Yugoslav Wars

Yugoslav wars
Break-up of Yugoslavia
Date 1991–2001 Location Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia (Kosovo, Preševo Valley), Republic of Macedonia Result New countries independent

The Yugoslav Civil Wars were a series of violent conflicts in the territory of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) that took place between 1991 and 2001. They comprised two sets of successive wars affecting all of the six former Yugoslav republics. Alternative terms in use include the "War in the Balkans", or "War in (the former) Yugoslavia", "Wars of Yugoslav Secession", and the "Third Balkan War" (a short-lived term coined by British journalist Misha Glenny, alluding to the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913).

They were characterised by bitter ethnic conflicts between the peoples of the former Yugoslavia, mostly between Serbs on the one side and Croats, Bosniaks or Albanians on the other; but also between Bosniaks and Croats in Bosnia and Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia. The conflict had its roots in various underlying political, economic and cultural problems, as well as long-standing ethnic and religious tensions.

The civil wars ended with much of the former Yugoslavia reduced to poverty, massive economic disruption and persistent instability across the territories where the worst fighting occurred. The wars were the bloodiest conflicts on European soil since the end of World War II. They were also the first conflicts since World War II to have been formally judged genocidal in character and many key individual participants were subsequently charged with war crimes. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the United Nations to prosecute these crimes.

The Yugoslav civil wars can be split in two groups of several distinct conflicts:

• Wars during the breakup of SFRY:
  1. War in Slovenia (1991)
  2. Croatian War of Independence (1991-1995)
  3. Bosnian War (1992-1995)
• Wars in Albanian-populated areas:
  1. Kosovo War (1999)
  2. Southern Serbia conflict (2001)
  3. Macedonia conflict (2001)

Background

Major tensions arose from the first, monarchist Yugoslavia's multi-ethnic makeup and relative political and demographic domination of the Serbs. Fundamental to the tensions was the different conceptions of the new state, for the Croats envisaged a federal model where they would enjoy greater autonomy than they had as a separate crown land under Austria-Hungary; the Serbs tended to view the territories as a just reward for their support of the allies in WW1 and the new state as an extension of the Serbian Kingdom. These tensions often erupted into open conflict resulting in a dictatorship exercising repression through the Serb dominated security structure and the assassination in federal parlianment of Croat political leaders, including Stjepan Radic, who opposed the Serbian monarch's absolutism. The assassination and human rights abuses were subject of concern for the League of Nations and precipitated voices of protest from intellectuals including Albert Einstein. It was in this environment of repression that the insurgent group (later fascist dictatorship) Ustashe were formed.

The country's tensions were exploited by the occupying Axis forces in World War II, which established a puppet-state spanning much of present day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In charge of this "Independent State of Croatia" was a Croatian fascist organisation, Ustashe, which having resolved that the Serbian minority were a trojan horse of Serbian expansionism, pursued a genocidal policy against them. Both Croats and Muslims were recruited as soldiers by the SS (primarily in the 13th Waffen Mountain Division). At the same time, the collaborationist Serb Chetnik militia pursued an ethnic cleansing program against Croats and Muslims, particularly in Eastern Bosnia, with a view to creating a Greater Serbia (see Stevan Moljević). Both were confronted and eventually defeated by the communist-led anti-fascist Partisan movement composed of members of all ethnic groups in the area, allowing the formation of second, Yugoslavia.

Despite the federal structure of the second, federalist Yugoslavia, there was still the tension between the federalists among the Croats and Slovenes that tended towards the autonomy route and unitarists amongst the Serbs that tended towards the Greater Serbia route. The to and fro of the struggle would occur in cycles of protests for greater individual and national rights (such as the Croatian Spring) and subsequent repression. The 1974 constitution was an attempt to short-circuit this pattern by entrenching the federal model and formalising national rights.

