Sukhothai and Sawankhalok goods

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Plate of the Sukhothai ware
underglaze decoration, 14./15. Cent.
Musée Guimet , Paris
Box of Sawankhalok ware
underglaze ornament, 16th century
Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Under the Sukhothai and Sawankhalok ware ( Thai เครื่อง สังค โลก , RTGS Khrueang Sangkhalok ) refers monochrome glazed Celadon - and with underglaze decorated stone tools , which from the late 13th to 16th century pottery factories around the former capitals of Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai of the ancient kingdom of Sukhothai , in what is now central and northern Thailand (and in continuation of these traditions are produced on a smaller scale until today). The name Sawankhalok-Ware is a little misleading insofar as it does not refer to the ancient production site Si Satchanalai, but to the nearby settlement of Sawankhalok .

These high-quality, mass-produced ceramics achieved supraregional importance because they were traded over almost the entire eastern, southeastern and southern parts of the Asian continent and beyond to Arabia and the East African coasts. They are of particular interest for archaeological research insofar as the finds in many different countries and in sunken shipwrecks allow conclusions to be drawn about the trade relations and routes of the time.

Origin and development

The kingdom of Sukhothai fought for independence from the Khmer in 1238 and reached its economic and cultural heyday under the third King Ramkhamhaeng (1279 to 1298). According to tradition, during this phase Chinese potters were also brought into the empire in order to help them to produce their own ceramics. The immigrant potters were involved in two different traditions of the Chinese Celadon ware and thus laid the foundation for these traditions to develop at the new production sites Sukhothai (potter of the Tz'u Chou tradition) and Si Satchanalai (potter of the Lung Chuan tradition) could further develop new variants. To what extent the Chinese potters were able to build on older local Khmer traditions remains uncertain due to the lack of relevant finds and in view of diverging technologies. Likewise, the initial dating, the meaning and influence of the Chinese potters and other previous doctrines are controversially discussed in recent research.

Older research with a purely historical approach had assumed that the production of Sukhothai and Sawankhalok goods soon after the fall of the Sukhothai Kingdom, which was first invaded by the troops of the Ayutthayas kingdom in 1374 and finally from 1420 when the vassal state was absorbed in this, it must have come to a standstill. However, recent archaeological research and the finds of shipwrecks clearly indicate that ceramic production at both locations continued with undiminished quality and quantity well into the 16th century. Its decline probably only took place as a result of the Siamese-Burmese War from 1563 to 1569 and the simultaneous end of the isolationist foreign trade policy of the Chinese Ming dynasty (1567), which pushed large quantities of Chinese competing products onto the Asian markets.

Research into ceramics in Southeast Asia as a whole has been in an extremely dynamic phase for over three decades and, due to the rapid increase in salvaged wrecks from merchant ships and other sites, some of which are located far from the production sites, many surprises can still be expected in the future. This is all the more true as the fund inventories have so far only been partially evaluated.

Manufacturing process

The Sukhothai and Sawankhalok goods belong in the class of ceramic sintered products to the subclass of stoneware , and in turn to the group of porcelain stoneware . These ceramics are extremely hard, almost completely sintered and therefore impermeable to water. To achieve their ceramic properties, which are quite comparable to those of porcelain , firing temperatures of 1250 ° C to 1300 ° C are required, at which the production takes place in a single fire.

For this production, tripartite ovens (English: " Kilns ") were used at both production sites , which over the course of time developed from relatively simple caves dug into the earth via intermediate forms to fully constructed, above-ground brick ovens . Since the younger ones were laid out on top of the older ones, well-visible mounds of earth were still formed in the area today. The foremost and deepest area of ​​the three-part kiln structure was formed by the furnace chamber, followed by the largest, higher-level and domed room with the kiln. At the end of this room there was a flue system that led to a chimney.

Location of the production centers

Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai
in the state of Siam in
the late 13th century

The production centers for Sukhothai and Sawankhalok goods have been limited to the royal cities of Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai according to the excavation results so far. In both cities, the kilns were located outside the actual settlement areas, presumably for reasons of fire protection, as we know it from other cultures.

