Speak of God

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The speech of God ( Arabic كلام الله, DMG Kalām Allāh ) is one of the attributes of God in Islamic theology . Both the word of God revealed to the prophets and the creation word kun (“Be!”), With which God creates the world, are considered to be God's speech . The relationship of God's speech to God himself as well as to the revealed Koran is one of the central themes in the dispute between the theological schools of the Muʿtazilites , Ashʿarites , Māturīdites and Hanbalites .

Koranic statements

The expression “speech of God” ( kalām Allaah ) occurs in three places in the Quran:

  • Sura 2 : 75: "Are you then out to believe that some of you have already heard God's speech, but then, after they have understood it, falsified it, and knowingly?"
  • Sura 9 : 6: "If one of the sellers asks you for a neighborhood alliance, grant it to him so that he can hear God's speech."
  • Sura 48:15 , where, in relation to the hypocrites , it says: "They want to change the speech of God."

The statement in sura 16:40 , in which God himself speaks: "Rather, our speech ( qaulu-nā ), if we want anything, we say to him, is of great importance for the later theological discussions about God's speech : ,Be!' ( kun ) - and then it is. ”In addition, the speech of God is indirectly discussed in numerous other places. Thus, in Sura 2: 253, it is stated that God preferred some of the messengers to others and that there are some among them to whom God spoke ( wa-min-hum man kallama Llāhu ) and some to whom he raised degrees. Moses occupies a special position among the prophets in Islam , because God, as it is called in sura 4: 164 ( kallama Llāhu Mūsā taklīman ), is said to have really spoken to him. That is why he was nicknamed Kalīm Allaah ("addressed God").

When God speaks to a man, he does so only in a very specific way, either through inspiration ( waḥyan ), behind a curtain ( min warā' ḥiǧāb ), or by sending a messenger who then enters it with his permission, which he wants ( sura 42 : 51). The ability to speak distinguishes God from idols , because they cannot speak (Sura 7: 148).

Problem areas of the theological discussion

Generally speaking, Islamic theologians concluded from these verses that God possesses a speech ( kalām ) and is a speaker ( mutakallim ). But how God's speech relates to God himself and to the Koran, whether the speech is created or uncreated, whether it is audible or not, and whether there are several or only one of God's speeches was controversial among Islamic theologians. Explanations can be found in almost all manuals on Kalām as well as on the "Foundations of Religion" ( uṣūl ad-dīn ).

The speech of God: created or uncreated?

One of the points at issue about God's talk was whether it was created or uncreated. It is generally said of the Muʿtazilites that they considered God's speech to be created, just as they taught the creation of the Koran , but there were also individual Muʿtazilites such as Murdār, the disciple of Bishr ibn al-Muʿtamir , who only believed the Koran to be created , however, God's speech is uncreated.

There were subtle differences within the camp of those who accepted the constitution of divine speech. Most of the Muaztazilites taught that God created speech in something other than himself. That could be a burning bush like with Moses , or the air like with the angel Gabriel . Jahm ibn Safwān , Dirār ibn ʿAmr (died 815) and an-Najjār (died approx. 830) believed that God creates his speech in bodies. Abū ʿAlī al-Jubbā'ī and his son Abū Hāschim held that "God is a speaker ( mutakallim ) through a speech that He creates in a subject." Other Muʿtazilites, on the other hand, held that the speaking of God was merely the creation of the perception of the created so that he could hear. The creation of speech is thus man's ability to hear. For ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad , on the other hand, speech is an act created by God.

Among those who considered God's speech uncreated was Abū al-Hasan al-Ashʿari . He included in his creed the doctrine "that the speech of God is uncreated and He did not create anything without saying to it 'Be!' ( kun ) "as it is expressed in Sura 16:40. In his view, God's speech cannot be created because it also includes the word of creation, and this cannot be created by itself. If God had not been speaking from the beginning, he would have been mute and could not have brought about creation and revelation. The Zāhirit Ibn Hazm also considered the speech uncreated.

According to the Hanbalite Ibn Taimīya (d. 1328) it is the doctrine established among the ancestors ( salaf al-umma ) that the speech of God is uncreated. Let it be sent down, but not created, go out from God and return to him. With the return of God's speech, as explained Ibn Taimīya, is meant the removal of the Koran text from the Koran copies and from the hearts of the people at the end of time. In the Waṣīyat Abī Ḥanīfa , a Maturīdite confessional which was widely commented on in the early modern period, the imperfection of divine speech is affirmed and it is said: "Whoever says that the speech of God is created is a kāfir with regard to God. God whom the Worshiping people remains the same, and his speech is recited, written and memorized, but without being separated from him. "

The relationship of speech to God

The Murji'it an-Najjār (d. Approx. 830) taught that the speech of God, if it is recited, is an accidental (, araḍ ), if it is written down it becomes a body ( ǧism ). The idea that God's speech is an accident has been adopted by various Muʿtazilites, such as an-Nazzām (d. 846) and al-Iskāfī (d. 854).

