Agricultural game keeping

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Damtier in summer coat

The agricultural wild attitude is an extensive keeping of wild animals such as fallow deer , red deer , European mouflon , wild boar and similar animals in game reserves for the recovery of wild game and sometimes Basthaut . Such an attitude is practiced worldwide. In New Zealand , this branch of industry is of particularly great economic importance: in addition to meat, which is mainly exported to Western Europe, raffia is also obtained for sale on Asian markets.

History of the deer parks

Parforce hunt at the Dianaburg near Darmstadt, 1768

The historical forerunner of agricultural game keeping is the keeping of wild animals in large, spacious enclosures or gates. With this attitude, not only were meat available for consumption at all times, but also sacrificial animals for religious activities. Among the Phoenicians , for example, the fallow deer was the preferred sacrificial animal in the cult of the god Baal-Hammon , because the spotted fur of the fallow deer was considered a reflection of the starry sky. The Greeks preferred to sacrifice fallow deer to the goddess Artemis . The Phoenician and Greek colonization in the Mediterranean took place between the 11th and 6th centuries BC. BC to the fact that the fallow deer was reintroduced in the coastal regions of today's Marseille , in the area of Carthage and Spain , where the fallow deer was probably extinct in the wild. How big the role of the fallow deer was in the cult of the Roman goddess Diana has not been conclusively clarified. However, fallow deer were used during the great expansion of the Roman Empire between the 1st century BC. It was introduced throughout Roman rule in the 3rd century AD and in the 3rd century, as shown by bone finds from excavations in Switzerland, southern Germany, England and Hungary, among others. Practices of this kind can be found not only in the Mediterranean area, but also for other deer species in ancient China, for example.

In the Middle Ages and early modern times , keeping wild animals in parks was common practice in noble households. The builders of deer parks gained social prestige because they had the option of ritualized hunting that was part of aristocratic representation. The keeping of wild animals on large, fenced-in areas made possible the important, high and easy-to-reach stretches on splendid hunts, according to the hunting concept of the time. At the same time, the deer park was an essential source of supplies for the aristocratic table. In England, for example, it was uncommon for upper-class households to buy venison for centuries . For over three centuries the trade in game, which came from the so-called big game , was even forbidden. Giving away game or live animals was part of building and strengthening relationships. The importance got the deer meat, we can measure, among other things, that Henry VIII. To Anne Boleyn campaigned not only with love letters, but also with the gift of venison. In the German-speaking countries, the relatively frequent occurrence of names such as Hirschgarten or Hirschpark in place names indicates the importance of maintaining this gate .

The history of game farming

Red deer

New Zealand was one of the first countries to develop wild game farming, where deer farming was legalized as early as 1969. The background against which the establishment of such deer farms took place were ecological problems: various deer species were introduced after the colonization of New Zealand by European settlers, where such mammal species did not occur naturally. For example, the first successful introduction of red deer to New Zealand took place in 1854 on the South Island, most reintroductions of animals imported from Europe took place between 1890 and 1910, the last took place in 1926 on the North Island. However, within a few decades it was recognized that red deer have a direct and indirect negative impact on New Zealand's biodiversity . Through their grazing behavior, they contribute to the erosion of slopes, permanently change the plant structure and promote the spread of introduced plant species such as thistles, ragwort and clematis species. As early as the 1930s, the New Zealand government tried to reduce the rapidly growing red deer population by culling , but largely without success. A sustained reduction in population density did not occur until the 1960s, when at the same time marketing opportunities for New Zealand game were increasingly developed and the use of helicopters made it possible to hunt in regions that were previously inaccessible but rich in red deer. Wildlife biologist David Yerex calls it a lucky coincidence that the increasing fear of European consumers of atherosclerosis created a particularly high demand for lean game meat at this time. The development of sales markets in Europe and later also in Asia made it increasingly economically interesting for New Zealand farmers to keep deer in gates. The New Zealand farms were established with animals caught in the wild. Most of them were red deer.

