Feminism

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Feminism is a number of social, cultural and political movements, theories and moral philosophies that are concerned with cultural, political and economic practices and inequalities that discriminate against women. Feminism is also described as an ideology focusing on equality of both sexes.[1] Some have argued that gendered and sexed identities, such as "man" and "woman", are mere social constructs. Feminists often differ in opinion over the sources of inequality, how to attain equality, and the extent to which gender and gender-based identities should be questioned and critiqued. Liberal feminists, such as Gloria Steinem, believe the women’s liberation movement revolves around the equality of sexes, and that biological sex should not be the only factor in shaping a person's social identity or socio-economic rights. Radical feminists would also argue that feminism is about ending societal domination and elitism. Modern feminist political activists commonly campaign for a woman's right to bodily integrity and autonomy on matters such as reproductive rights, including the right to abort, access to contraception and quality prenatal care; for protection from domestic violence; against sexual harassment and rape; for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination.

Many feminists currently regard feminism as a grass-roots movement that seeks to cross boundaries based on social class, race, culture and religion. They also argue that an effective feminist movement should address universal issues, such as rape, incest, and prostitution, and culturally specific issues, such as female genital cutting in some parts of Africa and the Middle East and "glass ceiling" practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies. Feminism explores subjects such as patriarchy, stereotyping, sexual objectification and gender oppression.

Feminism's many forms

Most feminist social movements promote women's rights, interests and issues. Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the first-wave feminists, and feminists after about 1960 the second-wave feminists. More recently, some younger feminists have identified themselves as third-wave feminists, although the second-wave feminists are still active. Several subtypes of feminist ideology have developed over the years. Some of the major subtypes are listed as follows.

Liberal feminism

Liberal feminism hopes to assert the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism and theory, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism looks at the personal interactions of men and women as the starting ground from which to transform society into a more gender-equitable place. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality, therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting and education.[2]

People of interest

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism sees the capitalist sexist hierarchy as the defining feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating system. Radical feminists feel that the male-based authority and power structure are responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to reform in any significant way. Radical feminism sees capitalism as a barrier to ending oppression. Most radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals.[3]

People of interest

Socialist Feminism

Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminists see women as being held down as a result of their unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere.[4] Prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage are all seen as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system which devalues women and the substantial work that they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society as a whole, and not just on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men, but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system.[5]

People of interest

Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism. Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Since the men in power control the land, they are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. In this same situation, women are exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families.[6]

People of interest

Ifeminism

Ifeminism or Individualist Feminism is a movement involving the freedom of women to choose anything in our society, even if it conflicts with notions of what is politically correct or goes against what other feminisms may see as enforcing patriarchy.Ifeminists do not attempt to change government or other systems ie. legal systems because they are already equal to, and welcome the input of men. Ifeminism also does not care if a woman decides to pose for pornography or become a Sex Trade Worker as long as the woman takes full responsibility over her own life.[2]

Relationship to other movements

Some feminists take a holistic approach to politics, following the concept expounded by Martin Luther King Jr., "A threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere." In that belief, some self-identified feminists support other movements such as the civil rights movement and the gay rights movement. At the same time, many black feminists, such as bell hooks, criticize the movement for being dominated by white women. Feminist claims regarding disadvantages faced by women in Western society may be less relevant to the lives of black women, especially as compared to oppression they face which white women do not. This idea is the key in postcolonial feminism. Many black feminist women prefer the term womanism for their views. Feminism is often linked with gay, lesbian and transgender studies and Psychoanalytic feminism places focus on psychosexual development.[citation needed]
Some feminists are wary of the transgender movement because they view it as challenging the distinction between men and women. Transgender and transsexual individuals who identify as female are excluded from some "women-only" gatherings and events and are rejected by some feminists, who say that no one who was assigned as male at birth can fully understand the oppression that women face. This exclusion is criticized as "transphobic" by some feminists and transgender people, who assert that their political and social struggles are linked to those of feminists, and that discrimination against gender-variant people is a facet of the patriarchy. (See transfeminism and gender studies.)[citation needed]
In the 1800s the women's rights movement in the United States splintered over questions concerning the passage of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution granting African American men the right to vote. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, among others, contended that black men should not be franchised unless similar rights were granted to all women. From 1868 to 1870, when the 15th Amendment was passed, this created division in the broader U.S. civil rights movement and, in 1869, caused a schism the women's suffrage movement, leading to the creation of the separate National Woman's Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman's Suffrage Association (AWSA) in the United States. [citation needed]