The Early Conflicts (1991-1995)

The Yugoslav civil wars were initiated by the breakdown in federal institutions, in an attempt by the Socialist Republic of Serbia under the leadership of Slobodan Milosevic to change the hitherto power structures and centralise power in hands of Serbia. The act was consistent with the Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, which saw the Serbs' status in Yugoslavia as inferior and argued for a reorganisation of the Yugoslav state (including borders). Realising that their autonomy could no longer be facilitated through the Yugoslav state, the moves by Serbia initiated the secession of the two northernmost republics of the former Yugoslavia - Slovenia and Croatia.

The first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War or the War in Slovenia, was initiated by the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991. The federal government ordered the federal Yugoslav People's Army to secure border crossings in Slovenia. Slovenian police and Territorial Defense blockaded barracks and roads, leading to standoffs and limited skirmishes around the republic. After several dozen deaths, the war was stopped through negotiation at Brioni on 9 July 1991, when Slovenia and Croatia agreed to a three-month moratorium on secession. The Federal army completely withdrew from Slovenia by 26 October 1991.

The second in this series of conflicts, the Croatian War of Independence, occurred when rebel Serbs started to take control over some parts of Croatia. Yugoslav People's Army pretended to mediate between rebel Serbs and Croatian government forces, before completely taking the Serbian side. Croatia had to form its military from scratch and was further hindered by the arms embargo which didn't hurt the Serbs who had almost the entire equipment of Yugoslav People's Army on their disposal. Many Croatian towns were attacked and civilian targets were more common than military ones. The destruction of Vukovar and the killings of captured soldiers and inhabitants by Serbian forces are the heaviest atrocities of this war. The shelling of Dubrovnik by Montenegroan forces (part of the Serbian army) is among better-known atrocities. In January 1992, the Vance peace plan proclaimed UN controlled (UNPA) zones for Serbs and brought an end to major military operations, though sporadic artillery attacks on Croatian cities and occasional intrusions of Croatian forces into UNPA zones continued until 1995.

In 1992, the conflict engulfed Bosnia. It was a three-way conflict between local Muslims, Serbs, and Croats, primarily differing in their traditional religion: Islam, Christian Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, respectively. It was by far the bloodiest and most widely covered of the Yugoslav wars.

The fighting in Croatia ended in the Summer of 1995, after Croatian Army launched two rapid military operations, codenamed Operation Flash and Operation Storm, in which it managed to reclaim all of its territory except the UNPA Sector East bordering Serbia. Most of the Serbian population in these areas became refugees. The remaining Sector East came under UN administration (UNTAES), and was reintegrated to Croatia in 1998.

In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosniak Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and finally negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on December 14th 1995.

Conflicts in Albanian-populated areas (1996-2001)

In Kosovo, Macedonia, and southern Central Serbia, the conflicts were typified by ethnic and political tension between the Serbian and Macedonian governments and Albanian national minorities which sought autonomy, as was the case in the Republic of Macedonia, or independence, as was the case in Kosovo.

The conflict in Kosovo (1996-1999) became a full-scale war in 1999, while the Macedonia conflict (2001) and Southern Serbia conflict (2001) were characterised by armed clashes between state security forces and ethnic Albanian guerrillas.

The war in Kosovo ended with NATO intervention against Serbian forces with a mainly bombing but partly ground-based campaign under the command of Gen. Wesley Clark. Even so, further widespread unrest in Kosovo broke out in 2004. The NATO intervention is often counted as yet another separate war. The conflicts in southern Serbia and in Republic of Macedonia ended with internationally-overseen peace agreements between the insurgents and the government, but the situation in both regions remains fragile.

See also: Serbian-Albanian conflict

A brief timeline of the Yugoslav Wars

Main article: Timeline of the Yugoslav wars

1968

Protests in 1968 are echoed in Yugoslavia too. There are student demonstrations, while in Kosovo demonstrators demand greater rights for Albanian minority.

