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{{Infobox Person
{{Infobox civilian attack
|name = Theodore Parker Lukens
| title = Sand Creek Massacre
|image =
| image = X-33805.jpg
|caption =
| caption = ''Battle at Sand Creek'' by O. Y. Rookstool
| location = [[Kiowa County, Colorado|Kiowa County]], [[Colorado]]
|birth_date = 1848
| date = [[November 29]], [[1864]]
|birth_place = Ohio
| time =
|death_date = 1918
| timezone =
|death_place = [[Pasadena, California]]
| type =
|other_names = " Father of California Forestry"
| fatalities = ~According Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah, based on his oral history, over 400 peace-seeking [[Cheyenne]], [[Arapaho]], children, women, physically- and mentally-challenged, and elderly, (http:/www.sandcreekmassacre.net) will brutally murdered at Sand Creek.
|known_for = tree [[horticulture]], [[conservation]]
15 [[United States of America|United States]] troops killed
|occupations = Citrus grower, forester, mayor of Pasadena
| injuries = 50+ [[United States of America|United States]] troops wounded
|nationality = American
| perps = mostly irregular [[United States of America|Union]] forces commanded by [[John M. Chivington]] in the [[Colorado War]].
| weapons = Private and armoried guns. It was the first and only time forces fired canons (4 twelve-pound) on others in Colorado history (http://www.sandcreekmassacre.net)
}}
}}
'''Theodore Parker Lukens''' (1848 - 1918) was a conservationist, citrus grower, real estate investor and civic leader. He believed that burned over mountainsides could again be covered in timber and [[watershed]]s protected. To this end, he collected seeds and cones and experimented with them on the mountain slopes above his home. His perserverence earned him the name "Father of California Forestry." A conservationist, he pushed for reforestation and was a leader in the crusade of watershed protection.<ref>Godfrey, Anthony ''The Ever-Changing View-A History of the National Forests in California'' USDA Forest Service Publishers, 2005 ISBN 1-59351-428-X pp. 34-35</ref><br>
He founded [[Henninger Flats]], a tree nursery which provided seed stock for an estimated 70,000 trees. <ref>[http://www.sbnfa.org/documents/Angeles_2006_08.pdf Angeles National Forest Fire Lookout Association Newsletter, August 2006] p.4 of PDF</ref>


{{Campaignbox Colorado War}}
He was active in banking, real estate and local government and served as president of the City Council of [[Pasadena, California]] in 1890-92 and 1894-95. Lukens remained prominent in civic affairs in Pasadena until his death in 1918.<ref name=SierraClub>[http://www.environment.net/john_muir_exhibit/frameindex.html Sierra Club's John Muir Exhibit]</ref>
The '''Sand Creek Massacre''' (also known as the ''Chivington massacre'' or the ''Battle of Sand Creek'' or the ''Massacre of Cheyenne Indians'') was an incident in the [[Indian Wars]] of the [[United States]] that occurred on [[November 29]], [[1864]], when [[Colorado Territory]] [[militia (United States)|militia]] attacked and destroyed a village of [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]] encamped in [[Southeastern Colorado Territory]]. According to Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah, based on his oral
history, over 400 hundred Cheyenne/Arapaho children, women, physically- and mentally-challenged, and elders were brutally
murdered at Sand Creek (http://www.sandcreekmassacre.net).


== Background ==
Lukens moved to Pasadena from Ohio in 1880 at the age of 32, then with his real estate earnings in the boom of the 1880s, was able to semi-retire by 1886. He built a large home on Molina Avenue in Pasadena and became active in business and municipal affairs.<br>
He joined the [[Sierra Club]] in 1894, met and became lifelong friends with conservationist [[John Muir]]. At Muir's urging, Lukens became actively involved in early Sierra Club campaigns to purchase privately-held toll roads for public use, return [[Yosemite Valley]] to federal government protection, and to protect [[Hetch Hetchy Valley]] in Yosemite. <ref>[http://www.pbagalleries.com/catalogs/curcat96-5.html PBA Galleries'website.]</ref> <ref name=SierraClub/>


By the terms of the 1851 [[Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)|Treaty of Fort Laramie]], between the United States and the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes,<ref name="fortlaramietreaty1851">"Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851." 11 Stats. 749, Sept. 17, 1851.</ref> (According the Southern Cheynne Chief Laird Cometsevah, the Cheyenne and Arapaho people did not have legal counsel, sandcreekmassacre.net)the Cheyenne and Arapaho were recognized to hold a vast territory encompassing the lands between the [[North Platte River]] and [[Arkansas River]] and eastward from the [[Rocky Mountains]] to western [[Kansas]]. This area included present-day southeastern [[Wyoming]], southwestern [[Nebraska]], most of eastern [[Colorado]], and the westernmost portions of Kansas.<ref name="greene-27">Greene 2004, p. 27.</ref> However, the discovery in November 1858 of [[gold]] in the [[Rocky Mountains]] in Colorado<ref name="hoig2-61">Hoig 1980, p. 61.</ref> (then part of the western [[Kansas Territory]])<ref name="greene-12">Greene 2004, p. 12.</ref> brought on a [[Pikes Peak Gold Rush|gold rush]] and a consequent flood of white emigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands.<ref name="hoig2-61" /> Colorado territorial officials pressured federal authorities to redefine the extent of [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] lands in the territory,<ref name="greene-27" /> and in the fall of 1860, A.B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, arrived at Bent's New Fort along the Arkansas River to negotiate a new treaty.<ref name="hoig2-61" />
Lukens was also a forester and worked for the [[US Forest Service]] from 1905 to 1907 as Acting Superintendent of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Forest Reserves. He was fired a year or so later when he disagreed with the agency's decision to reduce manpower and was accused of <blockquote>"inciting local groups such as the Pasadena Chamber of Commerce against the policies of the Forest Service." wrote Leo E. Pendergrass in his book, ''The Forest Service in California: A Survey of Important Developments and People from 1905 to the Present''(1985). Pacific Southwest Archives, USDA Forest Service, Vallejo, CA</blockquote><ref>Godfrey p. 77</ref>


