of the terrible events found a clear echo in existing buildings as spatial infrastructure.
post war period
After the end of the Second World War, during the American occupation , literary segments that were ideologically one-sided disappeared again, this time the military and nationally oriented literature was confiscated. The literature that was banned before and during the war was re-approved by the Allies. Although private libraries were excluded from the revision, the reorganization of the holdings is considered comprehensive.
The reform of the education system by the American occupiers also led to an evaluation of the public library system, with a particular focus on strengthening democracy . The focus was thus on equal opportunities for all users in using the libraries, the organization of children's libraries and the general availability of controversial sources.
In 1948, following the enactment of the National and Parliamentary Library Act, the National Parliamentary Library (NDL) was founded.
In 1950 the Library Act was ratified, which was primarily addressed to public and private libraries. Weaknesses rested in the proposal nature of the law, the establishment of libraries and the hiring of trained employees were not expressly made mandatory.
Efforts followed to make mothers and children more aware of them as core groups. On the initiative of teachers and individual libraries, “Parent Teacher Associations” were founded, a project in which pupils borrow selected reading material for their mothers, which could later be communicated together. The Kagoshima Prefectural Library tried to improve reading skills by reading aloud at home and to encourage interest in literature with the project “Twenty minutes of reading by mother and child”.
In 1952 there were still major deficits due to the destruction of the war: 70% of the city libraries only had an inventory of less than 20,000 volumes, 66% of the community libraries could not even dispose of 2000 volumes.
In the following, the role of the public library was further strengthened; The focus was clearly on the most free access to literature as an indispensable instrument for democratization efforts. The Hino City Library , founded in 1964 , which had to do without a library building, was able to achieve very high loan numbers through a book delivery service.
University libraries
The higher education system, which was oriented towards Germany after the Meiji Restoration , followed new impulses after the end of the Second World War, the most important for us - the state obligation adopted in 1991 to equip universities without exception with libraries and to ensure the use of trained staff.
A year earlier, the largest university libraries were appointed to collect, list and preserve foreign academic literature in a targeted manner, comparable to the special collection area libraries in Germany. Initially, however, this led to a loss of resources for the immediate needs of the students.
The Japanese university landscape has numerous branches. In addition to the state universities, we also encounter private universities, higher technical schools and two-year short-term universities.
For the state libraries, unlike in Germany, the library director has to prove a professorship at the same time; pure “professional librarians” are only permitted to head a university library in rare individual cases. The reason is a higher level of awareness and expertise in the interests of university operations, applied research and teaching. We encounter a possible synergy in directors who have acquired a professorship in library studies. University libraries have a committee in which, in addition to the director, professors and library department heads, advise on the budget, questions of use and the acquisition of special media.
I.a. Due to the different types of universities and providers, the background of the staff is very heterogeneous. Administrative staff are often responsible for tasks within the library. However, due to increased training and further education, the ratio is increasingly changing in favor of trained staff.
We encounter an important university institution with regard to the training situation within the library system in ULIS [University of Library and Information Science]. The first courses were offered in the Imperial Library as early as 1918, in the following decades ULIS had to take numerous historical changes into account [change of the Imperial Library to NDL etc.]. ULIS has been based in Tsukuba [Ibaraki], about 30 miles outside of Tokyo, since 1980.
Bachelor's [gakugei gakushi] and master's degrees [gakujutsu shushi] can be obtained here, as well as the qualification to become a teacher librarian [work in schools] and the certificate required by the state for basic work in libraries.
There is a fee for the training; loans can be offered to particularly successful school leavers. The admission requirements differ, understandably, depending on the degree you are aiming for. Foreign students also require a previous examination in Japanese and possibly English. The course is organized as a trimester. The students [here Bachelor / 1993–1994] learn about the humanities and social sciences, natural sciences and Japanese studies [for foreign students] through purely library content. A deepening of the possible points of contact in working life, foreign languages and health education complete the circle of training. The last course content is not to be found in German training. ULIS is a partner university of the University of Applied Sciences for Media in Stuttgart.
An increasing opening of Japan to foreign students results from a cautious, noticeable student shortage, unfortunately English is rarely the language of instruction. Declining birth rates in 2003 led to the suspension of enrollment at eight private universities for the first time.