Stimulated by the marketing successes in New Zealand, attempts were very soon made to produce and market game meat in a similar way in Great Britain. While New Zealand tried to keep the animals under an intensive pasture management, similar to what one was used to with sheep and cattle, in Great Britain such areas were fenced in extensively, in which red deer occurred naturally and tried to keep them under almost natural conditions . The New Zealand example prevailed.

The farm-like keeping of red deer also met with criticism in New Zealand. Trophy hunting for the introduced deer species was of economic importance in New Zealand; the sight of large groups of red deer lying quietly ruminating on their pastures, even near busy roads, met with rejection, especially from those who made a living from hunting tourism . At the beginning of the establishment of deer farms in New Zealand, there were a few attacks in which the deer were released by opponents of this attitude or animals were shot in their pastures. Deer farms were established in almost all parts of New Zealand by the beginning of the 1970s. 1973 were established in New Zealand special research institutions that dealt with the attitude of red deer and the Deer Farmers Association (about 1975 Association of Hirsch holder ) launched. The willingness of New Zealand farmers to switch to this type of animal was due to the possible high returns. A New Zealand publication published in 1987 found that to generate a net income of $ 100,000 on a farm would require either three workers to tend 9,000 sheep for 1,800 acres , two workers to tend 2,000 cattle for 2,000 acres, or one worker to tend 600 red deer per 200 acres.

Agricultural wildlife management worldwide

New Zealand

Elk
Sika deer in summer dress, the antlers are still covered with bast skin
North American white-tailed deer
Moose
wild boar
European mouflon

New Zealand is still the country where wild game farming plays a particularly important role. At the beginning of the 21st century, the population was around 2.2 million wild animals. This corresponds to around 40% of the wild animals kept for agricultural use worldwide. These consisted of 85 percent red deer, 12 percent elk and 3 percent fallow deer. From a European point of view, the individual herds are very large and comprise between 500 and 1,000 pieces. More than 90 percent of the meat is exported; the annual export volume at the beginning of the 21st century was around 20,000 tons of game meat. More than 60 percent of this meat is delivered to Western Europe. The main customer is Germany (49 percent of New Zealand's annual export volume), followed by Belgium (8 percent), Sweden (7 percent) and France (6 percent). The bast, which is also obtained, is delivered in dried form mainly to Korea, Hong Kong and increasingly also China and Taiwan. The annual transport volume corresponds to 120 tons.

Australia

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Agricultural game keeping has also been practiced in Australia since the early 1970s. Around 200,000 breeding animals are kept in around 1,200 farms, mostly fallow and red deer. The main objective of agricultural game keeping is the production of meat. The resulting bast is exported to Asia as in New Zealand.

North America

In North America, gate keeping of wild animals was practiced very early by European settlers. It was based on the European model, where the gate keeping served hunting and social prestige. As in New Zealand, wild game farming began in the 1960s. In the US, between 220,000 and 250,000 breeding animals were kept at the beginning of the 21st century. Here too, fallow and red deer predominate. Moose are also kept in small numbers . In Canada at the beginning of the 21st century there were about 2,400 farms with a population of 155,000 breeding animals. In Canada, the elk plays a major role, along with red deer, white-tailed deer, fallow deer and, to a lesser extent, reindeer .

CIS countries

At the beginning of the 21st century, 400,000 breeding animals were kept in the CIS countries . The most common wildlife species are the sika deer and the elk. They are kept mostly extensively on very large pastures with additional feeding. The focus of the attitude is the bast production, which is primarily aimed at the Korean market.

China, Korea and Nepal

In China and Korea, game farming has also developed in recent years. Unlike in the CIS countries, it is operated very intensively, which means that there are very high population densities. About 90 percent of the animals are sika deer. The production of bast also plays a particularly important role here.

China is also experimenting with keeping musk deer. The substance of the musk gland of these deer species is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps as well as in traditional Chinese medicine . Only 25 to 30 grams of musk can be extracted from a gland ; in 1999, USD 45,000 per kilogram was paid. To what extent this approach will be successful cannot currently be foreseen. Reports on the successes in keeping in Shaanxi and Sichuan suggest that musk deer are very difficult to domesticate to the extent that the musk can be extracted. In 1996, in Nepal, near Kathmandu , experiments were also carried out with keeping these deer.

