Spiritualism (Philosophy)

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Aristotle's theory of layers - For a better understanding of the term "hyle" (= matter, body) see the Aristotelian doctrine of hylozoism . In the context of Descartes' doctrine, the tip of the pyramid represents the “unexpanded” res cogitans (thinking), the base the “spatially expanded” res extensa (body).

With spiritualism (derived from the Latin spiritus = spirit) is in the philosophy and psychology of a variant of the mind-body problem referred. It deals with the task of psychophysical correlation , i.e. the interaction between the two substances described by René Descartes (1596–1650), the res extensa and res cogitans, with emphasis on the spiritual or psychological point of view. The philosophical direction of spiritualism takes different positions, for example: B. that the reality is determined mentally that the physical is a manifestation of the mind, is to be regarded as a product of the mind, even by spiritual causes is that the outside world only in the perception exists or only as a notion or does not exist . According to the layer theory , all these effects are called downward effects .

Representative of spiritualism

The representatives of spiritualism are not to be understood as a completely uniform group, even if, in terms of spiritual history, they can largely be assigned to the Enlightenment. As a result of their very different critical assessments, this is understandable, cf. Cape. Criticism .

Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) points to the idealistic attitude in the USA, which aims to get the best out of people. By this he means a very specific “heroic attitude”, which is reflected in a tendency to set world records. The great land of unlimited possibilities expects this "size" also from its inhabitants. In this context he mentions the emergence of secret societies. They should serve to increase performance in competition. America rediscovered the spirits of spiritualism that were already present in the native Indian population. Jung sees North America as a traditional country of origin for the continuation of primeval animistic customs . The spiritual healing of the shamans and the healing of diseases through Christian Science are to be understood in this way. In India, the founding of yoga, ascribed to the sage Patanjali (2nd or 4th century BC), is an expression of the union of the divine-spiritual being with human beings. The emphasis on the spiritual and spiritual point of view is particularly evident in the ascetic exercises of hatha yoga.

Peter R. Hofstätter (1913–1994) names the Irish philosopher and theologian George Berkeley (1685–1753), the German educator and philosopher Friedrich Paulsen (1846–1908) and the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) as representatives of spiritualism . Schopenhauer is known for his work " The world as will and imagination ".

In intellectual history, the lifetime of George Berkeley (1685–1753) overlaps with that of the elder John Locke (1632–1704) and that of the younger David Hume (1711–1776). Like them, Berkeley was connected to the sensualism of his time. His principle "nil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensibus" was formulated by Locke (in the spirit or understanding there is nothing that has not been in the senses before). For Hume, sensualism was a prerequisite for empiricism . As a follower of this doctrine, according to which all knowledge, including the rational, has its origin in perception , Berkeley determined being as perception (“esse = percipi”) and thus stood out from the principle of Descartes “cogito ergo sum”, according to which being is determined by thinking. According to Berkeley, there is no external world independent of perception and thought. Reality is determined by our ideas, unless they are fantasies, dreams, etc. Already Thomas Willis (1621-1675) was due to anatomical studies a first neurological-psychological system described. René Descartes (1596–1650) also used the pineal gland to develop a quasi neurological concept for the interaction between the two substances he described. However, this turned out to be more and more untenable and was therefore replaced by the model concept of psychophysical parallelism developed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) as a consequence of his monad theory. The term “monad” (derived from ancient Greek μόνος (monos) = one, alone, only, only) indicates the attempt to overcome Descartean dualism .

Klaus Dörner (* 1933) also regards the emergence of spiritualism as socially conditioned. The representatives of Enlightenment spiritualism had met a universal need. In this context, he not only refers to Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) and Alessandro Cagliostro (1743–1795), but also includes Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) in this context . They could not wisely do without magical practices . Although Dörner acknowledges that Swedenborg was led to spiritualism through the mind-body problem, he does not consider the theoretical foundation of the psychotherapeutic situation to be sufficiently secure. - Swedenborg has also made a name for itself through its participation in localization studies on the brain. The fantastic and popular arrangements of the mesmeric treatment - so Dörner continues - would have accelerated a polarization of the rationalist society, although Mesmer saw himself as an enlightener. Shares were issued for the corporate and organizational consolidation of its activities. A secret society, the Ordre de l'Harmonie, was founded.

