Dissociative Identity Disorder

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
artistic interpretation of several dissociative identities
Classification according to ICD-10
F44.81 Multiple personality disorder)
ICD-10 online (WHO version 2019)

The dissociative identity disorder (DIS) (according to DSM-5 and ICD -11) is characterized by the fact that different personality states ( dissociative identities) alternately take control of a person's thinking, feeling and acting. These identities have their own character traits, behaviors, skills, perception and thought patterns. In addition, there are memory gaps for events or personal information that can no longer be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.

The condition formerly known as multiple personality disorder (MP / MPS) should not be confused with personality disorders or psychotic disorders (see Classification section ) and is usually accompanied by other psychological symptoms. Deviations from typical brain development due to extremely traumatic experiences during early childhood are suspected to be the cause . Corresponding functional and anatomical changes in the brain have now been proven many times over by statistical evaluations in those affected in their adulthood.

distribution

At least 1% of the population is affected.

The prevalence of dissociative identity disorder in the general population is given as 1.1–1.5%. It is not a rare disease. In patients in psychiatric hospitals, in adolescent hospital patients, and in participants in programs against substance abuse , eating disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder , the prevalence in North America, Europe, and Turkey was 1-5%.

Causes and origins

Traumatic genesis

After decades of evaluating a very large number of medical histories, experts have hypothesized that DID is caused by external disruptive influences on development during childhood, since the majority of patients report earlier traumatic life events. Extremely negative life circumstances of an overwhelming nature such as neglect, mistreatment and abuse could prevent the development of an integrated personality, especially if the first traumatic experiences occur before the age of five. Instead, there could be an encapsulation of memory content and changing identities. According to their authors, the results of targeted brain research in this area have supported the hypothesis. Therefore, DID is usually viewed as a trauma-related disorder. Among other models, the ego state model and the structural dissociation model are based on this explanatory approach. The German, European and international treatment guidelines assume a traumatic genesis.

Sociocognitive, iatrogenic genesis

Some authors have seen inconsistencies related to the disorder:

  • Very few children would have received this diagnosis, although the disease could appear from the age of three.
  • Identities appeared in the form of animals or mythical creatures.
  • In the course of therapy, and in general up to the 1990s, there was an increase in the number of respective identities per person.
  • Falsified memories , such as pseudo-memories, have been documented since the 1990s.

Some authors concluded that therapeutic suggestion could play a crucial role in causing the disorder. In contrast, no study with a clinical population supports the hypothesis of a sociocognitive, iatrogenic origin. Because such studies are not possible for methodological and ethical reasons, it has often been investigated whether simulated dissociation is possible. The results were positive and were understood to further support the model of sociocognitive genesis of the disorder.

Symptom picture

Affected people have changing identities, each with their own self-image and concept , for example regarding basic attitudes and feelings. In addition, there are memory gaps and symptoms similar to those of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Various other symptoms that are similar to those of other disorders are common and usually only improve if DID is included in their treatment. These include, in particular, depression , anxiety , sleep and eating disorders , addiction and obsessive-compulsive disorders , somatoform disorders , fearful-avoidant and borderline behavior. Striking differences between the individual identities are not uncommon; also the perceived age or gender, and the handwriting can differ. The overall symptom picture thus shows a particular range and variability. Furthermore, those affected generally do not perceive their identity change as such for a long time, but rather as unclear disorders. This is another reason why DID often goes undetected or misdiagnosed for a long time.

Neurobiology

The neurobiology of DID is examined using imaging methods, among other things.

The change of identity is accompanied by changes in physical values ​​of the autonomic nervous system (for example pulse, blood pressure, muscle tension, and visual acuity) and marked changes in the activity of the brain, as has been repeatedly demonstrated with imaging methods . Such investigations also showed differences between actual and played (simulated) DID. Certain anatomical abnormalities in the brain of people with DID have also been repeatedly identified and are being explored as a possible aid in individual diagnosis.

diagnosis

The diagnosis is made by collecting the medical history, possibly with personal and third- party anamnesis . It is considered demanding, also because part of the symptom picture is that the personality states are often only experienced separately and there is sometimes a tendency to hide them. This also increases the risk of a misdiagnosis.

If executive control over consciousness and behavior does not recur in different personality states, a dissociative disorder [conversion disorder], unspecified (F44.9), can be considered as a diagnosis.

Differential diagnosis

The differential diagnostic delimitation can appear complex and requires sufficient specialist knowledge. The following distinctions must be made with particular care:

  • Patients with a borderline disorder suffer from frequent mood swings , often without an externally recognizable cause, which at first glance can look like a change of identity. In addition, serious identity disorders are typical for the clinical picture.
  • Some forms of schizophrenia can also be similar to symptoms that are possible with DID. Some of these patients experience voices that comment on and observe their actions, which can also occur in the experience of co-conscious identities. However, unlike psychotic individuals, people with DID do not show Schneider's second-rate symptoms , and the first-rate symptoms do not have delusional quality or external localization.
  • The complex post-traumatic stress disorder shares the trauma genesis with the dissociative identity disorder and dissociative symptoms such as amnesia and depersonalization often occur . Conversely, DID is therefore often accompanied by PTSD-like symptoms.

treatment

psychotherapy

Art therapy is more often an aspect of treatment.

