Shamanism in Korea
Shamanism in Korea or Korean shamanism or muism ("Mu [shaman] religion"; Korean Mugyo , Hangeul 무교 , Hanja 巫 敎 ) or Shinism ("religion of the gods"; Korean Shingyo , Hangeul 신교 , Hanja 神 ); also Sindo ("way of the gods"; Hangeul 신도 , Hanja 神道 ) is the original belief system of Korea and the ethnic religion of the Koreans . The Korean expression sindo (Hangeul 신도 ), like the Japanese Shintō ( Kanji 神道 ) as a self-designation for the original religion there, has the root of the Chinese word Shéndào (Chinese 神道 ). Korean shamanism is part of the more complex Korean folk religion .
In Korea there are different, regionally different variants of shamanism . Vocation, training, worldview and areas of responsibility largely correspond to the descriptions of “classical shamanism” from the North Asian region, as described by many scientists. One can distinguish between three different types of shamans . On the mainland there are mostly female shamans who can be divided into the shamans with spirit contact ( mudang, mansin ) and the hereditary shamans who inherited their territorial community from their parents ( seseupmu ). On the island of Jejudo there is a mixed form of both traditions (the shaman inherits his profession but still has spiritual contact), which is usually practiced by male shamans.
Some peculiar characteristics that distinguish Korean shamans from other shamans is the lack of animal helper spirits. In Korea, ghosts are mostly human. Accordingly, the shaman's costumes are often costumes or uniforms of specific people or historical epochs. Gangsinmu also do not travel to the hereafter in trance, but are incorporated by their spirits. In contrast to North Asian shamans, the gangsinmu do not experience any visions of death or rebirth during their calling.
Shamans who received their profession through inheritance ( seseupmu ) do not correspond to the classic definition of shamanism in essential points. In particular, the lack of an ecstatic change in consciousness to establish contact with a spiritual world gives rise to doubts as to whether seseupmu can be called shamans. In Korean literature, this problem is circumvented by replacing the term shamanism with the word creations musok (mu custom) or mugyo (mu religion). The studies of the mu religion encompass both variants of Korean shamanism. Attempts to explain the regional differences focus on three different theses:
- Musok is a specifically Korean belief system and did not evolve from Siberian shamanism.
- Musok grew out of two different cultural systems.
- Musok emerged from Siberian shamanism and has developed regional characteristics over the course of history.
History of Korean Shamanism
The history of Korea officially begins with the legendary founding of the first nation state Gojoseon in 2333 BC. By the patriarch Dangun Wanggeom . The word Dangun could be related to the Mongolian word tengri (heaven / heavenly god). In any case, this designation reflects the position of the early kings, who combined political power and priesthood in one person. The Dangun was considered to be the son of the sky god Hwanin who sent him to earth to rule over the first Korean empire. The myths of the "Son of Heaven" strengthened Gojoseon's position of power and legitimized a religious-political government. In his function as a mediator between humans and the “heavenly”, the Dangun was both a political ruler and a shaman. Similar forms of rule can be found in the later kingdoms such as Buyeo, Goguryeo or Silla . In these states, state ceremonies and celebrations in honor of Heaven were celebrated. In the 4th century AD, the political power of the kings in the "Three Kingdoms" increased due to the new Confucian ideology. The shamans were tied to the rulers by the kings as state shamans who served as fortune tellers, priests and healers.
In the Goryeo dynasty, which emerged after the fall of the Shilla Empire, state shamanism was ousted from political positions of power by Buddhism as the new dominant religion. Although Buddhism was initially promoted as a new state ideology by the state founder Wang Kŏn, shamanism continued to be an important part of the religious life of the rulers.
The Confucianism conquered in the second half of the Goryeo Dynasty through administrative reform, the expansion of the central government and by Confucian scholars who taught at the royal court, the rank of a state ideology. The Confucian scholars increasingly criticized the growing influence of shamans on the women of the palace. This criticism led to a growing opposition to shamanism, which led to the marginalization of shamans during the Joseon Dynasty (Yi Dynasty).
Shamanism was suppressed and at times even persecuted during the Joseon Dynasty. Shamans belonged to the lowest class of society at this time and were placed on a par with slaves, butchers, actors and prostitutes. While shamanism in the earlier dynasties was always closely associated with the ruling class and fulfilled religious, but also political functions, it lost its importance in the Joseon dynasty. The social decline was accompanied by spatial exclusion. Shamans were expelled from the capital and had to live in the countryside. Additional taxes should encourage shamans to quit their profession. Korean men who served in government or came from noble families were required to avoid shamanic festivals and events. The Confucianists not only expelled shamanism from the power center of the state, but also Buddhism and Taoism.