On [[February 18]], 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the [[Treaty of Fort Wise]](The Cheyenne chiefs and Arapaho attendees were with legal counsel according the Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah) with the United States,<ref name="fortwisetreaty">"Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861" (Treaty of Fort Wise). 12 Stat. 1163, Feb. 15, 1861, p. 810.</ref> in which they ceded to the United States most of the lands designated to them by the Fort Laramie treaty.<ref name="greene-27" /> The Cheyenne chiefs included [[Black Kettle]], White Antelope, Lean Bear, Little Wolf, and Tall Bear; the Arapaho chiefs included Little Raven, Storm, Shave-Head, Big Mouth and Left Hand.<ref name="fortwisetreaty" />
After leaving that agency, Lukens, together with fellow conservationist [[Abbot Kinney]], devoted a considerable amount of time and money to planting trees, including [[Eucalyptus]] trees, on the mountainslopes above Pasadena. Chief Forester [[Gifford Pinchot]] applauded these efforts.<ref>Godfrey p. 94</ref> With an intense interest in trees and a practical background in horticulture he became a passionate advocate of reforestation and conservation in the mountains. Lukens founded a tree nursery and reforestation project at Henninger Flats, in Southern California's [[San Gabriel Mountains]], which provided seed stock for 53,000 trees and another 17,000 in Los Angeles' [[Griffith Park]]. Lukens and Muir corresponded for 20 years about trees and conservation action. Lukens sent Muir stacks of photographs, sometimes 100 to 200 at a time, documenting tree species and their habitats, which Muir used in his articles.<ref name=SierraClub/>


The new reserve, less than one-thirteenth the size of the 1851 reserve,<ref name="greene-27" /> was located in eastern Colorado<ref name="greene-12" /> between the Arkansas River and [[Sand Creek]].<ref name="greene-27" /> Some bands of Cheyenne including the [[Dog Soldiers]], a militaristic band of Cheyennes and [[Lakota people|Lakotas]] that had evolved beginning in the 1830s, were angry at those chiefs who had signed the treaty, disavowing the treaty and refusing to abide by its constraints.<ref name="greene-12-13">Greene 2004, pp. 12-13.</ref> They continued to live and hunt in the [[bison]]-rich lands of eastern Colorado and western Kansas, becoming increasingly belligerent over the tide of white immigration across their lands, particularly in the Smoky Hill River country of Kansas, along which whites had opened a new trail to the gold fields.<ref>Hoig 1980, p. 62.</ref> Cheyennes opposed to the treaty said that it had been signed by a small minority of the chiefs without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe, that the signatories had not understood what they signed, and that they had been bribed to sign by a large distribution of gifts. The whites, however, claimed that the treaty was a "solemn obligation" and considered that those Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile and planning a war.<ref name="hyde-118">Hyde 1968, p. 118.</ref>


The beginning of the [[American Civil War]] in 1861 led to the organization of military forces in [[Colorado Territory]]. In March 1862, the Coloradans defeated the Texas Confederate Army in the [[Battle of Glorieta Pass]] in [[New Mexico]]. Following the battle, the [[1st Colorado Volunteers|First Regiment of Colorado Volunteers]] returned to Colorado Territory and were mounted as a home guard under the command of Colonel [[John Chivington]]. Chivington and Colorado territorial governor [[John Evans (governor)|John Evans]] adopted a hard line against Indians, accused by white settlers of stealing stock. Conflicts between settlers and Indians in the spring of 1864 included the capture and destruction of a number of small Cheyenne camps.<ref name="hoig2-63">Hoig 1980, p. 63.</ref> On May 16, 1864, a force under Lieutenant George S. Eayre crossed into Kansas and encountered Cheyennes in their summer buffalo-hunting camp at Big Bushes near the Smoky Hill River. Cheyenne chiefs Lean Bear and Star approached the soldiers to signal their peaceful intent, but were shot down by Eayre's troops.<ref name="hoig2-63" /><ref name="michno-137">Michno 2003, p. 137.</ref> This incident touched off a war of retaliation by the Cheyennes in Kansas.<ref name="hoig2-63" />
Unfortunately, the tree planting efforts on the national forest lands were deemed a failure by Assistant Chief of [[Silviculture]] T.D. Woodbury in a 'doleful' report written in 1912. The Forest Service's determined efforts to convert [[indigenous]] [[chaparral]] into forests fell short due to rabbits, small rodents and a baking-hot sun and the project was eventually abandoned.<ref>Godfrey p.95</ref>


As conflict between Indians and white settlers and soldiers in Colorado continued, many of the Cheyennes and Arapahos (including those bands under Cheyenne chiefs [[Black Kettle]] and White Antelope who had sought to maintain the peace in spite of pressures from whites) were resigned to negotiate peace. They were told to camp near [[Fort Lyon]] on the eastern plains and they would be regarded as friendly.
The "Father of California Forestry" Theodore Lukens is memorialized today with: renaming Sister Elsie Peak to Mount Lukens by the Forest Service in the 1920s. Mount Lukens is also the highest point within the city limits of Los Angeles at an elevation of 5,066 feet.<ref <ref> Robinson, John W. ''Trails of the Angeles'' Wilderness Press, sixth ed. 1990 p.47</ref> <ref>[http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=108:2:3946098761178210::NO::: USGS official website ]</ref>
Also, his home on 267 N. El Molino Ave in Pasadena is listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. It was added to the list on March 29, 1984.<ref>[http://www.nr.nps.gov/iwisapi/explorer.dll?IWS_SCHEMA=NRIS1&IWS_LOGIN=1&IWS_REPORT=100000046] National Park Service, National Register Information System search results for "Lukens"</ref>
== Henninger Flats ==
William K. Henninger was born in Virginia in July of 1817 and was among the [[pioneer]]s arriving in California in the 1800s. Henninger was instrumental in the discovery of the first major gold strike is the San Gabriel Mountains and became a squatter in the small hanging basin above [[Altadena, California]]. The landowner was businessman Peter Stiel who had acquired the parcel through the [[Homestead Act]]. In August, 1893, Steil then sold it to his friend Henninger who had been a squatter on the land since 1884.