Southern Africa

In southern Africa there have been game and hunting reserves that have been privately owned for many decades. Both forms of private reserves are primarily aimed at tourism. For several years there have also been attempts to keep some antelope species for game meat production. Experiments in the South African Republic with the springbok , which lives in large packs and which, due to its behavior, would be particularly suitable for such keeping purposes, have progressed particularly well. The meat is marketed both in the country of production and in the European Union.

European Union

In the EU countries, the extraction and marketing of the bast skin is not possible due to animal welfare regulations, since the deer have to saw off the antlers before they can sweep the bast skin off the antlers. The main goal of keeping is the use of grassland and meat production. At the beginning of the 21st century, there were around 10,000 game enclosures in the territory of the EU, in which more than 410,000 breeding animals were kept. Two thirds of the wildlife population consists of fallow deer and around one third of red deer. Other wildlife such as mouflons and wild boars play a minor role. The areas on which farmers keep wild animals are on average 4.6 hectares. The countries with significant game husbandry include Germany, Austria, France, Ireland and Sweden. In Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary, deer species are still kept in large hunting grounds.

Germany has around 6,000 gates; At the beginning of the 21st century, around 112,000 mother animals were kept on 15,000 hectares. The most common game kept is the fallow deer. This species accounts for around 90 percent of the animals kept, 4 to 6 percent are red deer. In addition, mouflons and sika deer as well as a small number of wild boars are kept. Of the approximately 6,000 gates, 2,324 are in Bavaria, followed by around 300 gates in Baden-Württemberg. Wildlife husbandry has increased over the past few decades; numerous companies have been founded, especially in the new federal states. The reason for this is grassland that is being freed up due to declining livestock. It is estimated that 20 to 22 percent of the grassland in the new federal states is no longer required for the provision of feed for cattle. These green areas are available for alternative agricultural management. At the beginning of the 21st century, 1,500 tons of game meat from gates was brought onto the market in Germany every year. Another 30,000 tons come from hunting. The self-sufficiency in game meat in Germany is around 60 percent. The remainder is imported from New Zealand and Eastern European countries.

Statutory Regulations

In all countries, wild game farming is subject to separate legal provisions. These differ depending on the country and in some cases also the federal state. In Western European countries, the regulations usually stipulate that game enclosures do not inappropriately restrict the habitat of other animal species outside the enclosure, that hunting is not significantly restricted, that no game can escape from the gates and that neither the landscape nor the natural balance is significantly affected become. In addition, the keeping of the animals must meet animal welfare requirements and issues of species protection must not be affected.

In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act and the Animal Protection Act essentially regulate the holding options. The game kept in the enclosure is also subject to the Animal Disease Act. The operation is basically subject to approval. Since the kept hive animals must be killed by a shot with a weapon and no nail gun may be used, the gun and hunting law also applies. Like all animals whose meat is intended for human consumption, wild game animals are also subject to the Meat Hygiene Act and the Law on Veterinary Medicinal Products, and direct agricultural marketing is also subject to the Food Hygiene and Food Labeling Ordinance.

Animal species

Not all animal species are suitable for keeping in gates. The roe deer, for example, is only suitable to a very limited extent for keeping gates due to its territorial behavior and the associated intolerance within the species. Its space requirement is so high that it is economically uninteresting. On the other hand, animal species are kept that also predominantly live in packs in the wild and that can therefore be kept in a relatively small space. This is the case for a range of deer, the European mouflon and the wild boar. Apart from the wild boar, these are exclusively ruminants.

Some of the animal species essential for agricultural game keeping are listed below:

Fallow deer

Black fallow deer with its antlers developing

Fallow deer were kept in hunting grounds or deer parks very early on. Compared to other wild ungulates, color variations are relatively common in fallow deer. This frequent occurrence is presumably due to the semi-domesticated keeping in deer parks for centuries .