Sukhothai

The capital Sukhothai had a production center ( Tao Thuriang , Thai เตาทุเรียง , English Thuriang Kilns ) on the northern edge of the ancient city. It was located immediately north of Wat Phra Phai Luang , extended east-west over a length of around 700 meters and was later intersected by Wat Tao Thuriang in the east . A total of 51 kilns were found in these areas, but only eleven of them were capable of reaching the high temperatures necessary for the production of Celadon ceramics. A total of around 100 kilns is suspected.

  • Pottery Kilns in Sukhothai Historical Park

  • Reference to the area of ​​the pottery kilns (Kilns)

  • Appearance in today's terrain

  • Easily recognizable three-part division into firing, firing and exhaust areas

  • Significantly lower lying combustion area

  • View from the firing area to the fume cupboard area

Si Satchanalai

In Si Satchanalai, the production capacity was six to seven times that of Sukhothai. The pottery districts of Si Satchanalai stretched for several kilometers immediately west of the Mae Nam Yom , on whose muddy banks the clay required for the manufacture of ceramics was also extracted. A total of 600 to 700 kilns can be assumed in this area. The two largest pottery centers were in Ban Pa Yang and Ban Ko Noi, just under one and four kilometers north of the city walls of Si Satchanalai.

Range of production

Brown Sawankhalok ware,
two-shouldered bottle,
Si Satchanalai, 1400–1600,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art

The following classification is based on the classification (1990) by Dawn F. Rooney , art historian at the Center for Khmer Studies in Siem Reap . Roxanna M. Brown , former director of the Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum at the University of Bangkok in Pathum Thani , made a partly further differentiation in her standard work (1987, 2000²).

Type Sukhothai Si Satchanalai
Monochrome brown or black No Yes
Monochrome green (= celadon) No Yes
Monochrome white Yes Yes
Two-tone incised brown in white No Yes
Two-tone underglaze technique brown / black and green No Yes
Two-tone underglaze technique brown / black and white Yes Yes

Monochrome, brown or black goods

Ceramic produced only in Si Satchanalai, from honey-colored to medium to dark brown. The decoration consists of incised horizontal ribbons. The product range consists of spherical bottles with two handles, pumpkin-shaped vases, storage jugs, bulbous jugs and figurative representations.

Monochrome celadon ware

Misfires of celadon bowls,
Si Satchanalai, 14. – 15. Century,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Two-tone, brown-on-white incised goods from Si Satchanalai.
Architectural element in the shape of three snakes,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Celadon was only produced in Si Satchanalai, not in Sukhothai. Celadon appears in yellowish-green, olive-green and turquoise shades. The glaze appears glassy-transparent and always tends to form hairline cracks. Decorations exist in the form of vertical grooves, incised individual flowers, lotus leaves, rose petals and undulating tendrils. The range of shapes includes plates, large and small bowls, pots with and without handles, bottles with and without pouring devices, jugs, vases, kendi (storage vessels for holy water), figures and miniatures.

  • Celadon from Si Satchanalai

  • Bowl, 14th-15th centuries,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Jug, 15th century,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Bowl, circa 1425,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Bowl, 15th Century,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Bottle, 15th-16th century,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Monochrome white goods

This product was produced in both cities.
The products from Si Satchanalai have a smooth white, hard and opaque glaze. They are decorated with slightly incised geometric ribbons. There are jugs with lids and handles, bowls, bottles, kendi, roof decorations and animal figures.
These ceramics are from Sukhothai with a transparent, yellow-tinged glaze. They are basically undecorated there. Bowls and bottles are the predominant shapes.

Two-colored goods scratched in brown and white

The color of this product, which is only produced in Si Satchanalai, consists of brown or caramel-colored incised lines on a white or silver-colored background. The range of shapes extends from cans with lids, kendi and dropping bottles, through figures and miniatures to architectural decorative elements.

Goods decorated with underglaze colors

Underglaze technique from Sukhothai
bowl, 15th - 16th centuries Century
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Two-tone brown / black and white goods, underglaze technique from Si Satchanalai. Kendi with bodhisattvas under light blue glaze. Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Before the Chinese made blue and white porcelain by using cobalt, black iron oxide was used as an underglaze paint for ceramics to fix painted motifs under a transparent glaze for long periods of time.

