Polytheism

Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated mythology and rituals.

Etymology

English polytheism is attested from the 17th century, loaned from French polythéisme (since 1580). In post-classical Latin, the term is polytheismus. The word is attested later than atheism but earlier than theism.

It ultimately derives from the Greek adjective πολυθεός (from πολύς "many" and θεός "god"), in the meaning "of or belonging to many gods" found in Aeschylus (Suppliant Women 424), in the meaning "believing in many gods" in Procopius (Historia Arcana 11).

Gods and divinity

The deities of polytheistic religions are agents in mythology, where they are portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories. These gods are often seen as similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions.

Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most ethnic religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Theological variations

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The so called Hard Polytheists believe that gods are distinct and separate beings that may be part of a unifying principle such as The One of Platonism and Neoplatonism and also Panentheism. The so called Hard Polytheism as seen in mythology, shows the gods as "independent agents" who can be, and often are, in conflict with one another, but gods always are subject to Fate, Ananke and Dike, in other words to the Divine Order, that represents an implicit form of divine unity.

A common misconception is to consider Hard Polytheism as a lack of divine unity. Another misconception that may be found on Internet is that Hard Polytheists consider the gods of all cultures as distinct beings, a theological postition more correctly called integrational polytheism, as the ancients knew well, one same god could be known by several cultures, obviously with a different name (see Interpraetatio). An Hard Polytheist in some cases may consider a god an aspect or a face of one another without be considered a Soft Polytheist (see the case of Dionysos in Salustius' De Diis et Mundo). However the modern terms "Soft" vs. "Hard" Polytheism are neologisms often used to describe theological positions in Neopaganism. Hard polytheism is prevalent in ancient Paganism and in the modern Reconstructionism.

A more structured formulation of a "underlying" divine unity, an unifying principle, came with Philosophy, in particular with Platonism and Neoplatonism. This divine unity does not imply a single personal divine being (such as in monotheism) nor that gods are only "illusory" "aspects", "facets" or "masks" of The One as are considered by soft polytheists. Neoplatonism (that's absolutely not a sort of monotheism as regarded by some) for example openly accepts and defends the principle of a plurality of distinct gods as an 'unfolding into light' of the divine unity represented by The One.

"Let us as it were celebrate the first God, not as establishing the earth and the heavens, nor as giving subsistence to souls, and the generation of all animals; for he produced these indeed, but among the last of things; but prior to these, let us celebrate him as unfolding into light the whole intelligible and intellectual genus of Gods, together with all the supermundane and mundane divinities - as the God of all Gods, the unity of all unities, and beyond the first adyta, - as more ineffable than all silence, and more unknown than all essence, - as holy among the holies, and concealed in the intelligible Gods." -- Proclus: The Theology of Plato.

Soft Polytheism is a variety of polytheism in which adherents believe that the gods and goddesses are manifestations or "aspects" of a single god (or god and goddess) rather than completely distinct entities. Soft polytheism may include varieties of monolatry, henotheism, or polytheist mythologies coupled with forms of Pantheism or Panentheism.

Soft Polytheists regard their multiplicity of gods as being manifestations of either common impersonal entities, or representing different aspects or facets of a single personal god. Inclusive monotheists, on the other hand consider all other names and forms of god as indirect and subordinate representations of a personal god, as are many modern neopagan groups.^{[citation needed]}

Soft Polytheism is prevalent in New Age and syncretic currents of Neopaganism, as are psychological interpretations of deities as archetypes of the human psyche. English occultist Dion Fortune was a major populiser of soft polytheism. In her novel, The Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one God, and all goddesses are one Goddess, and there is one Initiator." This phrase proved so popular among some Neopagans (notably, Wiccans) to the extent that it is often thought to be ancient, traditional lore, rather than the product of a recent work of fiction. Fortune's soft polytheist compromise between monotheism and polytheism has been described as "pantheism" (Greek: πάν ( 'pan' ) = all and θεός ( 'theos' ) = God).^[who?] However, "Pantheism" has a longer history of usage to refer to a view of an all-encompassing immanent divine.

Types of deities

Types of deities often found in polytheism

In comparative religion

Monotheism may be contrasted with polytheism in that the former a belief in the existence of only one god. Polytheism and monotheism, being -theisms, may not be contrasted with -isms. The latter incorporate principles that do not necessarily reflect any relationship to theos "(of) god(s)." For example, monism is the term for any system with exactly one primal/primordial unity from which all other entities derive. The confusion of 'monism' with 'monotheism' in popular understanding is due to the fact that Abrahamic religions are both monotheistic and monist.