For other Muʿtazilites, God's speech was one of the so-called attributes of action ( ṣifāt al-fiʿl ), which, in contrast to the attributes of essence ( ṣifāt aḏ-ḏāt ), are tied to time. ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad accordingly regarded God's speech as his action and said that God can only be called "speaking" ( mutakallim ) because he is a "maker of speech" ( fāʿil kalām ). According to Abū l-Hasan al-Ashʿarī , most of the Muʿtazilites taught "that the speech of God is his action that he has made into a speech, and that it is impossible for God to always be a speaker." So they saw God's speech as an act that was a thing of the past.

Ibn Kullāb (d. 855) took a different position regarding God's speech . He believed that speech is one of the essential attributes of God that is as inherent in him as life and has existed from the beginning. For him, God's speech is neither identical with God, nor is it anything different from him. Al-Ashʿari held the same view. He devoted an entire chapter of his "Book of the Spotlights" ( Kitāb al-Lumaʿ ) to the proof that the speech of God belongs to the attributes of the essence ( ṣifāt aḏ-ḏāt ). In doing so, he was directed against the Muʿtazilites, for whom the speech of God was not one of the eternal attributes of the essence of God, but one of the attributes of action. Al-Ashʿari, unlike them, did not regard God's speech as a past act, but an act that is present in God. Also al-Bāqillānī (st. 1013). and Ibn Taimīya (st. 1328) regarded speech as an essential attribute of God. Ibn Taimīya said, however, that God's speech is an essential and an active attribute at the same time.

For those who thought the speech was an essential attribute of God, it was disputed how it relates to the other essential attributes. Ibn Kullāb meant that speech is inherent in God in the same way as life is, and is not dependent on will ( irāda ) or omnipotence ( qudra ). According to Ibn Taimīya, on the other hand, the attribute of speech is subordinate to the attribute of will, because God speaks when and how He wills. For as-Saffārīnī, the speech is the second of the seven confirmed attributes ( aṣ-ṣifāt aṯ-ṯubūtīya ). The first of these attributes is the life of God, the other five are seeing, hearing, will, knowing and the omnipotence of God.

The relation of speech to the Koran

The idea that the Koran is God's speech can be demonstrated early on. On a tombstone, which probably dates from the year 815, it says: "The Koran is the speech of God, sent down and uncreated." Ahmad ibn Hanbal is quoted as saying that the Koran is the speech of God wherever it is sent. It is said that the Hanbalites believed everything that is between the two covers of the book, everything that is recited and heard, sounds and letters, to be God's speech. The view that the Koran is God's speech was also shared by the Muʿtazilites. Al-Jubbā'ī, for example, taught that in reciting the Qur'an, God "recreates a speech of himself in the subject of the recitation". ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad said that the Koran is God's last speech to the people, but that he continues to speak to the angels.

Ibn Kullāb , on the other hand, rejected the view that the Koran was God's speech. In his view, only the content ( al-maʿnā ), which subsists in the divine essence and to which the Arabic Koran refers, was the speech of God. Ibn Kullāb said that speech is an essential attribute of God, but denied that the sounds and letters that people recite on earth are eternal because, as he said, these are only expressions ( ʿibāra ) of the divine Are speech, their phonetic, created form. Others said that he saw the Koran as the illustration ( rasm ) or the reproduction ( ḥikāya ) of God's speech.

The notion that the Koran is not the word of God, but only an expression of it, was also the well-known teaching of the Ashʿarites . They probably adopted the distinction between divine speech and the Koran from Ibn Kullāb. Ibn Hazm gives the Ashʿari teaching as follows: "Gabriel did not come down to the heart of Muhammad with the speech of God, rather he brought something else, namely the expression ( ʿibāra ) of the speech of God. Nothing of what we read in the copies of the Koran and fix it in writing is the speech of God. " The Ashʿarit al-Bāqillānī (st. 1013) considered it inadmissible to call what is recited from the Koran as the speech of God. Al-Dschuwainī (st. 1085) said that although God's speech was written down in copies of the Koran and memorized in people's minds, it did not appear in it. The scriptures express God's speech, which was eternal in the beginning. This does not mean, however, that it connects with the bodies or subsists in them . In various verses of the Koran it is stated that the speech of God is sent down to the prophets. By sending down ( inzāl ) it is meant here, however, that the angel Gabriel grasps the speech of God, who is at his position above the seven heavens, then descends to earth and gives the messenger to understand what he himself is on the lotus tree of the border ( sidrat al-muntahā ) understood. The divine speech itself does not move from place. Aal-Juwainī differed greatly from those who claimed that what one hears while reciting the Quran is the speech of God. He referred to those who represented this doctrine as hashviyah ("scum").