In the 14th century, the underglaze technique reached Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai. It remained in use in Sukhothai until the end of the 16th century. The typical motifs there consisted of stylized fish and flowers (especially chrysanthemums), the symbols for luck and a long life. Sukhothai floral motifs were in great demand in the Southeast Asian markets. The “ Turiang shipwreck ” (around 1370) was filled with flower-adorned Vietnamese bowls and plates from Sukhothai.

Two-tone brown / black and green goods in underglaze technique

There is a strong greenish glaze over the brown / black iron oxide painting of this product, which comes exclusively from Si Satchanalai. The decoration consists of stylized flowers and fish as well as flower ribbons. The design is dominated by plates, bowls and small pots.

Two-tone brown / black and white goods in underglaze technique

The color scheme in Sukhothai consists of iron oxide paintings with a transparent, straw-colored glaze with occasional deviations into whitish. The decorations include fish, sun gears and wreaths, tiered crowns, aquatic plants, feather-like chrysanthemums, bouquets of plants, bushes and shrubs, as well as classic scroll decorations. The range of shapes includes plates, small and large bowls, pear-shaped bottles, tiles and architectural decorative components.
In Si Satchanalai, the glazes of the iron oxide painting have a grayish, bluish or greenish tint and always tend to bundle cracks. The decorations consist of unrolled flower or leaf ribbons, cross hatching, fish scales, lotus blossoms, vegetable containers and geometric motifs. Cans with lids, pots, bowls, kendi, vases, jugs, pear-shaped bottles and figurative representations determine the product range.

  • Underglaze decorated ceramics from Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai

  • Bowl,
    Sukhothai, 15th to 16th century.
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Various objects,
    Sukhothai, 15th to 16th centuries,
    Birmingham Museum of Art

  • Bowl, Si Satchanalai,
    late 14th century,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

  • Covered jug,
    Si Satchanalai,
    14.-16. Century,
    British Museum

  • Jar with lid,
    Si Satchanalai, 16th Century,
    Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Trade and dissemination

In addition to the Turiang already mentioned , numerous other shipwrecks loaded with ceramics from Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai have been recovered in large areas of the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea . Ceramics from Sukhothai decorated with underglaze colors were found in the wrecks of the "Longquan" (together with Celadon from Si Satchanalai, around 1400), the "Xuande" (around 1540) and the Singtai (around 1550). Celadon pottery from Si Satchanalai was taken from the holds of the ships Rang Kwien and Songdoc (both 1380–1400), Phu Quoc (1400–1424/1430), Nanyang , Royal Nanhai , Khram or Sattahip , Pandanan and Belanakan (all 1424/1430 –1487), Brunei and Santa Cruz (both 1488–1505), as well as Klang Ao and Samui recovered.

The contents of the wrecks together with individual finds on land give the picture of an almost globalized, flourishing trade in Sukhothai and Sawankhalok goods from an Asian-centric point of view, which covers the entire Southeast Asian region (Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines), China and East Asia (Korea, Japan), the Indian subcontinent (Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka) and Central Asia (Mongolian Empire and successor states). In addition, there was brisk trade with Persia and the Arab world on the sea routes of the so-called Silk Road . Individual finds reached the Australian and East African coasts, as well as Central Europe.