Modern feminism

Most feminists believe discrimination against women still exists worldwide, but there is disagreement within the movement regarding the severity or nature of current problems, and how to confront them. [citation needed]

Extremes on the one side of the spectrum include a number of radical feminists, such as Mary Daly, who argue that human society would be better off with dramatically fewer men. On the other hand, figures such as Christina Hoff Sommers and Camille Paglia identify themselves as feminist but accuse the movement of anti-male prejudice.

Many feminists question the use of the term feminist by groups or people who do not recognize fundamental equality between the sexes. Some feminists, like Katha Pollitt (see her book Reasonable Creatures) or Nadine Strossen (President of the ACLU and author of Defending Pornography: a treatise on freedom of speech), consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people." Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist.

There are also debates between difference feminists such as Carol Gilligan, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes (which may or may not be inherent, but which cannot be ignored), and those who believe that there are no essential differences between the sexes, and that the societal roles are due to conditioning.

Marilyn French's seminal works define patriarchy as a system that values power over life, control over pleasure and dominance over happiness. According to French, "it is not enough either to devise a morality that will allow the human race simply to survive. Survival is an evil when it entails existing in a state of wretchedness. Intrinsic to survival and continuation is felicity/pleasure. Pleasure has been much maligned, diminished by philosophers and conquerors as a value for the timid, the small-minded and the self-indulgent. 'Virtue' too often involves the renunciation of pleasure in the name of some higher purpose, a purpose that involves power (for men) or sacrifice (for women). Pleasure is described as shallow and frivolous in a world of high-minded, serious purpose. But pleasure does not exclude serious pursuits or intentions, indeed, it is found in them, and it is the only real reason for staying alive."[7]

Issues in defining feminism

One of the difficulties in defining and circumscribing a complex and heterogeneous concept such as feminism[8][9] is the extent to which women have rejected the term from a variety of semantic and political standpoints. Many women engaged in activities intimately grounded in feminism have not considered themselves feminists. Likewise, it is assumed that only women can be feminists. However, feminism is not grounded in the basis of one's gender, but in rejecting and refuting sexist oppression politically, socially, privately, linguistically, and otherwise. (Though there are people - both men and women - who claim feminism itself can be biased in its approach to gender relations.) Redefining feminism in this way illustrates and reflects today's reality of both men and women openly supporting feminism and also openly adhering to sexist ideals.[10] From a political vantage, the term "feminism" has been rejected both because of fears of labeling, and because of its innate ability to attract broad misogyny.[11] Historically Virginia Woolf was one of the more prominent women to reject the term[12] early in its history in 1938, although it would be easy to overstate Woolf's position,[13] considering that she is regarded as an icon of feminism.[14] However Betty Friedan would revisit this concern in 1981 in The Second Stage.

Nevertheless, defining ideas does not necessarily imply tagging the individual. Ann Taylor,[15] for instance, offers the following definition of a feminist, after Karen Offen:[16] Any person who recognizes "the validity of women's own interpretation of their lived experiences and needs," protests against the institutionalized injustice perpetrated by men as a group against women as a group, and advocates the elimination of that injustice by challenging the various structures of authority or power that legitimate male prerogatives in a given society. Another way of expressing this concept is that a primary goal is to correct androcentric bias.[17]