Complementarity

Spiritualism is a theoretical prerequisite not only for psychodynamic and psychogenetic thinking, but also for related sciences such as depth psychology and psychosomatic medicine . Often spiritualism is referred to as idealism . Seen in this way, spiritualism can also be understood as the counterpart of materialism . Materialism derives the spiritual from the material, which in turn represents the theoretical prerequisite for sciences such as psychophysiology , psychopharmacology etc. However, within pharmacology, the placebo effect again points to the spiritual principle. Both principles are therefore to be regarded as linked. "Placebo domino" is the opening word of a psalm verse. Pharmacology cannot explain why, as a result of biochemical processes in the brain, emotional psychological processes are brought about ( qualia ).

According to the complementarity principle derived from physics by Niels Bohr (1885–1962), z. For example, opposing theories such as the wave and corpuscle theory of light should not be seen as a compelling reason to question their truthfulness. In the light of experience, their contradictions in the sense of a formal logic can nevertheless call for a unified attitude with the aim of supplementing different and opposing points of view ( convergence ) that is useful for both sides . Microphysical research and theoretical physics ( quantum physics and relativity theory ) have shown that the dimensions of space and time are not independent of one another, cf. Cape. Criticism .

If, according to Descartes, space is the dimension of the inanimate body (res extensa), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) already pointed out that time is a “form of inner sense, ie of looking at ourselves and of our inner state ”must apply. This points to the psychological qualities of time as a "medium of all synthetic judgments".

For Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), spiritualism is the counterpart of hedonism . She sees the reversal of thinking habits such as realism and nominalism , the philosophy of transcendence and immanence , idealism and materialism, and even cultural models, as a by no means extraordinary event. Already Plato (427-347. BC.) Had in his allegory of the cave pointed to the need to reverse (περιαγωγὴ της ψσυχης) of the philosopher. The have also Karl Marx did (1818-1883) with his request, the philosophy of Hegel to put "back on its feet" (see the foundations of dialectical materialism ).

criticism

Criticism of spiritualism, like so many other criticisms of psychological concepts, is primarily directed against absolutization. Even if unifying model concepts are to be seen as the motor for the further development of Descartes' dualistic conception, a monistic conception in the sense of the identity philosophy based on Benedictus de Spinoza (1632–1677) up to Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling (1775–1854) in particular then hardly acceptable if it is seen exclusively metaphysically or exclusively in the sense of a scientific reductionism . - Klaus Dörner also considers an assessment based on zeitgeist criteria to be unproductive (for example in the sense of "Enlightenment - Counter-Enlightenment").

Karl Marx (1818–1883) joined the demand for a unified philosophical consideration and interpretation of natural and spiritual processes. However, he criticizes the idea of ​​an unchangeable, universally binding and absolute being and calls for the interaction between “superstructure” and “base”.

Continuum of diagnostic categories or the question of the transitions between physical and mental illnesses

Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961) called the absolutizing varieties of spiritualism and materialism "metaphysical prejudices". A unifying view of these opposites with regard to the undoubted “experience” of different psychological phenomena is more appropriate. Jung regards this unity as given when matter is assigned a certain spiritual (psychological) aspect and spirit a certain material aspect. The first spiritual assumption is u. U. to clarify with subtle knowledge of microphysics (e.g. → uncertainty relation ). The second assumption is more common and may result. a. from the observation of the effects of biochemically effective substances in the brain (luxury foods and pharmaceuticals), cf. above . The causal laws of nature and the acausal psychogenetic processes took Jung under the concept of synchronicity together (synchronicity = simultaneity. See also the earlier formulated in a similar context watches parable ). Mathematical and scientific thinking allows the assumption of a continuum between physical and mental processes, cf. the fig.