== Attack ==
From 1884 until 1891, Henninger was the primary occupant of the 120-acre area. Henninger called the flats Clara Basin in honor of a grandchild, but this name died with him. He developed a water system and erected lodging. He also planted some trees and gardens.
In 1889 the [[Mount Wilson Toll Road|Pasadena and Mt. Wilson Toll Road Company]] was incorporated, and constructed the first four-foot-wide toll road that went to Mt. Wilson via the Henninger Flats and was completed in 1891. Mt. Wilson is home to the [[Hale Observatory]] and is at an elevation of 5,710 feet.
In 1892, Henninger was visited by Lukens and R. J. Busch and with Henninger's permission, they started the first experimental reforestation in California on the property by planting some selected [[conifer]]s there.


Black Kettle, a chief of a group of around 800 mostly Southern Cheyennes, reported to [[Fort Lyon]] in an effort to declare peace. After having done so, he and his band, along with some Arapahos under [[Chief Niwot]], camped out at nearby [[Sand Creek]], less than 40 miles north. The [[Dog Soldiers]], who had been responsible for much of the conflict with whites, were not part of this encampment. Assured by the U.S. Government's promises of peace, Black Kettle sent most of his warriors to hunt, leaving only around 60 men and women in the village, most of them too old or too young to participate in the hunt. Black Kettle flew an [[American flag]] over his lodge since previously he had been assured that this practice would keep him and his people safe from U.S. soldiers' aggression.<ref name="deebrown-88">Brown 1970, p. 88.</ref>
Henninger died two years later in 1894, and his daughters inherited the property. The property was then sold in February 1895, by auction, to Harry C. and Harriet M. Allen of Pasadena. Selling price was $2,600. In October 1895, the Allens sold the property for $5,000 to four men (W. Morgan, J. Vandevort, J. Holmes and W. Staats). These four men then sold the property in December 1895 to the Mt. Wilson Toll Road Company for $76,600.<ref>[http://www.fire.lacounty.gov/Forestry/OpsHenningerHistory1800.asp Los Angeles County FD History webpage]</ref> The price of this parcel had increased by 2800% in a single year.<br>
The area was mostly unoccupied until Lukens returned in 1902. He discovered that many of the trees he had planted earlier were still alive at Henninger. Due to this survival, without care, and the willingness of the Toll Road Company to provide water and improve the water systems, Lukens decided to make Henninger Flats a high elevation nursery. With permission from Chief Forester of the US Forest Service Gifford Pinchot, Lukens signed a [[lease]] with the Toll Road Company in October 1903, for the clearing of five acres. Lukens and his men planted more than 62,000 experimental tree seedlings at Henninger Flats. Most of the 51,000 trees that were planted in the [[San Gabriel Timberland Reserve|San Gabriel]] and [[San Bernardino Forest Reserve|San Bernardino reserve]]s for the Forest Service were grown at the nursery during 1903-1907.
Due to the success of reforestation at the nursery, Lukens received many orders for seed and seedlings from foresters worldwide. Some of these seed orders came from as far away as [[Chile]] and Sidney, [[Australia]]. In 1907, John Muir visited Henninger Flats and was greatly impressed by the work that had been done at the site.


Setting out from Fort Lyon, Colonel Chivington and his 800 troops of the [[First Colorado Cavalry]], [[Third Colorado Cavalry]] and a company of [[First New Mexico Volunteers]] marched to Black Kettle's campsite. On the night of [[November 28]], soldiers and militia drank heavily and celebrated their anticipated victory.<ref name="deebrown-91">Brown, 1970, p. 91.</ref> On the morning of [[November 29]], [[1864]], Chivington ordered his troops to attack. One officer, [[Captain (United States)|Captain]] [[Silas Soule]] refused to follow Chivington's order and told his men to hold fire. Other soldiers in Chivington's force, however, immediately attacked the village. Disregarding the American flag, and a [[white flag]] that was run up shortly after the soldiers commenced firing, Chivington's soldiers massacred the majority of its mostly unarmed inhabitants.
Unfortunately, due to its expense to operate, the nursery was moved to Lytle Creek in 1907, and closed at Henninger in 1908.

The Mt. Wilson Toll Road Company were the owners until it was purchased by [[Los Angeles County]] in 1928 and still own it today.
Fifteen members of the assembled militias were killed and more than 50 wounded.<ref name="michno-159">Michno 2003, p. 159.</ref> Between the effects of the heavy drinking and the chaos of the assault, the majority of the casualties were due to friendly fire.<ref name="deebrown-91">Brown, 1970, p. 91.</ref> Between 150 and 200 Indians were estimated killed, nearly all elderly men, women and children (Over 400 children, women, mentally- and physically-challenged, and elders were brutally murdered according to Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah as based on his oral history)(sandcreekmassacre.net). In testimony before a Congressional committee investigating the massacre, Chivington reported that as many as 500-600 Indian warriors were killed. <ref>[http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/four/sandcrk.htm#chivtest "Testimony of Colonel J.M. Chivington, April 26, 1865" to the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War.] New Perspectives on the West: Documents on the Sand Creek Massacre. PBS.</ref>. One source from the Cheyenne said that about 53 men and 110 women and children were killed.<ref>George Bent, the son of the American [[William Bent]] and a Cheyenne mother, was at Black Kettle’s village when Chivington’s men struck. [http://www.nps.gov/sand/historyculture/people.htm Sand Creek Massacre National Historical Site] has the following information: "On April 30, 1913, Bent wrote: "''About 53 men were killed and 110 women and children killed, 163 in all killed. Lots of men, women and children were wounded''."</ref> Before Chivington and his men left the area, they plundered the tipis and took the horses. After the smoke cleared, Chivington's men came back and killed many of the wounded. They also scalped many of the dead, regardless of whether they were women, children, or babies. Chivington and his men dressed their weapons, hats and gear with [[scalp]]s and other body parts, including human [[fetus]]es and male and female [[genitalia]].<ref name="United States Congress. (1867)">United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)</ref> They also publicly displayed these battle trophies in the [[Apollo Theater]] and [[bar (establishment)|saloon]]s in [[Denver]].
The county fire department manages the site, which is now known as the Henninger Flats Conservation Center and operates a museum, campground, and tree nursery.<ref>[http://www.fire.lacounty.gov/Forestry/OpsHenningerHistory1800.asp Los Angeles County FD History webpage]</ref>

== Aftermath ==

The Sand Creek Massacre resulted in a heavy loss of life and material possessions by the Cheyenne and Arapaho bands affected by the massacre. It also devastated the Cheyenne's traditional government, due to the deaths at Sand Creek of eight of 44 members of the [[Council of Forty-Four]], including White Antelope, One Eye, Yellow Wolf, Big Man, Bear Man, War Bonnet, Spotted Crow, and Bear Robe, as well as headmen of some of the Cheyenne's military societies.<ref name="greene-23">Greene 2004, p. 23.</ref> Among the chiefs killed were most of those who had advocated peace with white settlers and the U.S. government.<ref name="greene-24">Greene 2004, p. 24.</ref> The effect of this on Cheyenne society was to exacerbate the social and political rift between the traditional council chiefs and their followers on the one hand and the militaristic [[Dog Soldiers]] on the other.