The therapy basically pursues the goal of increasing the quality of life through improved internal communication and cooperation, as well as, if desired, to support the integration of different personality states into one. The priorities of the therapeutic work should be:

  1. Stabilization and security
  2. Trauma processing to reduce the associated, PTSD-like symptoms
  3. Steps towards communication, cooperation and possible integration of personality states

Taking these priorities into account, the focus is on three areas:

  1. Reaction patterns to danger and trauma
  2. Interruptions, gaps and leaps in child and youth development
  3. Attachment and demarcation behavior

The subjective experience of one's own raison d'être of the active identity in a self-evident, non-apologetic way is the basis and connecting element of these fields and thus forms the prerequisite for a high quality of life. Psychotherapeutic methods used to treat DID include ego-state therapy and psychodynamic imaginative trauma therapy . The different identities are spoken directly. Skill training courses that take into account the specifics and needs of people with DID are also available. In the therapeutic approach, a distinction is made in particular between the age groups of up to four years old, four to eighteen year olds, and adults.

Pharmacotherapy

So far (as of 2020) there is no drug approved for the treatment of dissociative identity disorder. Existing research is of little informative value and further studies are needed. Any medication therefore takes place in the context of off-label use . It is based on both the individual symptoms and the individual reaction to the drug.

Prognosis and course

The individual restrictions vary greatly: some people with dissociative identities can achieve high academic and professional performance, sometimes even before they were diagnosed, while others attend specialized day care facilities. While adults are treated according to guidelines, their general level of functioning increases; good results can also be achieved in the treatment of children and adolescents.

history

Pierre Janet (1859–1947) is known for contributions to dissociation and psychotraumatology.

Discourses about dissociative identities were a frequent topic among French psychiatrists and philosophers from 1840 to 1880; a case from the 16th century was first analyzed in 1896 and then again in 1996. The concept of dissociation as the "disintegration and fragmentation of consciousness" was coined in 1889 by the French psychiatrist and founder of modern dynamic psychiatry Pierre Janet (1859-1947). He developed a theory about the processing of traumatic experiences, which is still influential to this day, and viewed the trauma response as a memory disruption that prevents the integration of traumatic memories into existing cognitive structures, which leads to dissociative amnesia via a separation of consciousness and volitional control . In this way, as early as 1889, Janet laid important foundations for understanding dissociation as such and thus also for modern psychotraumatology and therapy, which have largely been forgotten for almost 100 years.

In 1973 Sybil was published , a report written by the journalist Flora Rheta Schreiber about a patient with 16 personality states, which became a bestseller. Then several hundred people in the United States reported that they also had the disorder. In later years the book was viewed as an unreliable and misleading source because of certain methods used in it (drug addiction generation, electric shock) and the commercial interests of those involved.

classification

The plenary hall of the Palais des Nations , where the World Health Assembly usually meets.

Historically, dissociative disorders , including dissociative identity disorder, were subsumed under broader diagnoses. With the publication of the American Psychiatric Association's DSM- III in 1980, DID was first defined independently and with the diagnosis of multiple personality , before it was further developed into multiple personality disorder (DSM-III-R, 1987) and finally into dissociative identity disorder ( since DSM-IV, 1994).

The World Health Assembly, the highest decision-making body in the World Health Organization , is responsible for adopting new versions of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The disorder was recorded separately for the first time in this classification with the diagnosis of multiple personality disorder (first ICD-10 version, 1993), which was then renamed multiple personality (all later ICD-10 versions), and finally developed into dissociative identity disorder (ICD -11, decided in 2019, in force from 2022).

In the course of these changes, in addition to the mere designation, the diagnostic criteria have also developed, and a progression of the point of view is evident. The classification as a dissociative disorder, however, always remained constant, since the multiple personality disorder was also regarded as such and in particular not as a personality disorder.

Come into effect World health organization American Psychiatric Association
1980 DSM-III: multiple personality
1987 DSM-III-R: multiple personality disorder
1993 ICD-10: Multiple Personality Disorder
1994 DSM-IV: dissociative identity disorder
2000 DSM-IV-TR: dissociative identity disorder
2003 ICD-10: multiple personality
2013 DSM-5: Dissociative Identity Disorder
2022 ICD-11: Dissociative Identity Disorder

criticism

Several systematic reviews after 2006 came to the conclusion that the concept of the disease was largely based on a fad of the 1980s and 1990s, was scientifically insufficiently justified, and research interest had declined since then.