Mythology and religion

In the Classical era, Sallustius (4th century CE) categorised mythology into five types:

Theological
Physical
Psychological
Material
Mixed

The theological are those myths which use no bodily form but contemplate the very essence of the gods: e.g., Kronos swallowing his children. Since divinity is intellectual, and all intellect returns into itself, this myth expresses in allegory the essence of divinity.

Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world: e.g., people before now have regarded Kronos as time, and calling the divisions of time his sons say that the sons are swallowed by the father.

The psychological way is to regard (myths as allegories of) the activities of the soul itself and or the soul's acts of thought.

The material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon.

The mixed kind of myth may be seen in many instances: for example they say that in a banquet of the gods, Eris threw down a golden apple; the goddesses contended for it, and were sent by Zeus to Paris to be judged. (See also the Judgement of Paris.) Paris saw Aphrodite to be beautiful and gave her the apple. Here the banquet signifies the hypercosmic powers of the gods; that is why they are all together. The golden apple is the world, which being formed out of opposites, is naturally said to be 'thrown by Eris '(or Discord). The different gods bestow different gifts upon the world, and are thus said to 'contend for the apple'. And the soul which lives according to sense - for that is what Paris is - not seeing the other powers in the world but only beauty, declares that the apple belongs to Aphrodite.

Historical polytheism

Well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical attested pantheon which includes the Ancient Greek religion, and Roman Religion. Post classical polytheistic religions include Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are pejoratively referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance deities portrayed in conflict in mythology would still be worshipped sometimes in the same temple side by side, illustrating the distinction in the devotees mind between the myth and the reality. It is speculated that there was once a Proto-Indo-European religion, from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples derive, and that this religion was an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several distinct religious systems.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the Æsir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a local cult, as with Egyptian Osiris worship brought to ancient Greece.

Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were living, incorruptible, blissful beings who did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but who could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. Epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds.

Hellenistic religion may still be regarded as polytheistic, but with strong monistic components, and monotheism finally emerges out of Hellenistic traditions in Late Antiquity in the form of Neoplatonism and Christian theology.

Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity

Late Antiquity to High Middle Ages

Polytheism in world religions

Sikhism

Sikhism rejects polytheism and accepts monotheism. Whereas Sikhism starts with one god and universalizes him, Hinduism (dominated by the Smarta Advaita view), starts with many gods and occasionally gives glimpses of 'One'.

I do not accept Ganesha as important. I do not meditate on Krishna, neither on Vishnu. I do not hear them and do not recognize them. My love is with the Lotus feet of God. He is my protector, the Supreme Lord. I am dust of his Lotus feet.
— Guru Gobind Singh

See also: Sikhism and Other Religions> http://www.sikhs.org/relig_h.htm

Hinduism

See also: Hindu views on monotheism

The system prevalent within the Smartha sect of Hinduism is defined by the soft polytheistic Advaita philosophy. Smarta theologians are influenced by the Advaita philosophy expounded by Shankara. This theory allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. The ultimate reality, Brahman (not to be confused with Brahma) or Atman, is believed to have no specific form, name or attribute. Because the ultimate reality is considered impersonal by the Smartha sect of Hinduism, there is usually a confusion that it is the only sect that is monistic. This is not the case. The Smartha sect is based on a philosophy of absolute monism and is pantheistic, whereas other sects of Hinduism are monistic and panentheistic.

In contrast to the Smartha sect, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism follow an established singular concept of a personal God, as panentheistic monistic monotheism, but differ in their conceptions of the Supreme God. A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu or Krishna as the only Supreme God worthy of worship, and worship of other deities as subordinate, or recommends worship of other forms of God as aspects or expansions of the Supreme. Many Vaishnavas regard Shiva as the topmost devotee of Vishnu, not to be confused with Sadashiv, who is regarded as an expansion of Vishnu. Shaivite worshipers's position is usually similar to Vaishnavism, however, they worship Shiva alone as the Supreme.

Buddhism and Shinto

In Buddhism, there are higher beings commonly designed (or designated) as gods, Devas. However, Buddhism, at its core, does not teach the notion of praying nor worship to the Devas or any god(s).