Beginning in the 1830s, the Dog Soldiers had evolved from the Cheyenne military society by that name into a separate, composite band of Cheyenne and Lakota warriors that took as its territory the headwaters country of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers in southern Nebraska, northern Kansas, and the northeast of Colorado Territory. By the 1860s, as conflict between Indians and encroaching whites intensified, the influence wielded by the militaristic Dog Soldiers, together with that of the military societies within other Cheyenne bands, had become a significant counter to the influence of the traditional Council of Forty-Four chiefs, who were more likely to favor peace with the whites.<ref name="greene-26">Greene 2004, p. 26.</ref> To the Dog Soldiers, the Sand Creek Massacre illustrated the folly of the peace chiefs' policy of accommodating the whites through the signing of treaties such as the first Treaty of Fort Laramie and the Treaty of Fort Wise<ref name="greene-27">Greene 2004, p. 27.</ref> and vindicated the Dog Soldiers' own militant posture towards the whites.<ref name="greene-26" />

The traditional Cheyenne clan system was dealt a fatal blow by the events at Sand Creek. It had already been dealt a severe blow by an 1849 [[cholera]] epidemic which killed perhaps half the Southern Cheyenne population<ref name="hyde-96">Hyde 1968, p. 96.</ref>, especially the Masikota and Oktoguna bands,<ref name="hyde-97">Hyde 1968, p. 97.</ref> and further weakened by the emergence of a separate Dog Soldiers band.<ref name="hyde-338">Hyde 1968, p. 338.</ref> Hardest hit by the massacre were the Wutapai ([[Black Kettle]]'s band), perhaps half of the Hevhaitaniu including the clan's chiefs Yellow Wolf and Big Man, about half of the Oivimana under War Bonnet, and heavy losses to the Hisiometanio (Ridge Men) under White Antelope. Chief One Eye was also killed along with many of his band. The Suhtai clan and the Heviqxnipahis clan under Chief Sand Hill experienced relatively few losses. The Dog Soldiers and the Masikota, who by that time had joined the Dog Soldiers, were not present at Sand Creek.<ref name="hyde-159">Hyde 1968, p. 159.</ref> Of about ten lodges of Arapahos under Chief Left Hand, representing about fifty or sixty people, only a handful escaped with their lives.<ref name="hyde-159-162">Hyde 1968, pp. 159, 162.</ref>

=== Revenge ===
After this event, many [[Cheyenne]], including the great warrior [[Roman Nose]], and [[Arapaho]] men joined the [[Dog Soldiers]] and sought revenge on settlers throughout the [[Platte]] valley, killing as many as 200 civilians.

=== Official investigations ===

The attack was initially reported in the press as a victory against a brave opponent. Within weeks, however, a controversy was raised about a possible massacre. Several investigations were conducted — two by the military, and one by the [[Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]]. The panel declared<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABY3709.0003.001;rgn=full%20text;view=toc;cc=moa|publisher=University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service|title=United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)|accessdate=2008-03-19}}</ref>:

{{cquote|As to Colonel Chivington, your committee can hardly find fitting terms to describe his conduct. Wearing the uniform of the United States, which should be the emblem of justice and humanity; holding the important position of commander of a military district, and therefore having the honor of the government to that extent in his keeping, he deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre which would have disgraced the verist [sic] savage among those who were the victims of his cruelty. Having full knowledge of their friendly character, having himself been instrumental to some extent in placing them in their position of fancied security, he took advantage of their in-apprehension and defenceless [sic] condition to gratify the worst passions that ever cursed the heart of man.

Whatever influence this may have had upon Colonel Chivington, the truth is that he surprised and murdered, in cold blood, the unsuspecting men, women, and children on Sand creek, who had every reason to believe they were under the protection of the United States authorities, and then returned to Denver and boasted of the brave deed he and the men under his command had performed.

In conclusion, your committee are of the opinion that for the purpose of vindicating the cause of justice and upholding the honor of the nation, prompt and energetic measures should be at once taken to remove from office those who have thus disgraced the government by whom they are employed, and to punish, as their crimes deserve, those who have been guilty of these brutal and cowardly acts.}}

Statements taken by Major [[Edward W. Wynkoop]] and his [[adjutant]] substantiated the later accounts of survivors. These statements were filed with his reports and can be found in the ''Official Records of the War of the Rebellion'', copies of which were submitted as evidence in the Joint Committee of the Conduct of the War and in separate hearings conducted by the military in Denver. Lieutenant James D. Cannon describes the scalping of human genitalia by the soldiers, "men, women, and children's privates cut out. I heard one man say that he had cut a woman's private parts out and had them for exhibition on a stick. I heard of one instance of a child, a few months old, being thrown into the feed-box of a wagon, and after being carried some distance, left on the ground to perish; I also heard of numerous instances in which men had cut out the private parts of females and stretched them over their saddle-bows, and some of them over their hats"<ref name="United States Congress. (1867)">United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865, Appendix page 57 (testimonies and report)</ref>.

During these investigations, numerous witnesses came forward with damning [[testimony]], almost all of which was substantiated by other witnesses. At least one of those witnesses, Captain Silas Soule, was murdered in Denver just weeks after offering his testimony. However, despite the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the Wars' recommendation, justice was never served on those responsible for the massacre. A [[American Civil War|Civil War]] memorial installed at the Colorado Capitol in 1909 listed the Sand Creek massacre as one of the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]'s great victories.