The fallow deer is the most important animal species kept on the farm in Europe. Fallow deer are valued in agricultural game keeping because they are less sensitive to disturbances and are more adaptable and more resilient than other game species. Compared to red deer, sika deer or even the roe deer, it shows a significantly lower degree of social aggression and tolerates close enclosure. It is classified as an intermediate type of grazing, showing a tendency towards grazing. In accordance with this behavior, the range of plants ingested is very large, only avoids very fibrous and lignified plants. This makes the fallow deer particularly suitable for extensive grassland use. Depending on the location and age, its weight varies between 30 and 100 kilograms. Most animals for slaughter are fallowers, that is, males in their second year of life. In cages with a balanced sex ratio, some cricket animals and calves as well as some older damsels and occasional deer are killed and marketed. Dam animals are usually not kept for more than four or five years before they are slaughtered.

Although their game is considered superior to that of red deer, fallow deer are kept less than red deer in New Zealand. Their bast is of less value than that of red deer, they are more volatile than these, more prone to eczema and the slaughter costs are higher in relation to the meat yield. At the beginning of the 21st century, around 8,000 animals were slaughtered annually in New Zealand, which corresponds to around one percent of New Zealand's annual game meat export.

Red deer

Red deer still in the bast

The red deer only plays a minor role in agricultural game keeping in Europe. In Germany around 8,000 red deer are kept in gates that are part of the agricultural game keeping. The main reasons for the comparatively rare husbandry are the greater intraspecific aggressiveness and intolerance compared to fallow deer and mouflon, which means that more space is required in keeping the creel. At least 2,000 square meters of grassland must be available per animal, so that at least 250 square meters per animal can be tied under. The minimum size for a fence is two hectares on which one stag and four hinds can be kept. At least two paddocks of one hectare each should be provided. However, at least 6 hectares of gate area, which is expediently divided into three to four paddocks, are considered to be the size from which management only makes sense. The large amount of space required by red deer is often not compensated for by the fact that the workload and slaughter costs per animal are not significantly higher than with fallow deer, but the meat yield is considerably higher with red deer. The extraction of bast skin, which is a major reason for keeping red deer in New Zealand, is not practiced in Central Europe. The antler amputation required for this may only be carried out if there are veterinary reasons for doing so.

In New Zealand, the red deer is still the most important game species in agricultural game keeping. It is occasionally crossed with other deer species such as the somewhat larger elk or the sika deer. The marketing of the bast skin plays a major role in the New Zealand attitude. In 2000, New Zealand exported bast for around 28 million New Zealand dollars (NZD). At times, up to NZD 200 per kilogram of bast was paid, and up to 10 kilograms of bast can be extracted from the antlers of a well-developed deer. The processing and marketing of bast skin is now mainly in the hands of New Zealanders of Korean descent. Even if the value of bast is subject to fluctuations, the equivalent value of the bast skin obtained is greater than the value of the game meat obtained. In Asia, the bast is used in traditional medicines and products that are intended to increase male potency.

In New Zealand, great efforts have been and are being made to breed particularly large red deer (with strong antlers). Among other things, red deer were imported from Europe. In 2000, NZD 104,000 was paid for a particularly well-disposed two-year-old red deer from a British park. For artificial insemination of hinds with the semen of particularly well-disposed deer, prices between 150 and 400 NZD were paid.

Mouflon

Two rams and two sheep

The European mouflon is a wild sheep species that was naturalized in Central Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries. Especially at the beginning of the 20th century, numerous populations were established as park and hunting game in Central Europe. Animals were introduced from Corsica and Sardinia, where they live in open mountain landscapes on stony, dry soils. Naturalized in Central Europe , they live in deciduous and mixed forest areas both in the lowlands and in the low mountain ranges , with dry and stony soils being preferred. In unfavorable moist soil conditions, shell diseases ( mold limbs ) can easily occur, which can also lead to death.