The Zāhirit Ibn Hazm (d. 1064) strongly rejected this view and declared: "The Koran is the speech of God in the proper sense (( alā l-ḥaqīqa ), not in the figurative sense ( lā ʿalā l-maǧāz ), and the one who who does not teach this is a kaafir . " For him, evidence of the correctness of this view was sura 9: 6 and sura 2:75, both of which presuppose that the "speech of God" means a revealed book. From this he concluded that the audible text of the Koran is also God's speech. Overall, he endeavored to show the broad applicability of the expression "speech of God". He wrote: "Even when we read the Koran, we say that this is our speech the speech of God, in the real, not in the figurative sense. And no one is allowed to say: This speech of mine is not the speech of God." He concludes his remarks on this question with the remark: "We say that the speech of God is in our hearts, is recited through our tongues and is fixed in our copies of the Koran, and we renounce the one who does this with his corrupt Mind denies. "

For most of the Hanbali it was also clear that the Koran is God's speech. For example, the confession of the Iraqi Hanbali Ibn Batta (d. 997) included the doctrine that the Koran is "the uncreated speech of God in all situations and in all places". As-Saffārīnī derives the justification for also calling what Mohammed communicated to people "speech of God" from the statement in Sura 9: 6, where Muslims are asked to enable unbelievers to hear the speech of God. With this relationship of identity, Ibn Taimīya also explained the doctrine established among the ancestors ( salaf al-umma ) that God's speech emanates from God and returns to him. With the return of God's speech, he said, is meant the removal of the Koran text from the Koran copies and from the hearts of the people at the end of time.

The Hanbalit Ibn ʿAqīl (d. 1119) believed that the Koran was God's direct speech; he rejected the conception of speech subsisting in God because it is the function of speech itself to express what is in the mind. In his view, it is the direct speech of God that is heard when the Koran is recited. However, he protested against the idea that the voice of the person who recites the Koran is identical with God's speech, because God's speech only appears in a fragmented form in this voice. Anyone who considers God's speech to be synonymous with the recitation of the human reciter has, in his view, inadmissibly equated God with his creatures. With this restriction he approached the position of Ibn Kullābs and the Ashʿarites.

The opinion of the Māturīdites was divided. Early Māturīdites such as Abū l-Yusr al-Bazdawī (d. 1099) made a clear distinction between the speech of God and the Koran and believed that the Koran could only be called the speech of God in a figurative sense. For them the Koran is only a reference to the speech of God or a copy ( nas davon ) of it arranged in letters . Later followers of this school such as at-Taftāzānī (d. 1389), however, were convinced that the Koran and God's speech are identical. The later view is also reflected in the Wasīyat Abī Hanīfa , which says: "We confess that the Koran is the uncreated speech of God ... The ink, the paper and the writing are all created because they are the work of men The work of the created (sc. man) is also created. God's speech, on the other hand, is uncreated because the scriptures, letters, words and verses are all signs of the Koran for the needs of people. "

Relation to the Other Revealed Scriptures

According to later authors like as-Saffārīnī, the Torah, Gospel and Psalms are also the speech of God. The speech of God is, however, ordered hierarchically: according to Ibn Taimīya (st. 1328) the highest level is the Fātiha , then comes the sura al-Ichlās , followed by the Koran , the Torah and the Gospel on descending levels . But some also put the gospel on a higher level than the Torah.

The Māturīdit al-Bazdawī, on the other hand, considered it unthinkable that God's speech should be Arabic or Hebrew. Arabic and Hebrew are merely characteristics of the lettered copies of God's speech, not of God's speech itself.

Unity or multiplicity of God's speech?

The Muʿtazilit al-Iskāfī (st. 854) taught that the speech of God can be in different places at the same time. Al-Jubba'i believed that when a thousand people recited the Koran in different places, the speech of God would be with each of them without restriction. Fundamental to the Ashʿarite teaching is the view that God has only one speech and that what the angel Gabriel came down with and what he put into the heart of Muhammad is not the speech of God itself, but only its expression ( ʿibāra ). The speech of God as an eternal attribute of God cannot be multiplied. Also, al-Ghazali expressed the doctrine that the word of God, which he conceived as an inner teaching, can not be duplicated.