Other attempts at defining feminism have been made by the United Nations.[18] However, one of feminism's unique characteristics, strengths and weaknesses is its persistent defiance of being constrained by definition. Charlotte Witt observes that this reflects the "contested nature of the "us" of contemporary feminism...and is a part of, on-going debates within feminism over its identity and self-image..in the final analysis, the result of debate within feminist philosophy over what feminism is, and what its theoretical commitments should be, and what its core values are."[19] This is the subject of one of the more lively debates in feminism, that which Nannerl Keohane has called the "perpetual oscillation between essentialism and nominalism (constructionism) in feminist theory."[20] Briefly, "to essentialise is to reduce a complex idea or object to simplistic characteristics, thereby denying diversity, multiple meanings and alternative interpretations" in the words of Joan Marler, an opponent of essentialism in feminism.[21]

Effects of feminism in the West

While a number of feminists argue that there are many battles for equity to be waged, others disagree and observe that many challenges have been overcome. For example, in developed nations, women now outnumber men in high school graduation rates[22] and university enrollment.[23]

Effects on civil rights

By campaigning for the right to vote, suffragettes began the feminst struggle for equality in the West.
Woman Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, 1912

Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including women's suffrage, broad employment for women at more equitable wages, the right to initiate divorce proceedings and the introduction of "no fault" divorce, the right to obtain contraception and safe abortions, and access to university education.

Effect on language

See article Gender-neutral language in English, Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender and Gender-neutrality in languages without grammatical gender

Effect on heterosexual relationships

The increased entry of women into the workplace has affected gender roles and division of labor within households. The sociologist, Arlie Russell Hochschild, presents evidence in her books, The Second Shift and The Time Bind, that in two-career couples, men and women on the average spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework.
Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that higher or lower financial income of married men, does not influence them in terms of attending to the household duties as much their wives.[24][25]

It should be noted that the above studies mainly apply to American middle-class women.

In Dubious Conceptions, Kristin Luker discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear a child, both in and out of wedlock. She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable; young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support.[26]

There have also been changes in attitudes towards sexual morality and behavior with the onset of second wave feminism and "The Pill". Women are more in control of their bodies, and are freer to experience sex with fewer repercussions. This sexual revolution was seen as positive (especially by sex-positive feminists) as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a more free and equal manner.[citation needed]

Evangelical (Christian) feminists sometimes argue that closed marriages ideally promote egalitarianism in sex, especially when viewed in light of some other alternatives to monogamy (e.g., polygamy, swinging, open marriages, or infidelity). However, some feminists endorse cohabitation, open marriage, casual sex and other forms of 'responsible non-monogamy' as egalitarian lifestyles (see sex-positive feminism).[citation needed]

Friedrich Engels, in his essay The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State expresses his belief that monogamy was originally conceived as a way for men to control women.[27]

Effect on religion

Main article: God and gender

Feminism has affected many aspects of religion. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity (and, notably, in some theologically conservative dominations, such as Assemblies of God[28]) women are ordained as clergy, and in Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism, women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually obtained more positions of power; their perspectives now have greater influence in developing new statements of belief.

The leadership of women in religious matters has been resisted by many denominations, for example Roman Catholicism, which has historically excluded women from entering the priesthood and other clerical positions, limiting women to the roles of nuns or laypeople.

Feminism also has had an important role in spreading new forms of religion. Neopagan religions especially tend to emphasize the importance of Goddess spirituality, and question what they regard as traditional religion's hostility to women and the sacred feminine. In particular, Dianic Wicca's origins lie within radical feminism. Among traditional religions, feminism has led to self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of Mary, Islamic views of Fatima Zahra, and especially the Catholic belief in the Coredemptrix.

Worldwide statistics

Female share of seats in elected national chambers in November 2004 (percent)
Rwanda 49.0 Iceland 30.2
Sweden 45.3 New Zealand 28.3
South Africa 42.0 Austria 27.5
Namibia 42.0 Pakistan 21.3[29]
Denmark 38.0 Canada 21.1
Finland 37.5 China 20.2
Norway 36.4 UK (Commons) 17.8
Spain 36.0 Mauritius 17.0
Netherlands 35.0 United States 15.0
Germany 32.8 Japan 7.1

The following is a sampling of statistics related to the relative status of women worldwide.

