Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy

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View of the eastern part of the Holy Mosque in Mecca. The Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy with clearly visible minaret is located on the right behind the Kaaba .

The Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy ( Arabic مدرسة الأشرف قائتباي, DMG Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy ) or madrasa Aschrafīya in Mecca was a four Madhhab - madrasa near the Holy Mosque . The establishment, which included a sabīl , a minaret , a ribāt and a library , was donated by the Mamluk sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy (r. 1468-1496), who also attended its ceremonial opening in February 1480 . The maintenance of the facility, in which students, Sufis and the needy could live, was served by several tenement houses and villages in Egypt, the income of which was regularly transferred to Mecca. The Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy was the last school that was founded by the Egyptian Mamluks in Mecca, but lost its function as an educational institution shortly after the death of its founder. During the time of the Ottoman rule over Mecca, it mainly served as a hostel for the leaders of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan and other high-ranking personalities. The great importance that the building of the madrasa had in the general perception of the city of Mecca is reflected in the fact that it appears on many pictorial representations of the Holy Mosque from the 16th to 18th centuries. Century is mentioned by name. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the building served as a residential building. In 1956 it was demolished when the Holy Mosque was enlarged.

Position and description

Floor plan of the Holy Mosque from 1946. The premises of Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy were located between Bāb as-Salām (No. 31) and Bāb an-Nabī (No. 33).

The building complex of the madrasa was located on the eastern side of the Holy Mosque between the mosque courtyard, the Bāb as-Salām ("Peace Gate"), the Bāb an-Nabī ("Prophet's Gate") and the Masʿā, i.e. the route between as-Safā and al-Marwa , which was also the straightest, longest and best-built street in Mecca. The western front was directly adjacent to the eastern portico of the Holy Mosque; From the windows on this side one had a direct view of the mosque courtyard and the Kaaba, giving the building an enormously privileged position.

The Madrasat al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy around 1700, seen from the east. On the left side of the minaret the Ribāt with the Sabīl , on the right side the actual madrasa.

The building complex included a sabīl with cistern , a ribāt with 72 living cells, an elementary school ( maktab ), a device for ritual washing ( mīḍāʾa ) and a minaret . According to Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī, the actual madrasa consisted of a meeting room ( maǧmaʿ ), which was clad with colored marble and had a gilded ceiling. The Ribāt was on the side of the Bāb an-Nabī, the actual school building on the side of the Bāb as-Salām. The Sabīl, which was very large and where water was given out for the general public, was on the Ribāt. The cistern was directly below, had an area of ​​14 × 14 meters and was 6 meters deep. The Koran school was located directly above the Sabīl.

The building was 33 meters long and three stories high on the western side facing the Masʿā. The length of the northern front was 28.5 meters, that of the western front 30 meters and that of the northern front 19 meters. In the middle of the western front was a gate with an entrance hall ( fasaḥa ), which was artistically decorated with trumpets . The minaret was just above this entrance gate. On the sides of the entrance was a building in which the Koran verse quotes Sura 9:18 ("The places of worship of God should be preserved by those who believe in God and the Last Day, perform prayer and pay zakāt [...]") and it was pointed out that Sultan Qā'itbāy had ordered the establishment of the madrasa.

According to the descriptions of the last occupants of the building, if one went through the entrance gate of the madrasa, one came to a corridor ( dihlīz ), which was covered with a wooden roof, but was uncovered in the middle of the building and there branched to the right and left. If you went straight on, you came down stairs to a passage to the courtyard of the Holy Mosque. However, this gate was usually locked on the mosque side. To the north, the corridor opened to an atrium ( fināʾ ) with a Īwān , which was preceded by a pointed arch. This Īwān, mentioned in the earliest descriptions of the building, was covered with a decorated wooden roof and its floor was made of colored marble. The cells each inhabited by one person, of which there were originally 72, had an area of ​​no more than 1.5 by 2 meters.