== Sand Creek today ==

[[Image:X-32034.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A stone marker commemorates the "Sand Creek Battle Ground."]]
The site, on [[Big Sandy Creek]] in [[Kiowa County, Colorado|Kiowa County]], is now preserved by the [[National Park Service]] with the [[Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site]] in Colorado, which was dedicated on [[April 28]], [[2007]], almost 142 years after the massacre.

Meanwhile,at the Sand Creek Massacre Trail in [[Wyoming]] follows the paths of the Northern [[Arapaho]] and [[Cheyenne]] in the years after the massacre until their eventual surrender and the establishment of the [[Wind River (Wyoming)|Wind River]] Indian Reservation near [[Riverton, Wyoming|Riverton]] in central [[Wyoming]]. The trail passes through [[Cheyenne, Wyoming|Cheyenne]], [[Laramie, Wyoming|Laramie]], [[Casper, Wyoming|Casper]], and Riverton en route to [[Ethete, Wyoming|Ethete]] in [[Fremont County, Wyoming|Fremont County]] in the reservation. In recent years, Arapaho youth have taken to running the length of the trail in an effort to bring healing to their nation. Alexa Roberts, superintendent of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, said that the trail represents a living portion of the history of the two tribes.

==Depiction in fiction==
* The Sand Creek massacre is the subject of the 1970 movie ''[[Soldier Blue]]''. It is also featured at the beginning of the 1957 Western, ''[[The Guns of Fort Petticoat]], ''and forms one of the main plot devices in ''[[Tomahawk]]'' [1951], which is set a few years after the massacre but refers to it a number of times.
* The massacre is portrayed in [[Steven Spielberg]]'s mini-series ''[[Into the West (miniseries)|Into the West]]''.
* Acoma Pueblo poet [[Simon Ortiz]] used the Sand Creek massacre as inspiration for his 1981 collection of poems ''[[From Sand Creek]]''.
* American novelist [[James Michener]] included a fictionalized account of the massacre and its aftermath in his book ''[[Centennial (novel)|Centennial]]'', moving the incident further north, near the [[South Platte River]] and making the victims primarily [[Arapaho]].
* American comic book artist Jack Jackson, aka [[Jaxon]], told the story of the massacre in his 1975 story ''Nits Make Lice''.
* Italian singer-songwriter [[Fabrizio De André]] wrote a song about the massacre, ''Fiume Sand Creek'', included in his 1981 anonymous album, which has been dubbed ''The Indian'' because of the picture of a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] on the sleeve. ''Fiume Sand Creek'' is one of De André's best known songs.
* The song ''[[Run to the Hills]]'' by [[Iron Maiden (band)|Iron Maiden]] chronicles the massacre.
* ''[[Banner Year]]'' on the album [[Our Newest Album Ever!]] by [[Five Iron Frenzy]] depicts the Sand Creek massacre, as well as the [[Battle of Washita River]].
* In scene 10 of the film "[[Last of the Dogmen]]" (Savoy Pictures - 1995) actress Barbara Hershey, in her role as anthropologist Lillian Sloane, concisely describes the Sand Creek massacre.


==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}
{{reflist|3}}


==References==
==References==
* ''Official Records of the War of the Rebellion''.
Godfrey, Anthony ''The Ever-Changing View-A History of the National Forests in California'' USDA Forest Service Publishers, 2005 ISBN 1-59351-428-X
* [[Dee Brown (novelist)|Brown, Dee]]. (1970). ''[[Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee]]: An Indian History of the American West'', Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-6669-1.

* Greene, Jerome A. (2004). ''Washita, The Southern Cheyenne and the U.S. Army.'' Campaigns and Commanders Series, vol. 3. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806135514.
Robinson, John W. ''Trails of the Angeles'' Wilderness Press, sixth ed. 1990
* Hatch, Thom. (2004). ''Black Kettle: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought Peace but Found War''. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-47144-592-4.
* Hoig, Stan. (1977). ''The Sand Creek Massacre''. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1147-6.
* Hoig, Stan. (1980). ''The Peace Chiefs of the Cheyennes''. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1573-4.
* Hyde, George E. (1968). ''Life of George Bent Written from His Letters''. Ed. by Savoie Lottinville. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1577-7.
* Michno, Gregory F. (2003). ''Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850-1890''. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87842-468-7.
* [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sio0594.htm "Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851."] 11 Stats. 749, Sept. 17, 1851. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, ''Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties.'' Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904, pp. 594-596 . Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
* [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/KAPPLER/VOL2/treaties/ara0807.htm "Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861" (Treaty of Fort Wise).] 12 Stat. 1163, Feb. 15, 1861. Ratified Aug. 6, 1861; proclaimed Dec. 5, 1861. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, ''Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties.'' Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904, pp. 807-811 . Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
* United States Army. (1867). Courts of Inquiry, Sand Creek Massacre. ''Report of the Secretary of War Communicating, In Compliance With a Resolution of the Senate of February 4, 1867, a Copy of the Evidence Taken at Denver and Fort Lyon, Colorado Territory, By a Military Commission, Ordered to Inquire into the Sand Creek Massacre, November, 1864.'' Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Senate Executive Document 26, 39th Congress, Second Session. Reproduced in Wynkoop, Christopher H. (2004-08-13). [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~wynkoop/webdocs/scminqry.htm "Inquiry into the Sand Creek Massacre, November, 1864."] [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~wynkoop/ The Wynkoop Family Research Library]. Rootsweb.com: Freepages. Retrieved on 2007-04-29.
* United States Congress. (1867).''Condition of the Indian Tribes''. Report of the Joint Special Committee Appointed Under Joint Resolution of March 3, 1865, with an Appendix. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
* United States Senate. (1865). ''Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians''. Report of the Joint Committee on The Conduct of the War. (3 vols.) Senate Report No. 142, 38th Congress, Second Session. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
* West, Elliott. (1998), ''The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado''. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1029-4.
* Winger, Kevin. (2007-08-17). "Trail Helps Mark 1864 Massacre." ''Cheyenne Wyoming Tribune-Eagle''.