Devas, in general, are beings who have had more positive karma in their past lives than humans. Their lifespan eventually ends. When their lives end, they will be reborn as devas or as other beings. When they accumulate negative karma, they are reborn as either human or any of the other lower beings. Humans and other beings could also be reborn as a deva in their next rebirth, if they accumulate many positive karma, however it is not recommended.

Buddhism flourished in different countries, and some of those countries have polytheistic folk religions. Buddhism syncretizes easily with other religions because of its lack of a strict position on theism.^{[citation needed]} Thus, Buddhism has mixed with the folk religions and emerged in polytheistic variants as well as nontheistic variants. For example, in Japan, Buddhism, mixed with Shinto, which worships kami, created a tradition which prays to the kami (plural beings; the same term exists for singular and plural). Thus, there may be elements of worship of gods in some forms of later Buddhism.

Judaism

Judaism has categorically condemned polytheism since Biblical times. Rabbinic views make a distinction between avodah zarah (idolatry) and shittuf (lit. "association"), defined as any doctrine that recognizes one supreme god, but ascribes power, albeit secondary, to a created being (the term refers to one who does not deny the monotheistic and exclusionary aspect of God, but "associates" something else with him). Judaism prohibits shittuf for Jews as idolatry; it is a matter of dispute if it is prohibited for non-Jews. The Tosafist Rabbeinu Tam, in Bekhorot 2b and Sanhedrin 63b, implies that trinitarianism could be permitted to gentiles as a form of shittuf. This view was echoed by Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet (Rivash, responsa 119) and apparently accepted by Rabbi Moses Isserles (Rema, Orah Hayyim 156:1.) Nevertheless, many rabbinic sources disagree and prohibit shittuf to gentiles as well. There are no rabbinic source that allow Jews to worship through any form of shittuf. The punishment for polytheism was death. There is also a theoretical death penalty for polytheistic worship in the seven Noahide Laws (Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 57a), and this is a factor in modern opposition to the notion of a Noahide legal system. Jewish scholars respond by noting that Jews today no longer carry out the death penalty, even within Jewish communities.

Christianity

Christianity is descended from Judaism and its theology shows the monotheism of late-biblical and post-biblical Judaism. However, it has evolved a doctrine of Trinity in post-Nicene Christianity, which is explicitly monotheistic, but denounced as polytheism in Islam, Judaism and Unitarianism. Veneration of Saints in folk Christianity, in particular the concept of patron saints "responsible" for a certain aspect of life or society, may in some cases become indistinguishable from polytheism, and indeed in many cases seamlessly continues pre-Christian traditions.^[1]. Some Critics of Christianity have also criticized the concept of the Trinity as soft polytheism. Most Christians reject this stating firmly that there is only one god and this one god has three aspects.

Islam

Islam, an Abrahamic religion, is also staunchly monotheistic. According to the Qur'an, shirk (polytheism) is the greatest of sins and is not excused.The concept of the Trinity is considered by Muslim as a form of polytheism.

Folk religion

The emphasis on monotheism during Christianization of Europe resulted in a re-casting of most gods of European traditions into either Saints or diminutive creatures of folklore such as fairies, wights, sidhe etc.

Explicit polytheism in contemporary folk religion is found in African traditional religion as well as African diasporic religions. In Eurasia, the Kalash are one of very few instances of surviving polytheism. There are also a large number of polytheist folk traditions subsumed in contemporary Hinduism, although Hinduism is doctrinally dominated by monist or monotheist theology (Bhakti, Advaita). Historical Vedic polytheist ritualism survives as a very minor current in Hinduism, known as Shrauta.

New Religious Movements

New religious movements advocating polytheism are usually summarized under "Neopaganism", although that term also extends to purely monist or pantheist philosophies. Among Neopagan movements, explicit polytheism is most explicit in polytheistic reconstructionism, which has the stated aim of reviving historical forms of polytheism.

References

^ "Polytheism and Christian Belief" by Michael C. Rea _The Journal of Theological Studies_ 2006 57(1):133-148

Blain, Jenny (2004) An Understanding of Polytheism. Quotation used here with the author's permission.

External links

The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT, a UK-based community of Polytheists.
International Year Of Polytheism Philosophical project promoting polytheism by group monochrom
Integrational Polytheism
Godchecker.com - Your Guide To The Gods. Mythology with a twist!

[1] "Polytheism and Christian Belief" by Michael C. Rea _The Journal of Theological Studies_ 2006 57(1):133-148

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