  • According to studies cited by the United Nations,[30] on average, women work more than men, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for. In rural areas of selected developing countries, women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per day.
  • In fact, UN statistics cited by the May 2001 Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st International Conference,[31] are even more specific, stating that "in the world as a whole, women comprise 51 percent of the population, do 66 percent of the work, receive 10 percent of the income and own less than one percent of the property."
  • By population, women are underrepresented in all of the world's major legislative bodies.[32] In 1985, Finland had the largest percentage of women in national legislature at approximately 32 percent (P. Norris, Women's Legislative Participation in Western Europe, West European Politics). Currently, Rwanda has the highest number of women at 49 percent. The United States has 14 percent. The world average is 9 percent. In contrast, half of the members of the recently established Welsh Assembly Government are women[citation needed] and 40% of members of the Scottish Parliament are female.[citation needed]

Criticisms of feminism

Criticisms of feminism as an ideology; criticisms of specific types of feminism; and criticisms of specific feminist concepts have been made by feminists, non-feminists, masculists, social conservatives and social progressives.

Postcolonial feminists criticize certain ideas of Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and its most basic assumption, universalisation of the female experience. They argue that this assumption cannot so easily be applied to women for whom gender oppression comes second to, for example, racial or class oppression.[33]

From the perspective of some strands of feminism, as well as the men's movement and queer theory, inequalities and stereotypes based on gender are detrimental to both men and women and both sexes suffer from the expectations of traditional gender roles.

Many who support masculism argue that because of both traditional gender roles and sexism infused into society by feminists, males are and have been oppressed.[citation needed] Marriage rights advocates oppose feminist aspirations to replace the traditional family, as illustrated by statements made by a variety of feminist leaders such as Shelia Cronan's view that marriage constitutes slavery for women, and the women's movement must concentrate on attacking this institution and that freedom for women cannot be won without the abolition of marriage.[34] Dr. Mary Jo Bane, associate director of Wellesley College's Center for Research on Woman suggested that to raise children with equality, they should be taken from families and communally raised.[citation needed] Family and men's rights groups are also critical of feminist encouragement of lesbian agendas which undermine the traditional role of men in the family, such as Sheila Cronan's National NOW Times January 1988 interview declaring that every woman must be willing to be identified as a lesbian to be fully feminist.[citation needed] Many critics of feminism are alarmed by the prevalence of lesbians such as Patricia Ireland, former head of NOW, in feminist leadership roles. Men's rights advocates view many contemporary feminist issues as "extremist" due to their perception that feminist demands such as equal rights have been achieved. They also claim that feminists - in their struggle for what they call equality - seem to be unwilling to pay any attention to areas where men may be discriminated against.[citation needed] Laws such as the Violence Against Women Act are viewed as discriminatory against men. Father's rights advocates are critical of feminist efforts to block shared parenting, or joint custody, after divorce.

Ann Widdecombe, a British Conservative politician and former leadership candidate, claimed that feminism slowly evolved into its antithesis.[35] She argues that 1970s rhetoric emphasized equal rights and self-sufficiency, whereas 1990s rhetoric demanded special assistance for women and implied that women could not look after themselves. She identifies with the former variant, and describes the latter as "absolute tosh".

Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young's books Spreading Misandry and Legalizing Misandry explore feminist-inspired misandry and show what they call "fascist" or "gender" feminist ideologies underlying militant man-hatred, gynocentric reverse-sexism and systemic discrimination against men in popular culture, law and society.[36]. Feminist Christina Hoff-Sommers argues feminist misandry leads directly to misogyny by what she calls "establishment feminists" against (the majority of) women who love men in Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women.

Scientific research into feminist issues

Some natural and social scientists have considered feminist ideas and feminist forms of scholarship using scientific methods.

One core scientific controversy involves the issue of the social construction vs the biological formation of gender or sex associated identities. Modern feminist science is based on the view that most if not all differences between the sexes are based on socially constructed gender idendities rather than on biological sex differences. For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book Myths of Gender explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that purports to support a biologically essentialist view of gender. However, in The Female Brain, Louann Brizendine argues that brain differences between the sexes are a biological reality with significant implications for sex-specific functional differences. Steven Rhoads' book Taking Sex Differences Seriously illustrates sex-dependent differences across a wide scope.