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/program/episodes/four/whois.htm Who is the Savage?]
[http://www.environment.net The Sierra Club Homepage.]
* [http://www.santafetrailscenicandhistoricbyway.org/scmasacre.html Finding The Site]

* [http://www.nps.gov/sand/ Sand Creek Massacre Historic Site]
[[Category:Conservationists]]
* [http://www.sandcreektours.com/ Sand Creek Tours]
* [http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/resources/archives/four/sandcrk.htm Historic Documents from PBS], especially look up testimony from John S. Smith to Congress
* [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABY3709.0003.001;rgn=full%20text;view=toc;cc=moa Report of the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865] at University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service, [[University of Michigan]]


[[Category:Pasadena, California]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1864]]
[[Category:1864 in the United States]]
[[Category:19th-century colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:Battles of the Colorado War]]
[[Category:Colorado in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:History of the United States (1849–1865)]]
[[Category:Massacres of Native Americans]]
[[Category:Military scandals]]
[[Category:Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Massacres committed by the United States]]


[[de:Sand-Creek-Massaker]]
[[Category:Los Angeles County, California]]
[[eo:Masakro de Sand Creek]]
[[fr:Massacre de Sand Creek]]
[[it:Massacro di Sand Creek]]
[[ja:サンドクリークの虐殺]]

Revision as of 21:06, 10 October 2008

Sand Creek Massacre
File:X-33805.jpg
Battle at Sand Creek by O. Y. Rookstool
LocationKiowa County, Colorado
DateNovember 29, 1864
WeaponsPrivate and armoried guns. It was the first and only time forces fired canons (4 twelve-pound) on others in Colorado history (http://www.sandcreekmassacre.net)
Deaths~According Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah, based on his oral history, over 400 peace-seeking Cheyenne, Arapaho, children, women, physically- and mentally-challenged, and elderly, (http:/www.sandcreekmassacre.net) will brutally murdered at Sand Creek. 15 United States troops killed
Injured50+ United States troops wounded
Perpetratorsmostly irregular Union forces commanded by John M. Chivington in the Colorado War.

The Sand Creek Massacre (also known as the Chivington massacre or the Battle of Sand Creek or the Massacre of Cheyenne Indians) was an incident in the Indian Wars of the United States that occurred on November 29, 1864, when Colorado Territory militia attacked and destroyed a village of Cheyenne and Arapaho encamped in Southeastern Colorado Territory. According to Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah, based on his oral history, over 400 hundred Cheyenne/Arapaho children, women, physically- and mentally-challenged, and elders were brutally murdered at Sand Creek (http://www.sandcreekmassacre.net).

Background

By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie, between the United States and the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes,[1] (According the Southern Cheynne Chief Laird Cometsevah, the Cheyenne and Arapaho people did not have legal counsel, sandcreekmassacre.net)the Cheyenne and Arapaho were recognized to hold a vast territory encompassing the lands between the North Platte River and Arkansas River and eastward from the Rocky Mountains to western Kansas. This area included present-day southeastern Wyoming, southwestern Nebraska, most of eastern Colorado, and the westernmost portions of Kansas.[2] However, the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado[3] (then part of the western Kansas Territory)[4] brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white emigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands.[3] Colorado territorial officials pressured federal authorities to redefine the extent of Indian lands in the territory,[2] and in the fall of 1860, A.B. Greenwood, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, arrived at Bent's New Fort along the Arkansas River to negotiate a new treaty.[3]

On February 18, 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise(The Cheyenne chiefs and Arapaho attendees were with legal counsel according the Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah) with the United States,[5] in which they ceded to the United States most of the lands designated to them by the Fort Laramie treaty.[2] The Cheyenne chiefs included Black Kettle, White Antelope, Lean Bear, Little Wolf, and Tall Bear; the Arapaho chiefs included Little Raven, Storm, Shave-Head, Big Mouth and Left Hand.[5]

The new reserve, less than one-thirteenth the size of the 1851 reserve,[2] was located in eastern Colorado[4] between the Arkansas River and Sand Creek.[2] Some bands of Cheyenne including the Dog Soldiers, a militaristic band of Cheyennes and Lakotas that had evolved beginning in the 1830s, were angry at those chiefs who had signed the treaty, disavowing the treaty and refusing to abide by its constraints.[6] They continued to live and hunt in the bison-rich lands of eastern Colorado and western Kansas, becoming increasingly belligerent over the tide of white immigration across their lands, particularly in the Smoky Hill River country of Kansas, along which whites had opened a new trail to the gold fields.[7] Cheyennes opposed to the treaty said that it had been signed by a small minority of the chiefs without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe, that the signatories had not understood what they signed, and that they had been bribed to sign by a large distribution of gifts. The whites, however, claimed that the treaty was a "solemn obligation" and considered that those Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile and planning a war.[8]

The beginning of the American Civil War in 1861 led to the organization of military forces in Colorado Territory. In March 1862, the Coloradans defeated the Texas Confederate Army in the Battle of Glorieta Pass in New Mexico. Following the battle, the First Regiment of Colorado Volunteers returned to Colorado Territory and were mounted as a home guard under the command of Colonel John Chivington. Chivington and Colorado territorial governor John Evans adopted a hard line against Indians, accused by white settlers of stealing stock. Conflicts between settlers and Indians in the spring of 1864 included the capture and destruction of a number of small Cheyenne camps.[9] On May 16, 1864, a force under Lieutenant George S. Eayre crossed into Kansas and encountered Cheyennes in their summer buffalo-hunting camp at Big Bushes near the Smoky Hill River. Cheyenne chiefs Lean Bear and Star approached the soldiers to signal their peaceful intent, but were shot down by Eayre's troops.[9][10] This incident touched off a war of retaliation by the Cheyennes in Kansas.[9]

As conflict between Indians and white settlers and soldiers in Colorado continued, many of the Cheyennes and Arapahos (including those bands under Cheyenne chiefs Black Kettle and White Antelope who had sought to maintain the peace in spite of pressures from whites) were resigned to negotiate peace. They were told to camp near Fort Lyon on the eastern plains and they would be regarded as friendly.