In Germany both pure European mouflons and crosses with original domestic sheep species such as heather sheep are kept. The meat from these crosses is mostly marketed as wild lamb. The holding form corresponds to the paddock keeping. The available green space is divided into several paddocks and the mouflons are kept alternately in one of the paddocks. Mouflons can jump very high. The height of the fences surrounding such green spaces must be at least 1.80 meters.

wild boar

wild boar

The wild boar is the only significant animal species in agricultural game keeping that is non-ruminant. Compared to fallow deer and red deer, however, keeping them is comparatively rare. Wild boars are common in the wild and are heavily hunted. The economic incentive lies in the availability of the individual piece on time. In contrast to red deer and fallow deer, where parts up to partially finished and finished products are preferably marketed, the entire animal is often sold in the marketing.

The framework conditions for keeping wild boars at gates are demanding. Among other things, the keeper must ensure that the fence around the gate is designed in such a way that no pig can escape and at the same time no contact with wild boars is possible. To do this, a double fence must be erected and there must be a minimum distance of two meters between the fences. The fences must also be built in such a way that they cannot be undermined or pushed up by the wild boars kept. At the same time, it must be so fine-meshed that even newbies cannot crawl through. In order to meet these requirements, gate keeping is occasionally practiced within existing large game gates with fallow deer and red deer. The gates themselves must be diverse and offer protection from the elements, such as extreme solar radiation and heavy rainfall. Wild boars also need wallows and trees to rub against. The minimum fence area per animal is 2,000 square meters. Since the minimum size for cultivation consists of one boar and four brooks, a gate must have an area of ​​at least one hectare.

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Haseder, p. 916
  2. ↑ Siefke et al., Pp. 321-322
  3. ↑ a b Siefke et al., P. 323
  4. ↑ Fletcher, p. 4
  5. ↑ Fletcher, pp. 17-18
  6. ↑ Yerex, pp. 17-18
  7. ↑ Tim Low: Feral future - The untold story of Australia's exotic invaders , Penguin Books Australia, Victoria 2001, ISBN 0-14-0298258 , p. 199
  8. ↑ Bernhard Kegel : The ant as a tramp - From biological invaders , Heyne Verlag, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-453-18439-4 , p. 43
  9. ↑ Yerex, pp. 35-48
  10. ↑ Yerex, pp. 82-84
  11. ^ Yerex, p. 98
  12. ^ Yerex, p. 87
  13. ^ Yerex, p. 91
  14. ^ Yerex, p. 98
  15. ↑ a b Golze, p. 10
  16. ↑ a b Golze, p. 11
  17. ^ Leonard Lee Rue III: The Encyclopedia of Deer . Voyageur Press, Stillwater 2003, ISBN 0-89658-590-5 , p. 28
  18. ↑ Tej Kumar Shrestha: Wildlife of Nepal - A Study of Renewable Resources of Nepal Himalayas. Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu 2003, ISBN 99933-59-02-5 , p. 220
  19. ↑ Tej Kumar Shrestha: Wildlife of Nepal - A Study of Renewable Resources of Nepal Himalayas. Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu 2003, ISBN 99933-59-02-5 , p. 221
  20. ↑ CA Spinage: The Natural History of Antelopes . Croom Helm, London 1986, ISBN 0-7099-4441-1 , p. 166
  21. ↑ Golze, p. 11 and p. 12
  22. ↑ Golze, p. 13
  23. ↑ Jochen Langbein and Norma Chapman: Fallow Deer . The Mammal Society and The British Deer Society, London 2003, ISBN 0-906282-40-3 , p. 4.
  24. ↑ Donald Chapman and Norma Chapman: Fallow Deer . Coch-y-bonddu Books, Machynlleth 1997, ISBN 0-9528510-5-9 , p. 25.
  25. ↑ Golze, p. 55
  26. ↑ Golze, p. 77
  27. ↑ a b Yerex, p. 147
  28. ↑ Golze, p. 131
  29. ↑ Golze ,. P. 115
  30. ^ Yerex, p. 185
  31. ^ Yerex, pp. 186-187
  32. ^ Yerex, p. 166
  33. ↑ Golze, p. 134 and p. 135