Carol Tavris, in The Mismeasure of Woman (the title is a play on Stephen Jay Gould's The Mismeasure of Man), uses psychology, sociology, and analysis in a critique of theories that use biological reductionism to explain differences between men and women. She argues rather than using evidence of innate gender difference there is an over-changing hypothesis to justify inequality and perpetuate stereotypes.[37]

Evelyn Fox Keller has argued that the rhetoric of science reflects a masculine perspective, and questions the idea of scientific objectivity. Primatologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy notes the prevalence of masculine-coined stereotypes and theories, such as the non-sexual female, despite "the accumulation of abundant openly available evidence contradicting it".[38]

Quotations about feminism

Nancy Cott: "Feminism asks for sexual equality that includes sexual difference. It aims for individual freedoms by mobilizing sex solidarity. It posits that women recognize their unity while it stands for diversity among women. It requires gender consciousness for its basis yet calls for the elimination of prescribed gender roles."[39]

Estelle Freedman: "Feminism is a belief that women and men are inherently of equal worth. Because most societies privilege men as a group, social movements are necessary to achieve equality between women and men, with the understanding that gender always intersects with other social hierarchies."[40]

Betty Friedan: “Man is not the enemy here, but the fellow victim. Men are not the enemy, but the fellow victims. The real enemy is women's denigration of themselves.”[41]

Gloria Steinem: "In my heart, I think a woman has two choices: Either she's a feminist or a masochist."[citation needed]

Naomi Wolf: "Here is our secret, that should be a feminist secret no longer: the male body is home to us, our rocket, our whirlpool."[42]

Taylor Caldwell: "There is no solid satisfaction in any career for a woman like myself. There is no home, no true freedom, no hope, no joy, no expectation for tomorrow, no contentment. I would rather cook a meal for a man and bring him his slippers and feel myself in the protection of his arms than have all the citations and awards and honors I have received worldwide, including the Ribbon of Legion of Honor and my property and my bank accounts. They mean nothing to me. And I am only one among the millions of sad women like myself. "[43][3]"Ask Them Yourself"