Important tasks of the university libraries can be found among others in the strive information systems develop, the university [challenge here the significant difference Japanese / Chinese writing as opposed, for example, the Latin alphabet is] cataloging in NACSIS Webcat drive, digital documents briefly the - to store and make available to take into account technical development.
In proportion, the private universities / colleges dominate the Japanese education system [2002 = 855 institutions with a stock of ~ 158,280,000 ME and a staff of ~ 4400 employees], followed by the short-term universities [02 = 324 institutions with a stock of ~ 16,290. 000 ME and a staff of ~ 445 employees] compared to the state universities [294 institutions with a stock of ~ 91,180,000 ME and a staff of ~ 2044 employees]. Although the short-term colleges [eg: beautiful literature, kindergarten systems, health care] are more frequently represented, they are often only equipped with basic literature.
Loans in 2002 were 18,663,375,000 in the private sector; 11,526,877,000 in the short-term and 6,703,101,000 in the state libraries.
School libraries
In 1953 the Japanese state anchored the library in school libraries in elementary, middle and high schools. The following growth can be represented today with the following inventory figures: Primary school libraries: approx. 6,500 volumes. Middle school libraries: approx. 8,500 volumes. High school libraries: approx. 20,500 volumes.
In 1997, the addition followed that in schools that provide for more than twelve teaching classes, trained staff must be employed: the teacher librarian - or teacher librarian. This position requires both a teaching qualification and a library training course. They both teach and serve the library. In 2003 more than 90% of the schools subject to this rule had such a workforce. In addition to the teacher librarian, numerous schools still have school librarians who are mostly employed half-time and who only look after the library; however, the clash of these different instances can lead to problems.
In 2002 just under 30% of the houses evaluated achieved the "school library standard" issued in 1993 in terms of quantity and quality.
The school libraries are organized, among other things, in the Japan School Library Association founded in 1950. In the organization originally reserved for the school library councils, since 1985 individuals have also been able to contribute to specific demands of the educational reform and the promotion of media for necessary media acquisition and room design.
A monthly periodical "Gakko Toshokan" provides information on developments and experiences in this workspace.
Since 2000 the pupils have been introduced to the library and to gain independent experience.
In the “Morgenlese” initiative introduced in 1988, participating schools, in 2004 more than 16,000, opened lessons with independent employment of students with self-selected reading. The response is extremely positive, not just the closeness to books and the cultural technique of reading - a higher level of concentration is also noticed in the following lessons, the medium is gaining interest because it is not only linked to school content.
Primary schools approach each other through reading competitions, drawing competitions and the targeted communication of exquisite impressions.
Children's libraries
Another type of library was added in the 1960s: - the Bunko , mostly voluntary , mostly private, children's libraries , which allow this target group to borrow books. The voluntary commitment in particular made the first moves of this type of library possible.
In the 1970s, under the favorable influence of economic growth , numerous communities established public libraries with integrated children's departments. The largest user group was made up of middle-class children and mothers.
Despite the ratification of the children's rights treaty, after which the right to consider children in media acquisition was more clearly worked out, and despite the inclusion of specific key qualifications in dealing with the needs of this target group in the curriculum of the training (compulsory subject), steady growth reached in the 1980s its peak so far.
The reasons can be found in the change in demography , cf. Germany, as well as the budget situation and the decreasing voluntary commitment of the previously very active population (this commitment was primarily done by women).
This is also made clear by the increasing integration into the larger libraries; the higher administrative structure makes it difficult to employ untrained volunteers. Again we are feeling the changing demographics - today public libraries are concentrating more on the needs of adults and a growing number of seniors. As briefly indicated under the school libraries, the tasks of the children's library are now being performed and handled more by these institutions.
The International Children's Library of the National Parliamentary Library, which opened in 2002, is an exception to this trend - moreover, the individual municipalities are making greater efforts to promote reading in a targeted manner.
Special libraries
Under the designation special library there are numerous facilities that are subject to a strong scientific, economic or state focus, but whose inventory, staff capacity and spatial infrastructure only rarely allow public, general use. Scientific institutes, state authorities, museums with special collections and, last but not least, companies create cells here in which collections are specifically organized and given contextual gifts. In addition, libraries of foreign representation [for example the Goethe-Institut Japan founded in 1952] and libraries with a medical focus belong to this genre, interestingly also in the field of patient literature, which in Germany is more subject to the public library system. Scientific institutes and corporate libraries are the largest representatives.