Establishment and opening

The builder of the madrasa was the Egyptian Sultan al-Malik al-Ashraf Qā'itbāy from the Burjiyya dynasty , who had already shown great interest in Mecca and carried out various construction projects in the Holy City. In 874 (= 1469/70 AD) he had already renewed the Chaif ​​mosque in Minā and then had the Nimra mosque in ʿArafāt repaired, in 879 (= 1474/75) sent a new minbar to Mecca and 881 (= 1476/77) had the rafters repaired on the eastern hall of the Holy Mosque and the marble slabs of the hijr on the Kaaba . In Cairo he had also built a tomb mosque from 1472 to 1474 .

In the year 882 (= 1477/78) Qā'itbāy commissioned his agent and dealer al-Chawādscha Shams ad-Dīn Muhammad ibn ʿUmar, who was known under the name Ibn az-Zamin, and his builder Amīr Sunqur al-Jamālī, a place with a view of the Holy Mosque in order to build a school for the four Sunni law schools and a ribāt in which the poor ( fuqarāʾ ) could live. Several rental apartments ( rubūʿ ) and covered rooms ( musaqqafāt ) should be built to maintain the two facilities . The institution's teachers were to be paid from their rental income. In order to have space for the two new facilities, the two representatives of the Sultan purchased a piece of land on the east side of the Holy Mosque on which three buildings stood, namely the Ribāt as-Sidra, the Ribāt al-Marāghī (also known as Ribāt al-Qailānī ) and the house of Scherifin Schamsīya. The two ribāte were acquired by Istibdāl (exchange of Waqf property), and the Sherifin's house was acquired by purchase. The demolition of the three buildings was completed at the end of 883 (= spring 1479).

The construction of the new building complex was already relatively far advanced in Ramadan 883. However, on Ramadan 15, 883 (= December 10, 1478), after heavy rain, a great flood occurred in Mecca in which the cistern of the madrasa overflowed with water and the water finally stood up to the height of the windows on the ground floor of the building. Above the entrance gate that faced the Maseteā, Sunqur al-Jamālī artfully built a three-story minaret that looked like the minaret of the minaret of the Chaif ​​Mosque in Minā, which he also built. Sunqur al-Jamālī also built two tenement houses to maintain the facility. One of them was at Bāb as-Salām, the other on Bāb al-Harīrīyīn. When the Sultan made a pilgrimage to Mecca in February 1480 , he was able to stay in his newly built madrasa.

The ceremonial opening of the facility took place after the end of the pilgrimage rites on 13th Dhū l-Hiddscha 884 (= 25 February 1480) in the presence of all the great dignitaries of the city. On this occasion the Sultan took part in a common recitation of the Koran and afterwards handed over food.

Job equipment and financing

At the opening ceremony of the school, its various officials were also installed. The Sultan appointed four sheikhs or teachers for the four Sunni schools. The chairs in question were given to the four Qādīs who held the jurisdiction in the city at that time. Qā'itbāy also hired 40 students ( ṭalaba ) from among the residents of Mecca to be present every day. The teachers had to meet and teach the students of their madhhab on the day of the class. The school was also equipped with a Kātib Ghaiba, a secretary who registered the absence of students. The Qādī Burhān ad-Dīn Ibn Zahīra acted as sheikh of the entire institution. In addition, the Sultan appointed a separate sheikh for the Ribāt. The Meccan historian ʿUmar Ibn Fahd mentions that the Ribāt also had his own administrator ( nāẓir ). The former was Shams ad-Dīn al-Masīrī, the latter Fachr ad-Dīn Abū Bakr Ibn Zahīra.

In addition, the facility's staff included six Koran reciters, two room servants ( farrāš ), a doorman ( bauwāb ), a candle lighter ( waqqād ), an ink maker ( ḥabbār ), three callers to prayer and a water scoop for the Sabīl fountain. The sultan took ten or, as Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī writes, 40 orphans into the Koran school, who were taught by a legal scholar ( faqīh ). The ruler also sent a collection of books ( ḫizānat kutub ) for the students of the madrasa, which was set up in the school and administered by a paid librarian. By the middle of the 16th century, when many volumes had already been lost, this collection still comprised 300 books.