1971

Demonstrations in Croatia, known as Croatian spring, condemned by the government. Many participants were later convicted as nationalists, including Stipe Mesić and Franjo Tuđman. Government crisis follows.

1974

New constitution of SFRY proclaimed, granting more power to federal units, and more power to autonomous provinces Kosovo and Vojvodina of Serbia, giving them a vote in all relevant decisions in the federal government. Muslims were recognized as a constituent "nation" of Yugoslavia and of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1980

Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito dies.

1981

Economic crisis in Yugoslavia has begun. Albanian nationalist demonstrations in Kosovo, demanding status of a federal unit.

1986-1989

Controversial Memorandum of Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts protests position of Serbia in Yugoslavia.

Slobodan Milošević rises to power in Serbia. Antibureaucratic revolution demonstrations bring pro-Milošević governments to Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro.

1990

League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolves on republic and ethnic lines at its 14th Congress.

Constitutional changes in Serbia revoke some of the powers granted to Kosovo and Vojvodina, effectively giving Serbia 3 out of 8 votes in the federal council.

First democratic elections in socialist Yugoslavia. Nationalist options won majority in almost all republics.

Croatian Serbs start a rebellion against the newly elected Croatian government lead by Franjo Tuđman.

1991

Slovenia and Croatia declare independence. War in Slovenia lasts ten days.

The Yugoslav army leaves Slovenia but supports rebel Serb forces in Croatia. War begins in Croatia.

1992

Vance peace plan signed, creating 4 UNPA zones for Serbs and ending large scale fighting in Croatia.

Macedonia and Bosnia declare independence. Bosnian war begins.

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia proclaimed, consisting of Serbia and Montenegro, the only two remaining republics.

United Nations impose sanctions against FR Yugoslavia and accepts Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia as members.

1993

Bosniak-Croat conflict in Bosnia begins.

Fighting begins in the Bihać region between Bosnian Government and Bosniaks loyal to Fikret Abdić.

1994

Peace treaty between Bosniaks and Croats arbitrated by the United States.

1995

Srebrenica massacre reported, 8,000 Bosniaks killed.

Croatia launches Operation Flash and Operation Storm, reclaiming all UNPA zones except Eastern Slavonia, and resulting in exodus of Serbs from the zones. War in Croatia ends.

NATO launches a series of air strikes on Bosnian Serb artillery and other military targets.

Dayton Agreement signed in Paris. War in Bosnia and Herzegovina ends.

1996

FR Yugoslavia recognizes Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.

Following a fraud in local elections, hundreds of thousands of Serbs demonstrate in Belgrade against Milošević regime for three months.

1998

Fighting breaks out between Serbian forces and ethnic Albanians in Kosovo.

Eastern Slavonia peacefully reintegrated into Croatia.

1999

NATO starts the military campaign Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. Control of Kosovo is given to the United Nations, but still remains a part of Yugoslavia's federadion.

Franjo Tuđman dies. Shortly after that, his party loses the elections.

2000

Slobodan Milošević is voted out of office, and Vojislav Koštunica becomes new president of Yugoslavia.

2001

Brief Conflict in Southern Serbia between Albanian militants and Serbian security forces.

Conflict between Albanian militants and government in Macedonia.

2002

Milošević is put on trial in The Hague on charges of war crimes in Kosovo.

2003

FR Yugoslavia becomes the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.

Alija Izetbegović dies.

2006

Death of Slobodan Milošević in the Hague prison.

Montenegrins declare independence from the state union with Serbia.

External links

• English documentary War in Yugoslavia (part I) -Vukovar

• Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991-2001)
• Wiebes, Cees. Intelligence and the War in Bosnia 1992-1995, Publisher: Lit Verlag, 2003
• http://213.222.3.5/srebrenica/
• Dr. R. Craig Nation. "War in the Balkans 1991-2002."
• Operaton Storm

Strategic Studies Institute, 2002, ISBN 1-58487-134-2