See also

Web links

Specialist literature

Guidelines

  • International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation: Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 12 , no. 2 , February 28, 2011, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 115–187 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.537247 (English). , PDF (accessed October 20, 2019)
  • International Society for the Study of Dissociation: Guidelines for the Evaluation and Treatment of Dissociative Symptoms in Children and Adolescents . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 5 , no. 3 , October 4, 2004, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 119–150 , doi : 10.1300 / J229v05n03_09 (English). , PDF (accessed October 20, 2019)
  • European Society for Trauma and Dissociation: Guidelines for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with dissociative symptoms and dissociative disorders . July 2017, p. 1-31 (English). , PDF (accessed October 20, 2019)

Introductions

  • MJ Dorahy, BL Brand, V. Sar, C. Krüger, P. Stavropoulos, A. Martínez-Taboas, R. Lewis-Fernández, W. Middleton: Dissociative identity disorder: An empirical overview. In: The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry. Volume 48, Number 5, May 2014, pp. 402-417, doi: 10.1177 / 0004867414527523 , PMID 24788904 (review).
  • BL Brand, RJ Loewenstein, D. Spiegel: Dispelling myths about dissociative identity disorder treatment: an empirically based approach. In: Psychiatry. Volume 77, number 2, 2014, pp. 169-189, doi: 10.1521 / psyc.2014.77.2.169 , PMID 24865199 (review).
  • Frank W. Putnam: Handbook of dissociative identity disorder: diagnosis and psychotherapeutic treatment. Probst, Lichtenau / Westphalia 2013, ISBN 978-3-9813389-9-7 .
  • Luise Reddemann : Dissoziation , in: T. Bronisch, L. Reddemann, M. Bohus, M. Dose, C. Unckel: Crisis intervention in personality disorders: therapeutic help in suicidality, self-harm, impulsiveness, fear and dissocation. Pfeiffer at Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-608-89688-0 . 4th edition. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-608-89096-9 , pp. 145-163.
  • Luise Reddemann , Arne Hofmann , Ursula Gast: Psychotherapy of dissociative disorders . 3rd, revised edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-13-130513-8 .

Reception in the media

The DIS can be found in films and books both as a mere means of story development and as a central theme. The representation in feature films is often described as unrealistic, which is criticized by professional and interest groups. Several autobiographical works have appeared, some of which had a significant influence on the general knowledge and public understanding of DIS.

Documentation

Autobiographies

  • Cameron West : First Person Plural: My Life As A Multiple , Hyperion, New York, 1999
    • German edition: first person plural. The story of my many personalities , List, Munich, 1999
  • Joan Frances Casey: The Flock , Random House Publishing, New York, 1991
    • German edition: I am many: An unusual healing story , Rowohlt Verlag, Reinbek, 1992
  • Truddi Chase : When Rabbit Howls , Berkley Books, New York, 1987
    • German edition: Aufschrei , Bastei Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach, 1988

Novels and short stories

  • Hannah C. Rosenblatt : written down , Edition Assemblage, Münster, 2019
  • Matt Ruff : Set This House in Order: A Romance of Souls , HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2003
    • German edition: Me and the others , Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich, 2004
  • Adriana Stern : Hannah and the Others , Argument Verlag, Hamburg, 2001
  • Daniel Keyes : The fifth Sally , Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 1980
    • German edition: The fifth Sally , Nymphenburger Verlag, Munich, 1983

Feature films and series

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k DSM-5 Task Force: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Ed .: American Psychiatric Association. 5th edition. American Psychiatric Association, Arlington, VA 2013, ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1 .
  2. ↑ a b c d e f The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders . World Health Organization .
  3. ↑ a b c d ICD-11 - Mortality and Morbidity Statistics. WHO, accessed April 6, 2019 .
  4. ↑ a b c World Health Organization: The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. World Health Organization, Geneva 1993, ISBN 92-4154455-4 , pp. 104 ( who.int [PDF]).
  5. ↑ a b World Health Organization: International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems . 10th revision, 2nd ed. Geneva 2004, ISBN 92-4154649-2 (English). World Health Organization: International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems . 10th revision, 5th ed. Geneva 2016, ISBN 978-92-4154916-5 , p.
     312 (English, who.int [PDF; accessed April 16, 2019]). World Health Organization: ICD-10 online versions. (No longer available online.) November 23, 2018, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2003 (Second Edition). (No longer available online.) 2003, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2004. (No longer available online.) 2004, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2005. (No longer available online.) 2005, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2006. (No longer available online.) 2006, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2007. (No longer available online.) 2007, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2008. 2008, accessed April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2010. 2010, accessed April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2014. 2014, accessed April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2015. (No longer available online.) 2015, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 . World Health Organization: ICD-10 2016. (No longer available online.) 2016, archived from the original on April 15, 2019 ; accessed on April 15, 2019 .