Korean shamanism has lost its reputation among the population due to its exclusion from society and its lower status. The contempt of the Confucianists for what they consider to be the irrational religious practice of the shamans has carved itself into the consciousness of the Korean population for over 500 years.
The Christian missionaries who began their church work in Korea at the beginning of the 19th century inflicted further damage on this disdain by assessing shamanism as "the work of the devil" and "primitive superstition" and of shamans as "devils".
After the fall of the Joseon Dynasty by the Japanese Empire, the situation of Korean shamans continued to deteriorate. With the aim of destroying and Japaneseizing Korean culture, the Japanese persecuted all religious groups that could have fostered a sense of national consciousness or solidarity through Korean cultural property.
The liberation of Korea from Japanese rule changed Korean society and introduced democratization and modernization on the Western model. Shamanism was banned in the north of Korea. In the south of Korea, shamanism was seen as a relic of the past and was suppressed as a shameful superstition in the context of the new standards of values.
In the 1970s, the state “New Village Campaign” caused further persecution and the destruction of shamanistic altars and shrines. The Christian Minjung movement, supported by large parts of the population , who saw themselves as representatives of the victims of rapid industrialization and thus as opposition to the Korean government, revived interest in Korean shamanism. Because of this politically motivated interest, there were initial demands to preserve and protect Korean shamanism. The government reacted to these demands with the introduction of “cultural labels” that removed shamans or individual rituals from the context of shamanism and stylized them into cultural monuments.
These developments marked a cautious turn in government attitudes. Shamanistic rituals were accepted on public stages insofar as it was obviously a folkloric performance. Shamanism as folklore was seen as a positive part of the cultural heritage and celebrated as part of a newly found identity. Sacred elements of the rituals were deliberately ignored in this type of shamanization. Shamans, who distinguished themselves by special performances, gained great fame through the media. The best-known shaman, who now also appears as a representative of Korean culture worldwide, is the shaman Kim Kum-hwa, who was declared a “Living National Treasure” on February 1, 1985 (“Important Intangible Cultural Asset Number 82”).
The student movement of the 1980s adapted shamanistic rituals during political demonstrations with the aim of politicizing the newly discovered cultural identity. The poor social and economic conditions were seen as the result of a decline in values, which was confirmed in the government through ongoing scandals and revelations of corruption. The integration of shamanistic elements into the opposition demonstration movement was a political assessment with the aim of reviving an ultimately undefined “Korean identity” that was used to distance oneself from the government. With the end of the demonstrations, these rituals disappeared.
The 1988 Seoul Olympics marked a turning point in Korean shamanism. Shamans were invited to perform well (ritual) on public stages, in the theater, and even on television . Shamanism was presented to the world as an integral part, in some cases even as the core of Korean culture. The patriotism newly sparked by the successful Olympics idealized shamanism as the core of new nationalist ideas.
Well
The shaman's task to establish a connection between people, gods and spirits for the benefit of the community is most clearly revealed in a shaman's ritual ( good , 굿). The shaman ceremony is without a doubt the focus of shamanism. During the ritual, the laws of space, time and social hierarchy are dissolved. Historical figures, male and female gods, ancestors and spirits of various characters as well as deceased children can incorporate themselves in the mudang . Through clothing, images of gods, facial expressions, language and gestures, the people present identify the presence of a certain god, whom they want to entertain and favor with food, dance, music and gifts.
During the ceremony, there is one thing that visitors forget about the Confucian rules of propriety, which normally dominate public life, in favor of Dionysian ideals: they drink, dance and sing loudly and without inhibitions. Contact with the ghosts is often accompanied by emotional outbursts. If there is dissatisfaction with a situation or a condition, people argue and discuss with the spirits, wishes are negotiated in verbose discussions and the deceased are tearfully and plaintively farewell. A kut is a dramatic and lively event that is carried by a common desire for change.
The meaning of the word good
The first Korean scholar, Yi Nŭnghwa, who dealt with the description of Korean shamanism in 1927, believed that the term good , for which he could not find an equivalent in Chinese, was based on the Korean word gutta . The term "gutta" means something like "hideous", "ugly", "mean" and "shoddy". The synonym for good , the term p'uri , whose meaning can be translated with terms such as “untie”, “open a knot” or “solve a puzzle”, was used by Yi Nŭnghwa as confirmation of his thesis that with good a “ negative ritual ”, the aim of which is to drive away bad influences and misfortune. This definition can be refuted with a few counterexamples.