Attack

Black Kettle, a chief of a group of around 800 mostly Southern Cheyennes, reported to Fort Lyon in an effort to declare peace. After having done so, he and his band, along with some Arapahos under Chief Niwot, camped out at nearby Sand Creek, less than 40 miles north. The Dog Soldiers, who had been responsible for much of the conflict with whites, were not part of this encampment. Assured by the U.S. Government's promises of peace, Black Kettle sent most of his warriors to hunt, leaving only around 60 men and women in the village, most of them too old or too young to participate in the hunt. Black Kettle flew an American flag over his lodge since previously he had been assured that this practice would keep him and his people safe from U.S. soldiers' aggression.[11]

Setting out from Fort Lyon, Colonel Chivington and his 800 troops of the First Colorado Cavalry, Third Colorado Cavalry and a company of First New Mexico Volunteers marched to Black Kettle's campsite. On the night of November 28, soldiers and militia drank heavily and celebrated their anticipated victory.[12] On the morning of November 29, 1864, Chivington ordered his troops to attack. One officer, Captain Silas Soule refused to follow Chivington's order and told his men to hold fire. Other soldiers in Chivington's force, however, immediately attacked the village. Disregarding the American flag, and a white flag that was run up shortly after the soldiers commenced firing, Chivington's soldiers massacred the majority of its mostly unarmed inhabitants.

Fifteen members of the assembled militias were killed and more than 50 wounded.[13] Between the effects of the heavy drinking and the chaos of the assault, the majority of the casualties were due to friendly fire.[12] Between 150 and 200 Indians were estimated killed, nearly all elderly men, women and children (Over 400 children, women, mentally- and physically-challenged, and elders were brutally murdered according to Southern Cheyenne Chief Laird Cometsevah as based on his oral history)(sandcreekmassacre.net). In testimony before a Congressional committee investigating the massacre, Chivington reported that as many as 500-600 Indian warriors were killed. [14]. One source from the Cheyenne said that about 53 men and 110 women and children were killed.[15] Before Chivington and his men left the area, they plundered the tipis and took the horses. After the smoke cleared, Chivington's men came back and killed many of the wounded. They also scalped many of the dead, regardless of whether they were women, children, or babies. Chivington and his men dressed their weapons, hats and gear with scalps and other body parts, including human fetuses and male and female genitalia.[16] They also publicly displayed these battle trophies in the Apollo Theater and saloons in Denver.

Aftermath

The Sand Creek Massacre resulted in a heavy loss of life and material possessions by the Cheyenne and Arapaho bands affected by the massacre. It also devastated the Cheyenne's traditional government, due to the deaths at Sand Creek of eight of 44 members of the Council of Forty-Four, including White Antelope, One Eye, Yellow Wolf, Big Man, Bear Man, War Bonnet, Spotted Crow, and Bear Robe, as well as headmen of some of the Cheyenne's military societies.[17] Among the chiefs killed were most of those who had advocated peace with white settlers and the U.S. government.[18] The effect of this on Cheyenne society was to exacerbate the social and political rift between the traditional council chiefs and their followers on the one hand and the militaristic Dog Soldiers on the other.

Beginning in the 1830s, the Dog Soldiers had evolved from the Cheyenne military society by that name into a separate, composite band of Cheyenne and Lakota warriors that took as its territory the headwaters country of the Republican and Smoky Hill rivers in southern Nebraska, northern Kansas, and the northeast of Colorado Territory. By the 1860s, as conflict between Indians and encroaching whites intensified, the influence wielded by the militaristic Dog Soldiers, together with that of the military societies within other Cheyenne bands, had become a significant counter to the influence of the traditional Council of Forty-Four chiefs, who were more likely to favor peace with the whites.[19] To the Dog Soldiers, the Sand Creek Massacre illustrated the folly of the peace chiefs' policy of accommodating the whites through the signing of treaties such as the first Treaty of Fort Laramie and the Treaty of Fort Wise[2] and vindicated the Dog Soldiers' own militant posture towards the whites.[19]

The traditional Cheyenne clan system was dealt a fatal blow by the events at Sand Creek. It had already been dealt a severe blow by an 1849 cholera epidemic which killed perhaps half the Southern Cheyenne population[20], especially the Masikota and Oktoguna bands,[21] and further weakened by the emergence of a separate Dog Soldiers band.[22] Hardest hit by the massacre were the Wutapai (Black Kettle's band), perhaps half of the Hevhaitaniu including the clan's chiefs Yellow Wolf and Big Man, about half of the Oivimana under War Bonnet, and heavy losses to the Hisiometanio (Ridge Men) under White Antelope. Chief One Eye was also killed along with many of his band. The Suhtai clan and the Heviqxnipahis clan under Chief Sand Hill experienced relatively few losses. The Dog Soldiers and the Masikota, who by that time had joined the Dog Soldiers, were not present at Sand Creek.[23] Of about ten lodges of Arapahos under Chief Left Hand, representing about fifty or sixty people, only a handful escaped with their lives.[24]

Revenge

After this event, many Cheyenne, including the great warrior Roman Nose, and Arapaho men joined the Dog Soldiers and sought revenge on settlers throughout the Platte valley, killing as many as 200 civilians.

Official investigations

The attack was initially reported in the press as a victory against a brave opponent. Within weeks, however, a controversy was raised about a possible massacre. Several investigations were conducted — two by the military, and one by the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War. The panel declared[25]:

As to Colonel Chivington, your committee can hardly find fitting terms to describe his conduct. Wearing the uniform of the United States, which should be the emblem of justice and humanity; holding the important position of commander of a military district, and therefore having the honor of the government to that extent in his keeping, he deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre which would have disgraced the verist [sic] savage among those who were the victims of his cruelty. Having full knowledge of their friendly character, having himself been instrumental to some extent in placing them in their position of fancied security, he took advantage of their in-apprehension and defenceless [sic] condition to gratify the worst passions that ever cursed the heart of man.

Whatever influence this may have had upon Colonel Chivington, the truth is that he surprised and murdered, in cold blood, the unsuspecting men, women, and children on Sand creek, who had every reason to believe they were under the protection of the United States authorities, and then returned to Denver and boasted of the brave deed he and the men under his command had performed.

In conclusion, your committee are of the opinion that for the purpose of vindicating the cause of justice and upholding the honor of the nation, prompt and energetic measures should be at once taken to remove from office those who have thus disgraced the government by whom they are employed, and to punish, as their crimes deserve, those who have been guilty of these brutal and cowardly acts.