Famous feminists

References

  1. ^ 'Feminism', Webster Dictionary Definition
  2. ^ hooks, bell. "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center" Cambridge, MA: South End Press 1984
  3. ^ Echols, Alice. "Daring to be Bad" University of Minnesota Press 1990
  4. ^ Monstrous Domesticity by Faith Wilding, retrieved on May 31st 2007.
  5. ^ Ehrenreich, Barbara. "What is Socialist Feminism" WIN Magazine, 1976
  6. ^ MacGregor, Sherilyn. "Beyond Mothering Earth: Ecological Citizenship" Vancouver: UBC Press 2006
  7. ^ French, Marilyn (1985). "Beyond Power".
  8. ^ Cott, Nancy F. What’s In a Name? The Limits of ‘Social Feminism’; or, Expanding the Vocabulary of Women’s History. Journal of American History 76 (December 1989): 809–829
  9. ^ Shulman, Alix K. Emma Goldman: 'Anarchist Queen', in Spender 1983 op. cit. at 223
  10. ^ Walters, Margaret. "Feminism: A very short introduction". Oxford 2005 (ISBN 0-19-280510-X)
  11. ^ Mitchell, Julie and Ann Oakley (eds.). "Who's Afraid of Feminism?: Seeing Through the Backlash", New Press, 1997. ISBN 1-56584-385-1
  12. ^ Woolf, Virginia "Three Guineas" 1938
  13. ^ Park SS. Suffrage and Virginia Woolf: ‘The Mass Behind the Single Voice’ The Review of English Studies 2005 56(223):119-134
  14. ^ Silver, Brenda. "Virginia Woolf: Icon" University of Chicago Press 1999
  15. ^ Allen, Ann Taylor, Feminism, Social Science, and the Meanings of Modernity: The Debate on the Origin of the Family in Europe : and the United States, 1860–1914. The American Historical Review 104.4 (1999): 53 pars. 1 Dec. 2006
  16. ^ Offen, Karen. Defining Feminism: A Comparative Historical Approach. Signs 14 (Autumn 1988): 152.
  17. ^ Marler, Joan. The Myth of Universal Patriarchy: A Critical Response to Cynthia Eller’s Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory. Feminist Theology, Vol. 14, No. 2, 163-187 (2006)
  18. ^ Sen, G., Grown, C. Development, crisis and alternative visions: Third World women’s perspectives. Monthly Review Press, N.Y. 1987
  19. ^ Witt, Charlotte. Feminist History of Philosophy, in Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
  20. ^ Keohane, Nannerl. Review: Moi, Toril. What is a Woman? And Other Essays. Duke University Alumni Magazine No. 30 Sept-Oct 2000
  21. ^ Marler, Joan. The Myth of Universal Patriarchy: A Critical Response to Cynthia Eller’s Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory. Feminist Theology, Vol. 14, No. 2, 163-187 (2006)
  22. ^ http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cr_48.htm Manhattan-institute.org
  23. ^ http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/051011/d051011b.htm Statcan.ca
  24. ^ Scott J. South and Glenna Spitze, "Housework in Marital and Nonmarital Households," American Sociological Review 59, no. 3 (1994):327-348
  25. ^ Sarah Fenstermaker Berk and Anthony Shih, "Contributions to Household Labour: Comparing Wives' and Husbands' Reports,", in Berk, ed., Women and Household Labour
  26. ^ Luker, Kristin, Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of the Teenage Pregnancy Crisis. Harvard University Press (1996)
  27. ^ Engels, Friedrich, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, in the light of the researches of Lewis H. Morgan. New York: International Publishers (1972)
  28. ^ "The Role of Women in Ministry" (PDF). The General Council of the Assemblies of God. 1990-08-14. p. 7. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ Rizvi, Muddassir (2002-10-15). "Women Win Record Seats, But Not Activists' Hearts". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 2006-05-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ^ "Section 28, Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation" (PDF). United Nations Human Development Report 2004: Section 28. United Nations. 2004.
  31. ^ . 2001 http://www.ppseawa.org/Bulletin/01May/conference.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  32. ^ Women in National Parliaments, November 2004
  33. ^ Mills, S. (1998): "Postcolonial Feminist Theory" in S. Jackson and J. Jones eds., Contemporary Feminist Theories (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press) pp98-112
  34. ^ Poloma M. M., Garland T. N. (1971). "The Married Professional Woman: A Study in the Tolerance of Domestication". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 33 (3): 531–540.
  35. ^ http://politics.guardian.co.uk/interviews/story/0,,1076316,00.html Politics.guardian.co.uk
  36. ^ . McGill-Queen's University Press. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  37. ^ Tavris, Carol. Simon & Schuster, 1992. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  38. ^ Blaffer Hrdy, Sarah. Pantheon, 1999. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  39. ^ Cott, Nancy F. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987, at 5
  40. ^ Freedman, Estelle B. No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women. New York: Ballantine Books, 2002, at 7.
  41. ^ quoted in The Observer Sunday February 5, 2006 http://www.guardian.co.uk/gender/story/0,,1702849,00.html retrieved Feb 3 2007 20:40 UTC
  42. ^ http://www.giantleap.org/envision/ffac.htm Giantleap.org
  43. ^ [1]

Further reading

  • Lorenne M. G. Clark, "Liberalism and Pornography," in Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Crime and Punishment: Philosophic Explorations (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000, formerly Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1996), pp. 176-187.
  • Anne Fausto-Sterling, "Gender Benders: How Many Sexes Are There?," in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), pp. 168-170.
  • Joel Feinberg, "Pornography, Feminism and Liberalism," in Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Crime and Punishment: Philosophic Explorations (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000, formerly Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1996), pp. 187-204.
  • Cathryn Jo Rosen, "The Battered Woman's Defense," in Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Controversies in Criminal Law: Philosophical Essays on Responsibility and Procedure (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 89-99.
  • Lawrence Taylor and Katharina Dalton, "Premenstrual Syndrome: A New Criminal Defense?," in Michael J. Gorr and Sterling Harwood, eds., Controversies in Criminal Law: Philosophical Essays on Responsibility and Procedure (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 163-179.
  • Anita Silvers and Sterling Harwood, "Womb for Rent: Surrogate Motherhood and the Case of Baby M," in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1996), pp. 190-193.