Good with objectives that are not reminiscent of an exorcism are e.g. B. the cheonsingut (ceremony in which the gods are offered the fruits of the new season), jaesugut (ceremony for wealth and happiness) or the honin yeotamgut (ceremony for reporting a marriage). If you look at the goal of a well , there is no question that these rituals consistently strive for a harmonious balance between humans and gods.
Different types of good
A breakdown of the various wells in Korea is very difficult due to the large number of variants and the countless regional differences in the ceremonies. For example, a variant of the good for the dead is known in the region of Seoul as jinogigut , in the provinces of Cheolla-do and Chungcheong-do as ssitkkimgut , on the east coast as ogu-kut and on the island of Jeju-do , which in turn are in different regions is divided, referred to as tarigut , neok keonjigigut or sumanggut .
Goals of good
One can roughly formulate seven goals for the various good ones in South Korea:
- Peace and prosperity of the state
- Family happiness and prosperity
- Strengthening the feeling of togetherness and solidarity in village communities
- Cure diseases
- Promoting a successful harvest or fishing
- Escorting the dead souls to the afterlife and adoring the dead
- Initiation of the shaman
As a mediator between the worlds, the Korean shaman has the task of achieving these goals, which strive for the ideal state in the middle world of the cosmos. The distance between the ideal state and the real situation is based on a disharmony between the different worlds or between gods, spirits, ancestors and people. Only the shaman with her special knowledge is able to recognize the cause of this disharmony and to initiate the necessary precautions or actions that can bring about a change.
Regional shamanic customs
| Surname | purpose | region |
|---|---|---|
| Hamgyeongdo manmukgut | Held three days after the death of a person to enable the way into the world of the dead. | Hamgyeong-do |
| Pyeongando darigut | This good allows the spirit of a deceased to enter the world of the dead. The process is similar to Buddhist ceremonies. | Pyeongando |
| Hwanghaedo naerimgut | Is an initiation ritual that usually ends with a longer period of apprenticeship. After the naerim gut, the shaman can work independently. | Hwanghae-do |
| Hwanghaedo jinogwigut | This gut helps the spirit of a deceased to enter the world of the dead. | Hwanghae-do |
| Ongjin baeyeonsingut | This property tries to help fishermen to catch big, peace and prosperity. The dragon king of the sea is worshiped. | Hwanghae-do |
| Yangju sonorigut | This custom worships livestock and is believed to result in good crops, peace, and community prosperity. This property is one of the most sophisticated. | Yangju, Gyeonggi-do |
| Seoul danggut | This good is supposed to help bring about peace and a good harvest. | Jeongbalsan Mountain, Dapsimni-dong, Sinnae-dong, Bonghwasan Mountain, Seoul |
| Seoul jinogwigut | This ritual is held for a deceased and is intended to facilitate the 49-day journey into the world of the dead for his spirit. This goes back to the Taoist belief that every person has seven souls, one of which goes up to heaven every seven days. | Seoul |
| Gyeonggido dodang good | This custom takes place every two months and is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It should help the community to prosper. The estate drives away evil spirits from the family grave. | Dingmak area, Jangmal area, Gyeonggi-do |
| Gangneung too good | This estate is extremely large. Dozens of shamans are involved and pray to the mountain gods for the safety of the community, a good harvest and plenty of fish. Masked dances and exciting folk games are performed. | Gangneung, Gangwon-do |
| Eunsan byeolsingut | This property is dedicated to the ghosts of the family graves in the village. A performance of a legend from the Baekje empire is presented. Part of the estate takes place in front of the village entrance. | Eunsan-ri, Buyeo-gun, Chungcheongnam-do |
| Suyongpo sumang good | This custom helps the spirit of someone who has died at sea to enter the world of the dead. | Yeongil-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do |
| Gangsari beomgut | This communal practice is held every three years. Shamans pray for protection from wild tigers and for a good harvest and peace. | Gangsa-ri, Yeongil-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do |
| Geojedo byeolsingut | This good is held in every fishing village to ask for lots of fish. Peace is also asked for. | Geoje, Gyeongsangnam-do |
| Tongyeong ogwisaenamgut | This ritual is intended to enable the spirit of a deceased at sea to enter the world of the dead. | Tongyeong, Gyeongsangnam-do |
| Wido ttibaegut | This fishing custom appeals to many different spirits and aims to bring happiness to the village. | Wido Island, Buan-gun, Jeollabuk-do |
| Jindo ssitgimgut | This custom washes the spirit of a deceased. The estate is repeated exactly one year after death. | Jindo Islands, Jangsando Islands, Jeollanam-do |
| Jejudo singut | This custom helps a shaman to be promoted to a higher rank. The estate can also initiate a shaman and is performed three times in a shaman's life. | Jeju-do |
| Jejudo yeongdeung good | This ritual is held in the second month of the lunar calendar. The goddess of the sea ( Yeongdeungsin ) is asked to grant security and plenty of fish. | Coastal areas, Jeju-do |
| Jejudo muhongut | This property washes the spirit of a deceased at sea and thus enables entry into the world of the dead. | Jeju-do |
literature
- Byon-Ro An: On the religious-cultural situation in Korea today. In: Journal for Religious Culture. No. 54, 2002 ( PDF: 197 kB, 12 pages on uni-frankfurt.de).