While in the museum example the maintenance and precise localization of the holdings is more of interest, corporate and institute libraries are synonymous with early and intensive use of IT and database technology, while foreign institutions, for example, primarily invite communication and represent the country represented, more to the public advertise.
Historically, the growth began after the end of the Second World War, experienced a slight shock in the 1980s and can be outlined under steady growth since then.
Corporate library
It is extremely important for companies to maintain their own libraries, which serve to support their own research field and provide permanent market research and orientation. The example of patents makes this particularly clear, even today there are common earthly costs for dead ends that could be avoided by carefully examining the patent specifications, especially fatal if one pursues a goal with great energy that has already, understandably, been occupied by another party .
Corporate libraries nourish what is probably the greatest interest in not appearing in general public; only acquisition focuses could refer to internal processes that competitors, unintentionally, give for information and reaction.
Higher national than international database use, as well as generating one's own knowledge bases is a special priority here. Since Japan enjoys a high reputation as an exporter, especially in the technological field, it does not seem necessary to explicitly name individual companies; precise data on stock and employee size, as described, are rarely the subject of general discussion.
Museum library
In the case of museum libraries, the picture is different: the holdings are mostly available at least to the specialist public, since the focus is not on the clear, singular profit maximization, but on the cultural positioning of the holdings. Since the objects in question are attacked by environmental conditions and use, general use, remote from digitized access, is only possible in the rarest of cases. At the same time, they and their staff constitute indispensable resources for science and research. Examples include the Museum of Contemporary Art in Tokyo and the Shochiku Otani Library, which has a living collection from theater to today's film history.
Database producers
In the area of database producers [primary use of company library, institute libraries and state institutions, possibly medical library. for professionals] the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST, formerly Japan Information Center for Science and Technology (JICST)) is of great interest. The JICST, founded by law in 1957, which is financed from state and private funds, collects and evaluates conference reports and scientific, technically oriented, specialist journals and, as a documentation facility, provides service to private customers, publishes the "Schnellnachrichten zur technical literature" and a pamphlet on foreign Patent system. More important today - the online database . Japan online system [JOIST], understandably technically oriented. JICST also translates foreign literature and offers further training, including the use of in-house databases . JICST is by no means the only information and documentation facility in Japan; service providers / retrieval systems like DIALOG are also actively used via national resources .
Remarks
- ↑ Today part of Yokohama.
See also
Sources and further reading
- Hiroshi Kawai: The Library System in Japan. Past and present Dehmlow, Hannover 1997. 79 S.: Ill., Kt.; 24 cm. - (Laurentius: special issue). - Parallel eight. in japan. Schr. ISBN 3-931614-47-6 .
- Theodore F. Welch: Libraries and librarianship in Japan Greenwood Pr., Westport, Conn. et al. 1997, ISBN 0-313-29668-5 , XV, 215 pp. - (Guides to Asian librarianship).
- Hiroshi Kawai, Tomio Ide, Marie Kinjo, Asuka Kimura, Yukihiko Makie, Taro Miura, Tadashi Takenouchi, Harumi Yakushiin: Trends of Library Services in Japan. In: Bibliothek 28 (2004) No. 3, pp. 303-318 ( http://www.bibliothek-saur.de/2004_3/303-318.pdf ).
- Moritz Sommet: "Library and modernity in Japan. The scientific library system between system and culture", Cologne 2011. 106 p., ISSN 1434-1115 - (Cologne working papers on library and information science: 58).
- Noriaki Ono: Nihon toshokan-shi. Genbunsha, 1973.
- Ulrich Wattenberg: Japanese Books, Book Lovers and Libraries . Edit .: Klaus Kracht for Mori-Ôgai Memorial (= Small series . No. 24 ). 2003, ISSN 1435-0351 , p. 48 ( hu-berlin.de [PDF; accessed on July 9, 2014]).
Web links
- National Parliament Library (Japanese, English)
- Japan Library Association (Japanese, English)