Books

  • Antrobus, Peggy. "The global women's movement - Origins, issues and strategies", London, Zed Books 2004
  • Butler, Judith (1994). "Feminism in Any Other Name", differences 6:2-3: 44-45.
  • Chopin, Kate. "The Awakening". 1899.
  • Code, Lorraine, ed., "Encyclopedia of feminist theories", Routledge 2000
  • Patricia Hill Collins, "Black Feminist Thought. Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment", Second Edition, Routledge 2000
  • Echols, Alice. "Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975", University of Minnesota Press 1990
  • Faludi, Susan. "Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women". 1992 (ISBN 0-385-42507-4)
  • Friedan, Betty. "The Feminine Mystique," Penguin Books, 1963.
  • French, Marilyn. "Beyond Power"; "War Against Women"; "From Eve to Dawn", a 3-volume history of women
  • J.F. del Giorgio. The Oldest Europeans:Who are we? Where do we come from? What made European women different?.A.J.Place 2006 (ISBN 980-6898-00-1)
  • Gossett, Hattie. "Presenting sister noblues" 1989
  • Gossett, Hattie. "This bridge called my back: writings by radical women of color", 1981
  • Jaggar, Alison M., "Feminist Politics and Human Nature," Rowman and Littlefield Publishers 1989, 416pp.
  • Hochschild, Arlie Russell. "The Second Shift" 1990 (ISBN 0-380-71157-5)
  • Hochschild, Arlie Russell. "The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work" 1997 (ISBN 0-8050-4470-1)
  • Hooks, Bell. (1984). "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center". ISBN 0-89608-614-3
  • Jacobson, Joyce P. "The Economics of Gender" 1998. (ISBN 0-631-20726-0)
  • Kaminer, Wendy. "A Fearful Freedom: Women's Flight from Equality", Addison Wesley 1990 (ISBN 0-201-09234-4)
  • Kipnes, Laura, "The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability", ISBN 0-375-42417-2
  • Lerner, Gerda. "The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy", Oxford University Press 1994
  • Luker, Kristin. "Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of the Teenage Pregnancy Crisis". (Harvard University Press, 1996) (ISBN 0-674-21703-9)
  • The Radical Women Manifesto: Socialist Feminist Theory, Program and Organizational Structure
  • Schneir, Miriam. "Feminism : The Essential Historical Writings", New York: Vintage 1994
  • Sommers, Christina Hoff. "Who Stole Feminism? - How women have betrayed women" (1996) (ISBN 0-684-80156-6)
  • Tavris, Carol. "The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, the Opposite Sex, or the Inferior Sex". Simon and Schuster, 1992. ISBN 0-671-66274-0
  • Walters, Margaret. "Feminism: A very short introduction". Oxford 2005 (ISBN 0-19-280510-X)
  • Wertheim, Margaret. "Pythagoras' Trousers - God, Physics, and the Gender Wars", W.W. Norton & Co. (1995, 1997)

Collections

  • Berk, Sarah Fenstermaker, ed. Women and Household Labor, Sage 1980.
  • Mitchell, Julie and Ann Oakley (eds.). Who's Afraid of Feminism?: Seeing Through the Backlash, New Press, 1997. ISBN 1-56584-385-1
  • Morgan, Robin, ed. Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women's Liberation Movement, 1970.
  • Spender, Dale (ed.) Feminist theorists: Three centuries of key women thinkers, Pantheon 1983, ISBN 0-394-53438-7

See also

External links

Look up feminism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Women's Studies

Feminist organizations

Supportive of feminism

Critical of feminism, or specific types of feminism

Feminism in Religion, Politics, & Culture

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