- Hung-youn Cho: Mudang: The career of Korean shamans using the example of the life story of Yi Chi-san (= communication from the Society for Natural History and Ethnology of East Asia. Volume 93). Doctoral thesis University of Hamburg 1983. Society for Natural and Ethnology of East Asia, Hamburg 1983.
- Sang-Chan Han: Relationships between Shamanism and the Understanding of the Holy Spirit in the Protestant Church in Korea. Religious phenomenological and mission theological investigation. Günter Mainz, Aachen 1991, ISBN 3-926987-75-8 .
- Chei Woon-Jung: Culture of Korean Shamanism. Iudicium, 2001, ISBN 3-89129-081-0 .
- Susanne Knödel: Shamans in Korea. Healing rituals and cell phones - female shamans in Korea. Published by the Hamburg Museum of Ethnology. Dölling & Galitz, Hamburg 1998, ISBN 978-3-930802-76-0 .
- Il-Young Park: Minjung, Shamanism and Inculturation: Shamanistic Religiosity and Christian Orthopraxis in Korea. Doctoral thesis University of Friborg 1988.
- Dirk Schlottmann : Trance, Ecstasy and Obsession in Korean Shamanism. Rituals of the Hwanghaedo tradition in Seoul (= Edition MV-Wissenschaft ). Monsenstein & Vannerdat, Münster 2016, ISBN 978-3-95645-747-0 .
- Dirk Schlottmann: Obsession and incorporation in Hwanghaedo shamanism. In: Journal of International Studies. Volume 23. Keimyung University, April 2015, pp. 89-120.
- Dirk Schlottmann: Korean Shamanism in the New Millennium. P. Lang, Frankfurt 2007, ISBN 3-631-56856-8 .
English:
- Kim Hogarth, Hyun-key: Kut: Happiness through reciprocity. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1998.
- Keith Howard (Ed.): Korean Shamanism. Revival, survivals and change. The Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, Seoul Press, Seoul 1998.
- Dong Kyu Kim: Looping effects between images and realities: understanding the plurality of Korean shamanism. The University of British Columbia, 2012.
- Laurel Kendall: Shamans, Nostalgias, and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 2010, ISBN 0-8248-3398-8 .
- Laurel Kendall: Shamans, housewives and other restless spirits: Woman in Korean ritual life (= Studies of the East Asia Institute ). University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1985.
- Kwang-Ok Kim: Rituals of resistance. The manipulation of shamanism in contemporary Korea. In: Charles F. Keyes, Laurel Kendall, Helen Hardacre (eds.): Asian visions of authority: Religion and the modern states of East and Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu 1994, pp. 195-219.
- Daniel Kister: Korean shamanist ritual. Symbols and dramas of transformation. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1997.
- Jung Young Lee: Korean Shamanistic Rituals. de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 1981, ISBN 978-3-11-081137-7 .
- Dirk Schlottmann: Cyber Shamanism in South Korea. Online publication of the Institute of Cyber Society, Kyung Hee Cyber University, Seoul 2014.
- Dirk Schlottmann: Spirit Possession in Korean Shaman rituals of the Hwanghaedo tradition. In: Journal for the Study of Religious Experiences. Volume 4, No. 2. RERC (The Religious Experience Research Center), University of Wales Trinity, Saint David 2018.
- Dirk Schlottmann: Dealing with Uncertainty: “Hell Joseon” and the Korean Shaman rituals for happiness and against misfortune. In: Shaman - Journal of the International Society for Academic Research on Shamanism. Vol. 27. no 1 & 2, p. 65-95. Molnar & Kelemen Oriental Publishers, Budapest 2019, ISSN 1216-7827
- Chai-shin Yu, R. Guisso (Eds.): Shamanism. The spirit of Korea. Asia Humanities Press, Berkeley 1988.
- Jongsung Yang: Korean Shamanism: The training process of charismatic 'Mudang'. In: Folklore Forum. Volume 21, No. 1, 1988, pp. 20-40.
Web links
- Dirk Schlottmann - Photo gallery: Korean Shaman Project: Village Rituals. Without date (Korean shamans and village rituals).