The Muʿtazilit ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad (st. 1024) also said that there is only one speech from God. In his view, however, it could be in many places at the same time, for example in books and in people's hearts. The Muʿtazilit ʿAbbād ibn Sulaimān, a contemporary of Ibn Kullāb, took a different view. He said that the inner speech is a unit, but becomes diverse as it is transmitted to different addressees.

The Andalusian scholar Ibn Hazm rejected the Ashʿaritic doctrine of the unity of God's speech with reference to two verses of the Koran, in which the infinity of God's words is emphasized, namely:

  • Sura 18 : 109: "If the sea were ink for the words of my Lord, the sea would dry up before the words of my Lord dry up" and
  • Sura 31 : 27: "If trees were to be made of writing tubes on earth, and if seven seas were to provide supplies for the sea when it was exhausted, God's words would be inexhaustible."

That is why Ibn Hazm considered the claim that God had only one speech to be a great aberration. Similarly, Ibn Taimīya also emphasized the multiplicity of God's speech. In his opinion, it can either convey information or contain an order. In the latter case it has either the character of an act of creation ( takwīn ; in the sense of the creation word kun ) or the character of legislation ( tašrīʿ ). In this respect, God's speech is very diverse.

Is God's Speech Audible?

The Ashʿarit al-Juwainī said that there was a consensus among Muslims that the speech of God is audible ( masmūʿ ). As proof of this, he referred to Sura 9: 6, which explicitly states that people should hear God's speech. However, with al-Māturīdī (d. 944) and al-Isfarā'īnī there were also two Islamic theologians who explicitly denied the audibility of God's speech. They believed that God's speech was just an idea in its essence, and God's speaking to Moses was just creating a perception through which Moses understood that idea. Regarding the Koran, al-Māturīdī said that God transmitted his inner speech to Gabriel and that he transmitted it to Mohammed in Arabic.

The basis for the doctrine of the inaudibility of God's speech was the idea that God's speech is only the meaning ( maʿnā ) that subsists in God's nafs ( al-qāʾim bi-n-nafs ). This “inner speech” of God, of which the revealed books are only an expression, the Ashʿarites also called kalām nafsī (“inner speech”). Al-Ghazālī , who was close to the Ashʿarite doctrine, explained in his writing al-Iqtiṣād that God's speech does not consist of sounds or words, but that God's internal speech is different from all other speech. Inner speech, he taught, could not manifest itself outside of God through created sounds or letters, but could only be revealed. Even Moses, according to al-Ghazālī, had not really heard the voice of God. In the hereafter, however, people are able to understand God's speech. The doctrine of the inaudibility of God's speech was also shared by Fachr ad-Dīn ar-Rāzī (d. 1209).

For the Muʿtazilites al-Jubbā'ī and his son Abū Hāschim, on the other hand, the reality of speech consists of articulated sounds and ordered letters. The Shiites agreed with them. ʿAbd al-Jabbār ibn Ahmad devoted a whole section of his muġnī to the proof that God speaks with this worldly, audible speech. Hanbalites like Ibn Taimīya thought it heresy to say that God did not speak with words or sounds.

literature

Arabic sources
  • al-Ǧuwainī : Kitāb al-Iršād ilā qawāṭiʿ al-adilla fī uṣūl al-iʿtiqād . Ed. Muḥammad Yūsuf Mūsā u. ʿAlī ʿAbd al-Munʿim ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd. Maktabat al-Ḫānǧi, Cairo, 1950. pp. 128–130, 132–137 digitized
  • Ibn Ḥazm : al-Faṣl fi-l-milal wa-l-ahwāʾ wa-n-niḥal. Ed. Muḥammad Ibrāhīm Naṣr; ʿAbd-ar-Raḥmān ʿUmaira. 5 vol. Beirut: Dār al-ǧīl, 1985. Vol. III, pp. 11-23.
  • Ibn Taimīya : Maǧmūʿat ar-rasāʾil al-kubrā . Dār Iḥyāʾ at-tūrāṯ al-ʿArabī, Beirut, undated vol. III digitized
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Secondary literature
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  • JRTM Peters: God's created speech. A study in the speculative theology of the Muʿtazilī Qāḍī l-quḍāt Abūl-Ḥasan ʿAbd al-Jabbâr ibn Aḥmad al-Hamadânî . Brill, Leiden 1976. pp. 1-3, 35-39.
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Individual evidence