The new facility also served as a residence for Sufis , the poor ( fuqarāʾ ), the needy ( maḥāwī und ) and the destitute. In the Ribāt, in addition to students and poor people, non-residents ( ġurabāʾ ) were also accommodated. The Sultan set a daily ration of bread and a daschisha meal for all of the named persons. The incumbents received an additional annual payment in gold.

Obviously the school also had a ceremonial function. Qutb al-Dīn an-Nahrawālī reports that on the orders of the Sultan Qā'itbāy, a Koran recitation was held for him every day in the presence of the four Qādīs and the Sufis of the city. For this recitation ceremony, which the Sultan had already carried out when the school opened, the six Koran reciters were also required. During the recitation ceremony , sheets of paper were used on which the individual sections ( aǧzāʾ ) of the Koran were written in golden ink in very fine Thuluth script . These arches were kept in a precious container called Rabʿa. The Sheikh of the Madrasa, Burhān ad-Dīn Ibn Zahīra, acted as custodian of the Rabʿa and the copy of the Koran. Evidence shows that the recitation ceremony was continued until at least the year 942 (= 1535 AD) and the presence of the Qādīs was required. Possibly a recitation of the initially found regularly Saheeh al-Bukhari instead because 'Umar ibn Fahd mentioned under the facility personnel also Bukhari reciter ( qāri' al-Bukhari ).

An annual ration of wheat was set for the orphans and residents to supply the facility. To this end, the ruler of several villages in Egypt had donated whose returns were brought each year to Mecca. The upkeep of the school was secured by rental income from apartment blocks ( rubūʿ ), which had an approximate amount of 2,000 dinars per year. The stipulations regarding the meals and remuneration of the office holders and residents of the facility were recorded in a deed of foundation ( waqfīya ) at the opening . This deed of foundation remained with the Qādī Burhān ad-Dīn Ibn Zahīra. He also acted as a mediator when there were conflicts between different officials of the institution. After his death in November 1486, his relative, the Oberqādī Jamāl ad-Dīn Abū s-Suʿūd Ibn Ẓahīra, took over the position of Sheikh of the Madrasa. He was also the inspector of the Meccan haram ( nāẓir al-ḥaram ). The two seem to have lived in the madrasa, because the contemporary Meccan chronicler ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd mentions several times that they were visited there by other people.

The misappropriation as a hostel

The Ashrafiyah madrasah (No. 59) on an engraving by P.-G. Berthauld from 1787. The representation of the building is, however, incorrect.

From the end of the 15th century the Qā'itbāy madrasa was increasingly used for other purposes that had nothing to do with its function as a school. For example, marriages were made here by the Qadis, and the school was used to house Egyptian government officials. From 1507, during the pilgrimage season, the commanders of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan ( umarāʾ al-ḥaǧǧ ) came under more and more often . This type of use as the residence of the commanders of the pilgrim caravan ( maḥall iqāmat umarāʾ al-ḥaǧǧ ) continued after the Ottoman Empire took control of the holy places of the Hejaz . The Meccan chronicler Muhammad Ibn Fahd (d. 1547) mentions numerous stays of the leaders of the Egyptian pilgrim caravan in the Ashrafīya for the period between 1518 and 1538. Also as Qutb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī in 1558 with the Egyptian pilgrim caravan from his journey to On his return to Istanbul, the Amīr al-Hajj was housed in the Ashrafīya Madrasa by the Sherif Hasan ibn Abī Numaiy .

From 1517 the building also served as a place for the distribution of the dhachīra, an annual subsidy from the Egyptian state treasury , which was established by the Circassian Mamluks and was maintained under Ottoman rule. It benefited the poor of Mecca and the Arab sheikhs who performed police services on the pilgrimage route. From 1534, the commander of the Syrian pilgrim caravan ( amīr aš-Šāmī ) usually settled in the Aschrafīya as soon as his Egyptian counterpart had started his way back. In his 1571 History of the Ottoman Conquest of Yemen, Qutb ad-Dīn mentions several Ottoman officials who stayed at this school. In the 1550s and 1560s, the Aschrafīya Madrasa was often occupied by Ottoman officials or dignitaries during the pilgrimage season, so that the Egyptian Umarā 'al-Hajj had to move to other quarters contrary to their custom. During the pilgrimage of 1557, for example, Şahıhuban Sultan, the sister of Sultan Suleyman I , set up quarters here with a large retinue of Janissaries and servants. The Egyptian Amir al-Hajj, who had already established himself in the Ashrafiyah madrasa, was therefore moved out and moved to another house.