Peter R. Hofstätter (1913–1994) comments critically on the absolutization of spiritualistic positions that overly generalizing statements such as "There is only spiritual" and "There is only matter" cannot be compared with one another. Both statements are mutually exclusive and appear incommensurable . There is therefore no mediating argument for verification . Hofstätter also points out the etymological relationship between the Latin spiritus = breath, which can be established in many languages. From this, purely linguistically, one can infer the assumption of a subtle character of psychic qualities.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f Georgi Schischkoff (Hrsg.): Philosophical dictionary. 21st edition. Alfred-Kröner, Stuttgart 1982, ISBN 3-520-01321-5 ; (a), p. 658 - on Wb.-Lemma “Spiritualism”; (b), p. 66 - to Wb.-Lemma: "Berkeley"; (c), p. 658 - to Wb.-Lemma: "Spiritualism"; (d), p. 367 - to Wb.-Lemma: “Complement”; (e), p. 371 f. - to Wb.-Lemma: “Convergence”; (f), p. 371 f. - to Wb.-Lemma: "Continuum".
  2. ↑ René Descartes : Meditationes de prima philosophia. 1641.
  3. ↑ Thure von Uexküll (Ed. And others): Psychosomatic Medicine. 3. Edition. Urban & Schwarzenberg, Munich 1986, ISBN 3-541-08843-5 , pp. 613, 732, 773, 1286, 1288 f. 613, 732, 773, 1286, 1288 f. - on the keyword “downward effect”.
  4. ^ A b c Carl Gustav Jung : civilization in transition. Collected Works. Walter-Verlag, Düsseldorf 1995, paperback, special edition, volume 10, ISBN 3-530-40086-6 ; (a), p. 559 f. Section 976 f. - on the keyword “Psychological factors in the USA”; (b), p. 448 f. § 394 - on the keyword "Biochemical theory of consciousness (Qualia)?"; (c), p. 448 f. Section 394 - on the subject of “subtle relationships between mind and body”.
  5. ↑ Gottfried de Purucker : Occult dictionary . [1935] Concepts of esoteric philosophy from East and West. Theosophical University Press, Den Haag, Munich 1972, ISBN 0-911500-92-8 , p. 194 f. - on the keyword "Yoga".
  6. ↑ a b c Peter R. Hofstätter (Ed.): Psychology . The Fischer Lexikon, Fischer-Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main 1972, ISBN 3-436-01159-2 ; (a), p. 208 - on the keyword “Representatives of Spiritualism”; (b), p. 207 - on keyword " Monadology " (c), p. 205 - on keyword "Latin spiritus = breath and etymologically related meanings in other languages", p. 208 - on keyword "Critique of Spiritualism".
  7. ↑ George Berkeley : Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge . 1710.
  8. ↑ a b c d Klaus Dörner : Citizens and Irre . On the social history and sociology of science in psychiatry. (1969) Fischer Taschenbuch, Bücher des Wissens, Frankfurt / M 1975, ISBN 3-436-02101-6 ; (a), pp. 35–38 - on the keyword “Thomas Willis”; (b + c), p. 135 f. - on the heading “Spiritualism and magical practices of its representatives”; (d), p. 135, footnotes 35 and 36 - on the keyword "Zeitgeist".
  9. ↑ Erwin H. Ackerknecht : Brief history of psychiatry. 3. Edition. Enke, Stuttgart 1985, ISBN 3-432-80043-6 , p. 37 - under the heading “Swedenborg”.
  10. ^ Gerd Laux : Pharmakopsychiatrie . Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-437-00644-4 , p. 48 ff. - on the subject of “placebo”.
  11. ↑ Immanuel Kant : Critique of Pure Reason. 1st edition. Edited by Wilhelm Weischedel, Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt / M 1995, Volume 1 stw, text and pages identical to Volume III work edition, ISBN 3-518-09327-4 , pp. 80 f., 199 Concordance Kant edition B 49, 194 - to keyword "time".
  12. ^ Hannah Arendt : Vita activa or From active life. 3. Edition. R. Piper, Munich 1983, ISBN 3-492-00517-9 , p. 285 - under the heading “Spiritualism”.
  13. ^ Dörner, Klaus and Ursula Plog: To err is human 7th edition. or textbook of psychiatry / psychotherapy. Psychiatrie-Verlag Rehburg-Loccum 1983, ISBN 3-88414-001-9 , p. 440.
  14. ^ Karl-Heinz Hillmann : Dictionary of Sociology (= Kröner's pocket edition . Volume 410). 4th, revised and expanded edition. Kröner, Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-520-41004-4 , p. 532 f. - to lexicon lemma: "Materialism".