  6. ↑ a b Brigitte Bosse: Dissociative Identity Disorder - "We Are Many". Deutsches Ärzteblatt, PP, issue 6, June 2014, pp. 264–265.
  7. ↑ Luise Reddemann, Arne Hofmann , Ursula Gast (eds.): Psychotherapy of dissociative disorders: Disease models and therapeutic practice - disorder-specific and across schools . 3rd, revised edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-13-130513-8 .
  8. ^ Richard J. Loewenstein: Dissociation debates: everything you know is wrong . In: Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience . tape 20 , no. 3 , September 2018, ISSN  1294-8322 , p. 229-242 , PMID 30581293 , PMC 6296396 (free full text).
  9. ↑ a b c Bethany L. Brand, Vedat Şar , Pam Stavropoulos, Christa Krüger, Marilyn Korzekwa: Separating Fact from Fiction: An Empirical Examination of Six Myths About Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: Harvard Review of Psychiatry . tape 24 , no. 4 , July 2016, ISSN  1067-3229 , p. 257–270 , doi : 10.1097 / HRP.0000000000000100 , PMID 27384396 , PMC 4959824 (free full text).
  10. ↑ a b Martin J Dorahy, Bethany L. Brand, Vedat Şar, Christa Krüger, Pam Stavropoulos: Dissociative identity disorder: An empirical overview . In: Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry . tape 48 , no. 5 , May 2014, ISSN  0004-8674 , p. 402-417 , doi : 10.1177 / 0004867414527523 .
  11. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation : Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 12 , no. 2 , February 28, 2011, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 115-187 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.537247 . , PDF
  12. ↑ a b c d Ursula Gast, Frauke Rodewald, Arne Hofmann, Helga Mattheß, Ellert Nijenhuis, Luise Reddemann , Hinderk M. Emrich: The dissociative identity disorder - often misdiagnosed . In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt . tape 103 , no. 47 , 2006, ISSN  0012-1207 , p. A-3193 / B-2781 / C-2664 ( aerzteblatt.de [accessed on May 26, 2020]).
  13. ↑ International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation : Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 12 , no. 2 , February 28, 2011, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 125 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.537247 . , PDF
  14. ↑ International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation : Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 12 , no. 2 , February 28, 2011, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 122 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.537247 . , PDF
  15. ↑ a b Yolanda R. Schlumpf, Ellert RS Nijenhuis, Sima Chalavi, Ekaterina V. Weder, Eva Zimmermann: Dissociative part-dependent biopsychosocial reactions to backward masked angry and neutral faces: An fMRI study of dissociative identity disorder . In: NeuroImage: Clinical . tape 3 , July 12, 2013, ISSN  2213-1582 , p. 54–64 , doi : 10.1016 / j.nicl.2013.07.002 , PMID 24179849 , PMC 3791283 (free full text).
  16. ↑ a b c Yolanda R. Schlumpf, Antje ATS Reinders, Ellert RS Nijenhuis, Roger Luechinger, Matthias JP van Osch: Dissociative Part-Dependent Resting-State Activity in Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Controlled fMRI Perfusion Study . In: PLoS ONE . tape 9 , no. 6 , June 12, 2014, ISSN  1932-6203 , p. e98795 , doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0098795 , PMID 24922512 , PMC 4055615 (free full text) - ( plos.org [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  17. ^ A b Antje ATS Reinders, Antoon TM Willemsen, Eline M. Vissia, Herry PJ Vos, Johan A. den Boer: The Psychobiology of Authentic and Simulated Dissociative Personality States: The Full Monty . In: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease . tape 204 , no. 6 , June 2016, ISSN  0022-3018 , p. 445-457 , doi : 10.1097 / NMD.0000000000000522 , PMID 27120718 ( lww.com [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  18. ↑ Reinhard Plassmann, Harald Schickedanz: Dissociative Identity Disorders . In: PiD - Psychotherapy in Dialog . 18, No. 03, 2017, ISSN  1438-7026 , p. 89. doi : 10.1055 / s-0043-111262 .
  19. ↑ Psychotherapy of dissociative disorders: disease models and therapy practice - disorder-specific and cross-school , Luise Reddemann, Arne Hofmann, Ursula Gast, 3rd, revised. Edition, Thieme, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-13-130513-8 , p. 25.
  20. ↑ a b c d European Society for Trauma and Dissociation: Guidelines for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with dissociative symptoms and dissociative disorders . July 2017, p. 1-31 (English). , PDF (accessed October 20, 2019)
  21. ^ A b International Society for the Study of Dissociation: Guidelines for the Evaluation and Treatment of Dissociative Symptoms in Children and Adolescents . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 5 , no. 3 , October 4, 2004, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 119–150 , doi : 10.1300 / J229v05n03_09 (English).