Local museums

Sawanworanayok National Museum

literature

  • Roxanna M. Brown : The Ceramics of South-East Asia. Their Dating and Identification. 2nd edition. Art Media Resources, Chicago 2000, ISBN 1-878529-70-6 .
  • Roxanna M. Brown: Last Shipments from the Thai Sawankhalok Kilns . In: Robert L Brown (Ed.): Art from Thailand . Marg Publications, Mumbai 1999, ISBN 978-81-85026-46-6 , pp. 93-103.
  • Roxanna M. Brown: Sangkhalok and Asia . In: Charnvit Kasetsiri (ed.): Sangkhalok-Sukhothai-Ayutthaya and Asia . Toyota Thailand Foundation and The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Science and Humanities Textbooks Project, Bangkok 2002, ISBN 978-974-90817-7-8 , pp. 74-92.
  • Roxanna M. Brown & Sten Sjostrand: Turiang. A Fourteenth-Century Shipwreck in Southeast Asian Waters . Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena 2000, ISBN 978-1-877921-17-9 .
  • Don Hein: Sawankhalok Export Kilns. Evolution and Development . In: Ho Chuimei (Ed.): Ancient Ceramic Kiln Technology in Asia . Center for Asia Studies, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong 1990, ISBN 978-0-378-26890-5 , pp. 205-228.
  • Don Hein: Ceramic Kiln Lineages in Mainland Southeast Asia . Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, 2008.
  • Don Hein, Peter Burns & Dick Richards: An Alternative View on the Origins of Ceramics Production at Si Satchanalai and Sukhothai, Thailand . SPAFA Digest 7.1 Bangkok 1986, ISSN  0125-7099 , pp. 22-33.
  • Cheryl-Ann Low: Sawankhalok Sukhothai Wares from the Empress Place Site, Singapore . In: The Heritage Journal 1, 1, Singapore 2004, ISSN  0219-8584 , pp. 21-37.
  • John M. Miksic (Ed.): Southeast Asian Ceramics. New Light On Old Pottery . Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, Singapore 2009, ISBN 978-981-4260-13-8 .
  • Dawn F. Rooney: A Field Guide to Glazed Thai Ceramics . In: Asian Perspectives Vol. 28, 2, 1990, ISSN  1535-8283 , pp. 125-144.
  • Dawn F. Rooney: Ceramics of Seduction. Glazed Wares of Southeast Asia . River Books, Bangkok 2013, ISBN 978-616-7339-39-9 .
  • Dawn F. Rooney: Folk Pottery in South-East Asia . Oxford University Press, Singapore 1987, ISBN 0-19-588866-9 .
  • Dawn F. Rooney: Ancient Sukhothai. Thailand's Cultural Heritage . River Books, Bangkok 2008, ISBN 978-974-9863-42-8 , pp. 54-67, 109 and 182f.
  • Sten Sjostrand & Claire Barnes: Turiang. A 14th century Chinese shipwreck, upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history . In: Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 74, 1, 2001, ISSN  0126-7353 , pp. 71-109.
  • Atthasit Sukkham: Si Satchanalai Celadon and Its Export to Southeast Asia . In: Arts of Asia Vol. 44, 1, 2014, ISSN  0004-4083 , pp. 85-97.
  • Thanyakarn Wong-on, Pariwat Thammapreechakorn: Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai Ceramics. Inspiration and Realization . Thanombutra School, Bangkok 2012, ISBN 978-616-3218-55-1 .
  • Hiram W. Woodward Jr.: The Dating of Sukhothai and Sawankhalok Ceramics. Some considerations. In: Journal of the Siam Society Vol. 66, 1, 1966, ISSN  0857-7099 , pp. 1-7.

Periodicals

  • The Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University: Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum Newsletter . Pathum Thani, since 2004

Web links

Commons : Sukhothai Ware  - Collection of Images, Videos, and Audio Files
Commons : Sawankhalok Ware  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files
Commons : Thuriang Pottery Works  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Remarks

  1. ↑ Other terms or spellings used are Sawankalok, Sawankaloke, Sangkalok, Sangkhalok, Savankhalok, Savankalok, Sangalok, Sawankhaloke, Sankalok.
  2. ↑ Turiang Kilns: 17 ° 1 '56.6 "  N , 99 ° 41' 49.4"  E
  3. ↑ Wat Tao Thuriang: 17 ° 1 ′ 56.54 ″  N , 99 ° 41 ′ 55.18 ″  E
  4. ↑ In 1982 robbed of around 10,000 pieces of ceramics by treasure hunters . The rescued finds were stored in the National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi, Thailand.
  5. ↑ Sangkhalok Museum: 17 ° 0 ′ 44.85 ″  N , 99 ° 50 ′ 7.7 ″  E
  6. ↑ Celadon Kiln Site Study and Conservation Center: 17 ° 19 ′ 11.7 ″  N , 99 ° 49 ′ 36 ″  E
  7. ↑ Sawanworanayok National Museum: 17 ° 28 ′ 3.2 ″  N , 99 ° 45 ′ 35.2 ″  E