In this way the madrasa was transformed more and more from a place of science ( dār al-ʿilm ) to an inn ( dār aḍ-ḍiyāfa ). The madrasa seems to have lost its function as an educational institution just a few years after the death of its founder. The last references to teaching activities at this school come from the year 903 (= 1497/98 AD). That year, the Hanafi qādī was confirmed as a teacher by a decree from Egypt, and the orphan's educator ( muʾaddib al-aitām ) was punished for beating one of his students.

After all, the school still had a library until the 1530s. Qutb al-Dīn an-Nahrawālī , who was the librarian at the time, found her in very poor condition. As he reports, only a few volumes were left. However, he made sure that at least these were preserved, defects added and the bindings restored. He also reclaimed the books that belonged to her, where he found them, and took them back to the library. Overall, however, the school was in a deplorable state at that time, which was partly due to the fact that the payments from Egypt for the maintenance of the school had already fallen sharply. In his Mecca Chronicle, completed in 1577, he writes:

“This (sc. School complex of the Ashrafīya) still exists today, but the 'devourers' ( al-akala ) have seized those foundations, so that they have become very weak and are on the verge of ruin ( ḫarāb ). And the school has become the dwelling for the pilgrim commanders ( umarāʾ al-ḥāǧǧ ) who stay there during the feast days of Hajj , and the dwelling for other commanders when they come to Mecca during the year. And their foundations have become 'food' ( maʾkala ) for their administrators ( nuẓẓār ). God give a long life to those who revive them! "

- Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 226.

The expression 'devourer' ( al-akala ) here is probably an allusion to various passages from the Koran (Sura 2: 188, 4:29, 161) in which the believers are asked not to unlawfully consume their wealth among one another.

Pictorial representations in the 16th and 17th centuries

İznik tile in Istanbul
İznik tile in Baltimore
Illustration in the Kitāb-i Manāsik-i ḥaǧǧ, Berlin

The great importance of the Ashrafiyah madrasa in the general perception of the city of Mecca is reflected in a number of depictions of the Holy Mosque from the 16th to 18th centuries. Century that show the construction of the madrasa in the series of structures surrounding the mosque. These include:

  • a figure in Kitab-i Šauq-nama ( "Book of Longing") an illustrated Persian book by Sayyid Ali al-Husayni from the year 1559 on the three Heligen cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem, in the National Maritime Museum in Haifa kept becomes.
  • an Ottoman İznik decorative tile from the end of the 16th century in the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art in Istanbul, which was originally owned by Sultan Neslişah, the granddaughter of Sultan Bayezid II,
  • Another İznik decorative tile from the 17th century in the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore
  • an illustration in the Kitāb-i Manāsik-i ḥaǧǧ , an Ottoman didactic poem by Bachtī about the Manāsik from 1646, which is kept in the Berlin State Library .

The madrasa appears here at the bottom of the picture and is marked with the Arabic script Medrese-yi Qāytbāy . The building is folded down on the two decorative tiles.