  22. ↑ Expert recommendation for the treatment of dissociative identity disorder (DID) in adults . In: German-speaking Society for Psychotraumatology , Society for Psychotraumatology, Trauma Therapy and Violence Research (Ed.): Trauma & Violence . 8th year, no. 1 . Klett-Cotta, February 2014, ISSN  1863-7167 , p. 7-71 .
  23. ↑ August Piper, Harold Merskey: The Persistence of Folly: Critical Examination of Dissociative Identity Disorder. Part II. The Defense and Decline of Multiple Personality or Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry . tape 49 , no. October 10 , 2004, ISSN  0706-7437 , p. 678-683 , doi : 10.1177 / 070674370404901005 ( sagepub.com [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  24. ^ A b Guy A. Boysen: The scientific status of childhood dissociative identity disorder: a review of published research . In: Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics . tape 80 , no. 6 , 2011, ISSN  1423-0348 , p. 329-334 , doi : 10.1159 / 000323403 , PMID 21829044 .
  25. ↑ Steven Jay Lynn, Scott O. Lilienfeld, Harald Merckelbach, Timo Giesbrecht, Dalena van der Kloet: Dissociation and Dissociative Disorders: Challenging Conventional Wisdom . In: Current Directions in Psychological Science . tape 21 , no. 1 , February 2012, ISSN  0963-7214 , p. 48-53 , doi : 10.1177 / 0963721411429457 ( sagepub.com [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  26. ^ A b Guy A. Boysen, Alexandra VanBergen: A review of published research on adult dissociative identity disorder: 2000-2010 . In: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease . tape 201 , no. 1 , January 2013, ISSN  1539-736X , p. 5-11 , doi : 10.1097 / NMD.0b013e31827aaf81 , PMID 23274288 . PDF .
  27. ↑ Bethany L. Brand, Vedat Şar , Pam Stavropoulos, Christa Krüger, Marilyn Korzekwa: Separating Fact from Fiction: An Empirical Examination of Six Myths About Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: Harvard Review of Psychiatry . tape 24 , no. 4 , July 2016, ISSN  1067-3229 , p. 262 , doi : 10.1097 / HRP.0000000000000100 , PMID 27384396 , PMC 4959824 (free full text): "Dissociation predicted only 1% -3% of the variance in suggestibility, thereby disproving the fantasy model's notion that dissociative individuals are highly suggestible. Despite the concerns of fantasy model theorists that DID is iatrogenically created, no study in any clinical population supports the fantasy model of dissociation. "
  28. ^ A b Guy A. Boysen, Alexandra VanBergen: Simulation of multiple personalities: a review of research comparing diagnosed and simulated dissociative identity disorder . In: Clinical Psychology Review . tape 34 , no. 1 , February 2014, ISSN  1873-7811 , p. 14-28 , doi : 10.1016 / j.cpr.2013.10.008 , PMID 24291657 .
  29. ^ A b Paul F. Dell, John A. O'Neil: Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond . Routledge, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-415-95785-4 .
  30. ↑ International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation : Guidelines for Treating Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults, Third Revision . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 12 , no. 2 , February 28, 2011, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 122 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.537247 . , PDF
  31. ^ Paul F. Dell, John A. O'Neil: Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond . Routledge, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-415-95785-4 , pp. 301 .
  32. ^ European Society for Trauma and Dissociation: Guidelines for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with dissociative symptoms and dissociative disorders . July 2017, p. 5 (English). , PDF (accessed October 20, 2019)
  33. ^ Colin A. Ross, When to Suspect and How to Diagnose Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: Journal of EMDR Practice and Research . tape 9 , no. 2 , 2015, ISSN  1933-3196 , p. 114–120 , doi : 10.1891 / 1933-3196.9.2.114 ( springerpub.com [accessed October 23, 2019]).
  34. ↑ A. a. TS Reinders, ERS Nijenhuis, AMJ Paans, J. Korf, ATM Willemsen: One brain, two selves . In: NeuroImage . tape 20 , no. 4 , December 2003, ISSN  1053-8119 , p. 2119–2125 , doi : 10.1016 / j.neuroimage.2003.08.021 , PMID 14683715 .
  35. ↑ AAT Simone Reinders, Ellert RS Nijenhuis, Jacqueline Quak, Jakob Korf, Jaap Haaksma: Psychobiological characteristics of dissociative identity disorder: a symptom provocation study . In: Biological Psychiatry . tape 60 , no. 7 , October 1, 2006, ISSN  0006-3223 , p. 730-740 , doi : 10.1016 / j.biopsych.2005.12.019 , PMID 17008145 .