Statements taken by Major Edward W. Wynkoop and his adjutant substantiated the later accounts of survivors. These statements were filed with his reports and can be found in the Official Records of the War of the Rebellion, copies of which were submitted as evidence in the Joint Committee of the Conduct of the War and in separate hearings conducted by the military in Denver. Lieutenant James D. Cannon describes the scalping of human genitalia by the soldiers, "men, women, and children's privates cut out. I heard one man say that he had cut a woman's private parts out and had them for exhibition on a stick. I heard of one instance of a child, a few months old, being thrown into the feed-box of a wagon, and after being carried some distance, left on the ground to perish; I also heard of numerous instances in which men had cut out the private parts of females and stretched them over their saddle-bows, and some of them over their hats"[16].

During these investigations, numerous witnesses came forward with damning testimony, almost all of which was substantiated by other witnesses. At least one of those witnesses, Captain Silas Soule, was murdered in Denver just weeks after offering his testimony. However, despite the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the Wars' recommendation, justice was never served on those responsible for the massacre. A Civil War memorial installed at the Colorado Capitol in 1909 listed the Sand Creek massacre as one of the Union's great victories.

Sand Creek today

File:X-32034.jpg
A stone marker commemorates the "Sand Creek Battle Ground."

The site, on Big Sandy Creek in Kiowa County, is now preserved by the National Park Service with the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site in Colorado, which was dedicated on April 28, 2007, almost 142 years after the massacre.

Meanwhile,at the Sand Creek Massacre Trail in Wyoming follows the paths of the Northern Arapaho and Cheyenne in the years after the massacre until their eventual surrender and the establishment of the Wind River Indian Reservation near Riverton in central Wyoming. The trail passes through Cheyenne, Laramie, Casper, and Riverton en route to Ethete in Fremont County in the reservation. In recent years, Arapaho youth have taken to running the length of the trail in an effort to bring healing to their nation. Alexa Roberts, superintendent of the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, said that the trail represents a living portion of the history of the two tribes.

Depiction in fiction

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851." 11 Stats. 749, Sept. 17, 1851.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Greene 2004, p. 27.
  3. ^ a b c Hoig 1980, p. 61.
  4. ^ a b Greene 2004, p. 12.
  5. ^ a b "Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861" (Treaty of Fort Wise). 12 Stat. 1163, Feb. 15, 1861, p. 810.
  6. ^ Greene 2004, pp. 12-13.
  7. ^ Hoig 1980, p. 62.
  8. ^ Hyde 1968, p. 118.
  9. ^ a b c Hoig 1980, p. 63.
  10. ^ Michno 2003, p. 137.
  11. ^ Brown 1970, p. 88.
  12. ^ a b Brown, 1970, p. 91.
  13. ^ Michno 2003, p. 159.
  14. ^ "Testimony of Colonel J.M. Chivington, April 26, 1865" to the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War. New Perspectives on the West: Documents on the Sand Creek Massacre. PBS.
  15. ^ George Bent, the son of the American William Bent and a Cheyenne mother, was at Black Kettle’s village when Chivington’s men struck. Sand Creek Massacre National Historical Site has the following information: "On April 30, 1913, Bent wrote: "About 53 men were killed and 110 women and children killed, 163 in all killed. Lots of men, women and children were wounded."
  16. ^ a b United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report) Cite error: The named reference "United States Congress. (1867)" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ Greene 2004, p. 23.
  18. ^ Greene 2004, p. 24.
  19. ^ a b Greene 2004, p. 26.
  20. ^ Hyde 1968, p. 96.
  21. ^ Hyde 1968, p. 97.
  22. ^ Hyde 1968, p. 338.
  23. ^ Hyde 1968, p. 159.
  24. ^ Hyde 1968, pp. 159, 162.
  25. ^ "United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)". University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service. Retrieved 2008-03-19.

References

  • Official Records of the War of the Rebellion.
  • Brown, Dee. (1970). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-6669-1.
  • Greene, Jerome A. (2004). Washita, The Southern Cheyenne and the U.S. Army. Campaigns and Commanders Series, vol. 3. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806135514.
  • Hatch, Thom. (2004). Black Kettle: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought Peace but Found War. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-47144-592-4.
  • Hoig, Stan. (1977). The Sand Creek Massacre. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1147-6.
  • Hoig, Stan. (1980). The Peace Chiefs of the Cheyennes. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1573-4.
  • Hyde, George E. (1968). Life of George Bent Written from His Letters. Ed. by Savoie Lottinville. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1577-7.
  • Michno, Gregory F. (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850-1890. Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87842-468-7.
  • "Treaty of Fort Laramie with Sioux, Etc., 1851." 11 Stats. 749, Sept. 17, 1851. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904, pp. 594-596 . Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
  • "Treaty with the Arapaho and Cheyenne, 1861" (Treaty of Fort Wise). 12 Stat. 1163, Feb. 15, 1861. Ratified Aug. 6, 1861; proclaimed Dec. 5, 1861. In Charles J. Kappler, compiler and editor, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties — Vol. II: Treaties. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904, pp. 807-811 . Through Oklahoma State University Library, Electronic Publishing Center.
  • United States Army. (1867). Courts of Inquiry, Sand Creek Massacre. Report of the Secretary of War Communicating, In Compliance With a Resolution of the Senate of February 4, 1867, a Copy of the Evidence Taken at Denver and Fort Lyon, Colorado Territory, By a Military Commission, Ordered to Inquire into the Sand Creek Massacre, November, 1864. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Senate Executive Document 26, 39th Congress, Second Session. Reproduced in Wynkoop, Christopher H. (2004-08-13). "Inquiry into the Sand Creek Massacre, November, 1864." The Wynkoop Family Research Library. Rootsweb.com: Freepages. Retrieved on 2007-04-29.
  • United States Congress. (1867).Condition of the Indian Tribes. Report of the Joint Special Committee Appointed Under Joint Resolution of March 3, 1865, with an Appendix. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
  • United States Senate. (1865). Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians. Report of the Joint Committee on The Conduct of the War. (3 vols.) Senate Report No. 142, 38th Congress, Second Session. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
  • West, Elliott. (1998), The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1029-4.
  • Winger, Kevin. (2007-08-17). "Trail Helps Mark 1864 Massacre." Cheyenne Wyoming Tribune-Eagle.

External links

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