  1. Cf. as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, p. 138.
  2. Cf. Gardet: Art. "Kalām" in EI² Vol. IV, p. 469a.
  3. Cf. al-Māturīdī: Kitāb al-Tauḥīd . 1986, p. 57f.
  4. Cf. Gardet: Art. "Kalām" in EI² Vol. IV, p. 471a.
  5. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 12.
  6. a b c d Cf. as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, p. 133.
  7. a b Compare as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, p. 136.
  8. a b c Cf. Muḥammad aš-Šahrastānī : al-Milal wa-n-niḥal Ed. Aḥmad Fahmī Muḥammad. Dār al-Kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 1992. pp. 67f. Digitized - German transl. Theodor Haarbrücker. 2 vols. Hall 1850-51. Vol. I, p. 81. Digitized
  9. a b c Cf. Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 16.
  10. See Abū l-Ḥasan al-Ašʿarī: al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl ad-diyāna . Ed. ʿAbbās Ṣabbāġ. Dār an-Nafāʾis, Beirut, 1994. p. 36.
  11. a b c cf. Allard: Leproblemème des attributs divins . 1965, p. 234.
  12. a b Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 19.
  13. a b cf. Arent Jan Wensinck : The Muslim Creed. Its Genesis and Historical Development . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1932. S 127 and the Arabic composite manuscript from 1670, Ms Diez A quart. 97 in the Berlin State Library , f. 62r-62v digitized
  14. Cf. HS Nyberg u Khalīl ʿA th āmina: Art. "Al-Na djdj ār" in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition Vol. VII, pp. 866b-868a. Here p. 867b.
  15. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, pp. 10, 12.
  16. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, pp. 283, 291, 336f.
  17. Cf. Abū l-Ḥasan al-Ašʿarī: Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn wa-ḫtilāf al-muṣallīn . Ed. Hellmut Ritter . Steiner, Wiesbaden, 1963. p. 516.
  18. a b cf. Allard: Leproblemème des attributs divins . 1965, p. 243.
  19. a b c See as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, p. 134f.
  20. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, p. 331.
  21. Cf. Allard: Leproblemème des attributs divins . 1965, p. 242.
  22. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 14.
  23. a b Cf. Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 18.
  24. a b c See Gardet: Art. "Kalām" in EI² Vol. IV, pp. 469b-470a.
  25. Cf. as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, pp. 130-150.
  26. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 7.
  27. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 8.
  28. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 9.
  29. a b c d Cf. Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 17.
  30. Cf. as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, pp. 136f.
  31. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 11.
  32. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, p. 282.
  33. a b Cf. Makdisi: Ibn ʿAqil: religion and culture in classical Islam . 1997, p. 115.
  34. Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 13.
  35. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, p. 333.
  36. Cf. al-Ǧuwainī: Kitāb al-Iršād . 1950, p. 132.
  37. Cf. al-Ǧuwainī: Kitāb al-Iršād . 1950, p. 135.
  38. Cf. al-Ǧuwainī: Kitāb al-Iršād . 1950, p. 128.
  39. Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 14.
  40. Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 22.
  41. Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 23.
  42. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, p. 334.
  43. a b Compare as-Saffārīnī: Lawāmiʿ al-anwār al-bahīya . 1982, p. 139.
  44. Cf. Makdisi: Ibn ʿAqil: religion and culture in classical Islam . 1997, p. 120.
  45. Cf. Makdisi: Ibn ʿAqil: religion and culture in classical Islam . 1997, pp. 114, 118.
  46. Cf. Makdisi: Ibn ʿAqil: religion and culture in classical Islam . 1997, pp. 118f.
  47. Cf. Brodersen: The unknown kalām . 2014, p. 328f.
  48. Cf. Brodersen: The unknown kalām . 2014, p. 330.
  49. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 12f.
  50. a b Cf. Ibn Ḥazm: al-Faṣl fi-l-milal . 1985, Vol. III, p. 12.
  51. Cf. al-Ǧuwainī: Kitāb al-Iršād . 1950, p. 136f.
  52. a b Cf. Gardet: Art. "Kalām" in EI² Vol. IV, p. 470b.
  53. See Tritton: "The speech of God". 1972, p. 11f.
  54. Cf. al-Ǧuwainī: Kitāb al-Iršād . 1950, p. 133.
  55. See Tritton: The speech of God. 1972, p. 13 f.
  56. See Gardet: Art. "Kalām" in EI² Vol. IV, p. 469b.
  57. Cf. van Ess: Theology and Society . 1997, Vol. IV, pp. 614f.
  58. a b Cf. Tritton: The speech of God. 1972, p. 15.
  59. See Tritton: The speech of God. 1972, p. 20.
  60. See Peters: God's created speech. 1976, p. 330 f.