  36. ↑ Antje ATS Reinders, Antoon TM Willemsen, Johan A. den Boer, Herry PJ Vos, Dick J. Veltman: Opposite brain emotion-regulation patterns in identity states of dissociative identity disorder: a PET study and neurobiological model . In: Psychiatry Research . tape 223 , no. 3 , September 30, 2014, ISSN  1872-7123 , p. 236-243 , doi : 10.1016 / j.pscychresns.2014.05.005 , PMID 24976633 .
  37. ↑ AAT Simone Reinders, Antoon TM Willemsen, Herry PJ Vos, Johan A. den Boer, Ellert RS Nijenhuis: Fact or Factitious? A Psychobiological Study of Authentic and Simulated Dissociative Identity States . In: PLoS ONE . tape 7 , no. 6 , June 29, 2012, ISSN  1932-6203 , p. e39279 , doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0039279 , PMID 22768068 , PMC 3387157 (free full text).
  38. ↑ Eric Vermetten, Christian Schmahl, Sanneke Lindner, Richard J. Loewenstein, J. Douglas Bremner: Hippocampal and Amygdalar Volumes in Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: American Journal of Psychiatry . tape 163 , no. 4 , April 2006, ISSN  0002-953X , p. 630–636 , doi : 10.1176 / ajp.2006.163.4.630 , PMID 16585437 , PMC 3233754 (free full text) - ( psychiatryonline.org [accessed May 17, 2020]).
  39. ↑ Sima Chalavi, Eline M. Vissia, Mechteld E. Giesen, Ellert RS Nijenhuis, Nel Draijer: Abnormal hippocampal morphology in dissociative identity disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder correlates with childhood trauma and dissociative symptoms: Hippocampal morphology in DID and PTSD . In: Human Brain Mapping . tape 36 , no. 5 , May 2015, p. 1692–1704 , doi : 10.1002 / hbm.22730 , PMID 25545784 , PMC 4400262 (free full text) - ( wiley.com [accessed May 17, 2020]).
  40. Jump up ↑ Antje ATS Reinders, Andre F. Marquand, Yolanda R. Schlumpf, Sima Chalavi, Eline M. Vissia: Aiding the diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder: pattern recognition study of brain biomarkers . In: The British Journal of Psychiatry . December 7, 2018, ISSN  0007-1250 , p. 1–9 , doi : 10.1192 / bjp.2018.255 ( cambridge.org [accessed July 23, 2019]).
  41. ↑ a b c Bessy Albrecht-Ross: The will to live: Questions about the good life in people with dissociative identity disorder . Tectum Verlag, Marburg 2017, ISBN 3-8288-3921-5 .
  42. ^ Vedat Şar: The Many Faces of Dissociation: Opportunities for Innovative Research in Psychiatry . In: Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience . tape 12 , no. 3 , December 2014, ISSN  1738-1088 , p. 171–179 , doi : 10.9758 / cpn.2014.12.3.171 , PMID 25598819 , PMC 4293161 (free full text).
  43. ↑ Geoffrey M. Reed, Michael B. First, Cary S. Kogan, Steven E. Hyman, Oye Gureje: Innovations and changes in the ICD-11 classification of mental, behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders: Innovations and changes in the ICD-11 classification of mental, behavioral and neurodevelopmental disorders . In: World Psychiatry . tape 18 , no. 1 , February 2019, p. 3–19 , doi : 10.1002 / wps.20611 , PMID 30600616 , PMC 6313247 (free full text).
  44. ↑ a b Bethany L. Brand, Amie C. Myrick, Richard J. Loewenstein, Catherine C. Classen, Ruth Lanius: A survey of practices and recommended treatment interventions among expert therapists treating patients with dissociative identity disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified. In: Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy . tape 4 , no. 5 , 2012, ISSN  1942-969X , p. 490-500 , doi : 10.1037 / a0026487 ( apa.org [accessed July 30, 2019]).
  45. ↑ Boon, Steele, van der Hart: Coping with trauma-related dissociation: skills training for patients and their therapists . 1st ed. WW Norton, New York 2011, ISBN 978-0-393-70646-8 .
  46. ↑ Bethany L. Brand, Ruth Lanius, Eric Vermetten, Richard J. Loewenstein, David Spiegel: Where Are We Going? An Update on Assessment, Treatment, and Neurobiological Research in Dissociative Disorders as We Move Toward the DSM-5 . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 13 , no. 1 , January 2012, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 9–31 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2011.620687 ( tandfonline.com [accessed July 30, 2019]).
  47. ^ Julie P. Gentile, Kristy S. Dillon, Paulette Marie Gillig: Psychotherapy and Pharmacotherapy for Patients with Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience . tape 10 , no. 2 , February 2013, ISSN  2158-8333 , p. 22-29 , PMID 23556139 , PMC 3615506 (free full text).
  48. ↑ Bessy Albrecht-Ross: The will to live: Questions about the good life in people with dissociative identity disorder . Tectum Verlag, Marburg 2017, ISBN 3-8288-3921-5 , p. 95 .
  49. ↑ a b Heike Schwarz: Beware of the other side (s): multiple personality disorder and dissociative identity disorder in American fiction ( English ) (= American Culture Studies). transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-2488-9 , pp. 185-192.
  50. ↑ Jane Wegscheider Hyman: I Am More Than One: How Women with Dissociative Identity Disorder Have Found Success in Life and Work . McGraw-Hill, New York 2007, ISBN 0-07-146257-0 (English).