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b c Roxanna M. Brown: The Sukhothai and Sawankhalok Kilns . In: Dies .: The Ceramics of South-East Asia. Their Dating and Identification . 2nd edition. Art Media Resources, Chicago 2000, ISBN 1-878529-70-6 , pp. 56-80.
  2. ↑ Sman Yardhanabhuti: A Note on Celadon Ware of Sukhothai . Journal of the Siam Society Vol. LVII, Part 1, Bangkok 1969, pp. 333f.
  3. ^ Roxanna M. Brown: The Sukhothai and Sawankhalok Kilns . In: Dies .: The Ceramics of South-East Asia. Their Dating and Identification . 2nd edition. Art Media Resources, Chicago 2000, ISBN 1-878529-70-6 , p. 57.
  4. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Folk Pottery in South-East Asia . Oxford University Press, Singapore 1987, ISBN 0-19-588866-9 , pp. 26f.
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Dawn F. Rooney: A Field Guide to Glazed Thai Ceramics . Asian Perspectives, Vol. 28, No. 2. University of Hawaii Press, 1990, pp. 125-144.
  6. ↑ Don Hein, Peter Burns & Dick Richards: An Alternative View on the Origins of Ceramics Production at Si Satchanalai and Sukhothai, Thailand . SPAFA Digest 7.1 Bangkok 1986, pp. 22-33.
  7. ↑ Sten Sjostrand & Claire Barnes: Turiang. A 14th century Chinese shipwreck, upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history . JMBRAS Vol. LXXIV Part 1, Kuala Lumpur 2001, pp. 71-109 or Sten Sjostrand / Adi Taha / Roxanna M. Brown / Claire Barnes: Turiang. A 14th century Chinese shipwreck, upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history . On the website maritimeasia.ws, accessed on December 25, 2014.
  8. ^ Roxanna M. Brown: The Sukhothai and Sawankhalok Kilns . In: Dies .: The Ceramics of South-East Asia. Their Dating and Identification . 2nd edition. Art Media Resources, Chicago 2000, ISBN 1-878529-70-6 , p. 58.
  9. ^ Official website of the Southeast Asian Ceramic Society , Singapore, accessed December 25, 2014.
  10. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Ceramics in Southeast Asia . In: Helaine Selin (Ed.): Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures . 2nd edition. Springer, Berlin a. a. 1997, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2 , pp. 77-87.
  11. ^ Don Hein: Ceramic Kiln Lineages in Mainland Southeast Asia . Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Washington, 2008.
  12. ↑ Official website of the Center for Khmer Studies
  13. ^ Official website of the Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum
  14. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Kendi in the Cultural Context of Southeast Asia. A Commentary on Dawn F. Rooney's official website, accessed December 27, 2014.
  15. ↑ Sukhothai Ceramics on Turiang on maritimeasia.ws
  16. ↑ The Longquan ship (around 1400) on maritimeasia.ws
  17. ↑ Sten Sjostrand: The 'Xuande' Wreck Ceramics . Oriental Art XLII (2), pp. 7-14.
  18. ↑ The Singtai ship (around 1550) on maritimeasia.ws
  19. ^ Roxana M. Brown: Shipwreck Ceramics and the Fall of Melaka . At maritimeasia.ws, accessed December 30, 2014; Atthasit Sukkham: Si Satchanalai Celadon and Its Export to Southeast Asia . In: Arts of Asia 44, 1, 2014, pp. 85-97; Roxana M. Brown: History of Shipwreck Excavation in Southeast Asia ( Memento from December 30, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) on the official website of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.
  20. ↑ Terrence H. Witkowski: Early History and Distribution of Trade Ceramics in Southeast Asia ( Memento of December 30, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) . The Conference for Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing (CHARM), Vol. 16, 2013, pp. 276-286; Michael C. Howard: Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies. The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel . McFarland, Jefferson (NC) 2012, ISBN 978-0-7864-6803-4
  21. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Ancient Sukhothai. Thailand's Cultural Heritage . River Books, Bangkok 2008, ISBN 978-974-9863-42-8 , p. 67.
  22. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Ancient Sukhothai. Thailand's Cultural Heritage . River Books, Bangkok 2008, ISBN 978-974-9863-42-8 , p. 66.
  23. ^ Dawn F. Rooney: Ancient Sukhothai. Thailand's Cultural Heritage . River Books, Bangkok 2008, ISBN 978-974-9863-42-8 , pp. 198-201.