  51. ^ Theresa M. Urbina, Tania May, Michelle Hastings: Navigating Undiagnosed Dissociative Identity Disorder in the Inpatient Setting: A Case Report . In: Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association . tape 23 , no. 3 , May 2017, ISSN  1078-3903 , p. 223-229 , doi : 10.1177 / 1078390317705448 ( sagepub.com [accessed February 29, 2020]).
  52. ↑ Vielseits GmbH (Ed.): VIELSEITS - The first four years: Interior views of a pioneering project . Report. Stuttgart (112 pp.).
  53. ↑ Gaby Breitenbach: Vielseits GmbH. Management of Vielseits GmbH, 2014, accessed on February 29, 2020 .
  54. ↑ Bethany Brand, Richard J. Loewenstein: Does Phasic Trauma Treatment Make Patients With Dissociative Identity Disorder Treatment More Dissociative? In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 15 , no. 1 , January 2014, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 61 , doi : 10.1080 / 15299732.2013.828150 (English, tandfonline.com [accessed on February 29, 2020]): “this study, as well as every empirical study of DID treatment published in English to date, finds that DID patients benefit from the type of treatment based on the ISSTD (2011) guidelines ”
  55. ^ Onno van der Hart, Rutger Horst: The dissociation theory of Pierre Janet . In: Journal of Traumatic Stress . tape 2 , no. 4 , October 1989, p. 397-412 , doi : 10.1002 / jts.2490020405 ( wiley.com [accessed June 4, 2020]).
  56. ^ Onno van der Hart, Ruth Lierens, Jean Goodwin: Jeanne Fery: A Sixteenth-Century Case of Dissociative Identity Disorder . In: The Journal of Psychohistory . tape 24 , no. 1 , 1996, OCLC 2428996 , pp. 18–35 , PMID 11616278 (English, archive.org [PDF; accessed on May 26, 2020]).
  57. ↑ Pierre Janet: L'automatisme psychologique . Société Pierre Janet, 1973 (first edition: Félix Alcan, Paris 1889). According to: Ursula Gast, Frauke Rodewald, Arne Hofmann, Helga Mattheß, Ellert Nijenhuis, Luise Reddemann , Hinderk M. Emrich: The dissociative identity disorder - often misdiagnosed . In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt . tape 103 , no. 47 , 2006, ISSN  0012-1207 , p. A-3193 / B-2781 / C-2664 ( aerzteblatt.de [accessed on May 26, 2020]).
  58. ↑ Michaela Huber: Overcoming the phobia of trauma. (PDF) A conversation with Onno van der Hart. 2006, pp. 1–17 , archived from the original on December 6, 2018 ; accessed on May 27, 2020 .
  59. ^ Gerhard Heim, Karl-Ernst Bühler: The return of the forgotten: To the history of PTSD . In: Brücher, Poltrum (Hrsg.): Psychiatrische Diagnostik: for the critique of diagnostic reason . Parodos Verlag, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-938880-55-5 , pp. 87-104 .
  60. ↑ Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen: Making minds and madness: from hysteria to depression . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 2009, ISBN 978-0-521-88863-9 , pp. 64 ff .
  61. ^ Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics: DSM-II: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Second Edition . Ed .: American Psychiatric Association. Washington, DC 1968, LCCN  68-026515 , p. 40 (English).
  62. ^ J. van Drimmelen, N. Sartorius , A. L'Hours, A. Bertelsen: The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders: Conversion Tables Between ICD-8, ICD-9, and ICD-10 . Ed .: World Health Organization, Division of Mental Health. 1st edition. Geneva 1994, WHO / MNH / 92.16.Rev . 1, p. 53–54 (English, who.int [PDF; accessed June 4, 2020]).
  63. ↑ a b c d Luise Reddemann , Arne Hofmann, Ursula Gast: Psychotherapy of dissociative disorders . 3rd, revised edition. Thieme, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-13-130513-8 , pp. 24-25.
  64. ^ Task Force on Nomenclature and Statistics: DSM-III: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition . Ed .: American Psychiatric Association. Washington, DC 1980, LCCN  79-055868 , p. 257-259 (English).
  65. ^ A b Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-III-R . American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC 1987, ISBN 0-89042-018-1 , pp. 269-272.
  66. ^ A b David Spiegel, Richard J. Loewenstein, Roberto Lewis-Fernández, Vedat Sar, Daphne Simeon: Dissociative disorders in DSM-5 . In: Depression and Anxiety . tape 28 , no. 9 , September 2011, p. 824-852 , doi : 10.1002 / da.20874 .
  67. ↑ a b World Health Organization: The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. World Health Organization, Geneva 1992, ISBN 92-4154422-8 , pp. 160 ( who.int [PDF]).
  68. ↑ ICD-11 adopted by the WHA. Retrieved November 29, 2019 .
  69. ↑ Harrison G. Pope Jr., Steven Barry, Alexander Bodkin, James I. Hudson: Tracking Scientific Interest in the Dissociative Disorders: A Study of Scientific Publication Output 1984-2003 . In: Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics . tape 75 , no. 1 , 2006, ISSN  0033-3190 , p. 19–24 , doi : 10.1159 / 000089223 ( karger.com [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  70. ↑ Joel Paris: The Rise and Fall of Dissociative Identity Disorder: . In: The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease . tape 200 , no. December 12 , 2012, ISSN  0022-3018 , p. 1076-1079 , doi : 10.1097 / NMD.0b013e318275d285 ( lww.com [accessed May 15, 2020]).
  71. ↑ Michaela Huber : To be many. A manual: Complex trauma and dissociative identity - understand, change, treat . Junfermann, Paderborn 2011, ISBN 978-3-87387-782-5 .
  72. ^ Johanna Tränkner: The many faces of dissociation: Offers for those affected and experts on the Internet . In: PiD - Psychotherapy in Dialog . tape 18 , no. 03 , 2017, ISSN  1438-7026 , p. 101-103 , doi : 10.1055 / s-0043-111302 ( thieme-connect.de [accessed on April 8, 2019]).
  73. ^ Hannah Kathryn Merry: Fictional representations of dissociative identity disorder in contemporary American fiction . June 2017 ( keele.ac.uk [accessed July 29, 2019] Keele University).
  74. ↑ Heike Schwarz: Beware of the other side (s): multiple personality disorder and dissociative identity disorder in American fiction ( English ) (= American Culture Studies). transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-2488-9 .
  75. ^ A b Lisa D. Butler, Oxana Palesh: Spellbound: Dissociation in the Movies . In: Journal of Trauma & Dissociation . tape 5 , no. 2 , July 13, 2004, ISSN  1529-9732 , p. 61–87 , doi : 10.1300 / J229v05n02_04 ( tandfonline.com [accessed July 29, 2019]).
  76. ↑ Aleksandar Damjanović, Olivera Vuković, Aleksandar A. Jovanović, Miroslava Jašović-Gašić: Psychiatry and movies . In: Psychiatria Danubina . tape 21 , no. 2 , March 21, 2009, ISSN  0353-5053 , p. 230-235 ( srce.hr [accessed July 29, 2019]).
  77. ^ Hannah Kathryn Merry: Fictional representations of dissociative identity disorder in contemporary American fiction . June 2017, p. 11 ( keele.ac.uk [accessed July 29, 2019] Keele University).
  78. ↑ a b ISSTD Statement on the Movie “Split” | ISSTD News. Retrieved July 29, 2019 (American English).
  79. ^ SANE Australia speaks out against Split movie. Retrieved July 29, 2019 .
  80. ↑ a b Heike Schwarz: Beware of the other side (s): multiple personality disorder and dissociative identity disorder in American fiction ( English ) (= American Culture Studies). transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-2488-9 , p. 173.
  81. ↑ Multiple personality: Our best friend saved us. October 15, 2019, accessed October 15, 2019 .
  82. ↑ Multiple Personality: Q&A on Dissociative Identity Disorder. November 5, 2019, accessed May 26, 2020 .
  83. ↑ Multiple personality / DIS: Q&A with therapist. November 12, 2019, accessed May 26, 2020 .
  84. ↑ BBC Radio 1 - Radio 1 Stories, The Lives I Lead: My Multiple Personalities. June 29, 2018, Retrieved July 30, 2019 (UK English).
  85. ^ Dissociative Identity Disorder Documentary: The Lives I Lead | BBC Radio June 1 , 2018, accessed July 30, 2019 (UK English).
  86. ↑ Bayerischer Rundfunk Internet: Kathrin Hasselbeck / Broadcast: Prisca Straub: Multiple personality: "I am many!" February 20, 2013, accessed October 15, 2019 .
  87. ↑ Heike Schwarz: Beware of the other side (s): multiple personality disorder and dissociative identity disorder in American fiction ( English ) (= American Culture Studies). transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-2488-9 , pp. 179-185.
  88. ↑ Michael Zirkler: Knowledge, learning, reality: systemic-constructivist theories and their significance for teaching, learning and counseling . Hamburg January 1, 2001, p. 234 ( uni-hamburg.de [accessed on May 26, 2020]).
  89. ^ Sue N. Elkind: With the Troops . In: The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal . tape 8 , no. 3 , March 1989, p. 29–44 , doi : 10.1525 / young.1.1989.8.3.29 .
  90. ↑ Mithu Sanyal: "written down" by HC Rosenblatt. In: Book of the week. WDR, April 12, 2019, accessed on February 28, 2020 .
  91. ↑ Barbara Schecher, David Doell: witnesses as solidarity. Review. In: GDR - Interior Views in Literature. Kritisch-lesen.de, October 8, 2019, pp. 40–42 , accessed on May 26, 2020 .
  92. ↑ Kerry Fried: Cheaper by the Dozen . In: The New York Times . March 23, 2003, ISSN  0362-4331 ( nytimes.com [accessed May 26, 2020]).
  93. ↑ Ann L. Hackman: Set This House in Order: A Romance of Souls . In: Psychiatric Services . tape 54 , no. December 12 , 2003, ISSN  1075-2730 , pp. 1660 , doi : 10.1176 / appi.ps.54.12.1660 ( psychiatryonline.org [accessed May 26, 2020]).
  94. ^ What If It Works? Movie. Retrieved on August 2, 2019 .
  95. ^ What If It Works? Retrieved August 2, 2019 .
  96. ^ TJ Lustig, James Peacock: Diseases and disorders in contemporary fiction: the syndrome syndrome . In: Routledge Studies in Contemporary Literature . Taylor & Francis, New York, USA 2013, ISBN 978-0-415-50740-0 , pp. 184 (English).
  97. ↑ Frankie & Alice. Retrieved September 14, 2019 .