Attempt to revive school operations towards the end of the 17th century

Towards the end of the 17th century, the Ashrafīya experienced a brief revival. This was due to the efforts of the Moroccan scholar Muhammad ibn Sulaimān ar-Rūdānī (d. 1683), who was appointed head of the foundations in Mecca by the Ottoman authorities in 1669. In 1672 ar-Rūdānī made an ambitious move to revive the religious institutions that had been founded and that had been misused by their rulers. The Ashrafiyah was among those institutions to which he paid special attention. With a decree signed by the Ottoman Qādī Mekkas, he expelled all residents of the Ashrafīya who did not meet the requirements specified in the deed of foundation from the building. In addition, he made sure that the apartments, which were used for the financial maintenance of the school, were re-let. In this way he was able to increase the annual income of the school's foundation from 600 to 4600 Qirsch . With this money he appointed four new teachers for the Ashrafīya, one each for the Shafiite, Hanafi and Maliki madhhab, and a fourth teacher who taught hadith to replace the missing Hanbali madhhab . These teachers received salaries of the amount Qutb al-Dīn an-Nahrawālī had mentioned in his history of Mecca for the first incumbents. However, the reform pursued by ar-Rūdānī was thwarted a year later (1673) by the Ottoman Qādī, who forbade him to pay out the income from the rented apartments to the teachers he had newly appointed, and ordered that the persons who had previously been granted of the proceeds of the foundations were restored to their old rights.

Therefore, the reform of the Moroccan scholar did not result in a permanent resumption of teaching activities in the Ashrafīya, but only had the effect that the residents of the building had better opportunities to enrich themselves. A comment by al-Isāmī (d. 1699) on Qutb al-Dīn's report on the reduced income of the Ashrafīya foundations is instructive in this regard . He writes there: “That was in the time of Qutb ad-Dīn, whereas today the income of the foundations has not weakened but multiplied. However, as the deceased (= Qutb ad-Dīn) has already said, the 'consuming administrators ( akalat an-nuẓẓār ) have usurped them . "

Later story

In 1814, when Jean Louis Burckhardt visited Mecca, the building of the Ashrafiyah madrasa was apparently still in good condition. Burckhardt describes it as a "handsome building" with 72 apartments. Towards the end of the Ottoman rule, the building came into the possession of the descendants of the Sherif Ghālib, who rented the apartments. The Meccan local historian ʿAbdallāh al-Ghāzī (d. 1945/46) writes about the situation of the madrasa at this time: “As far as (sc. The situation) is concerned at this time, the teaching has come to a standstill and the rabʿa is taking place only Jawa (sc. Muslims from the Malay Archipelago ) participate, who represent the beneficiaries (sc. des Waqf ). Most, and indeed all, allocated assets have been used up. ”Al-Ghāzī reports that in a few years the holders of the offices concerned will undertake things, but, as a representative of the institution said, this is no more than“ the ear of a sheep “( Min aš-šāt uḏnu-hā ). Due to the exploitation of the administrators and illegal appropriations by the state, the foundation assets had gotten into a state that was so ruinous that they could not be repaired.

The building complex of the madrasa has apparently undergone some changes over time. So the Ribāt was converted into a dwelling house ( rabʿ ). Its last residents, who were interviewed by ʿAdnān al-Hārithī in the early 1990s, reported that there were six rooms on the ground floor facing the Holy Mosque, which were called madāris ("schools"). There were also several small shops to the left and right of the entrance on the Masʿā side. The Sabīl, which is mentioned in the early sources, no longer existed at the beginning of the 20th century. During the first Saudi expansion of the Holy Mosque in 1956, the madrasa was finally completely torn down.

literature

Arabic sources (chronological)
  • Naǧm ad-Dīn ʿUmar ibn Muḥammad bin Fahd (d. 1480): Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . Ed. Fahīm Muḥammad Salṭūt. 5 vols. Ǧāmiʿat Umm-al-Qurā, Markaz al-Baḥṯ al-ʿIlmī wa-Iḥyāʾ at-Turāṯ al-Islāmī, Mecca, 1982–1990. Vol. IV, pp. 647f. Digitized
  • Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā Ibn al-Ǧīʿān (d. 1496): "Kitāb al-Maǧmūʿ aẓ-ẓarīf fī ḥiǧǧat al-muqām aš-šarīf". Ed. by Ḥamad al-Ǧāsir in al-ʿArab 10 (1976) 659-696.
  • Shams ad-Dīn as-Saḫāwī (d. 1497): aḍ-Ḍauʾ al-lāmiʿ fī aʿyān al-qarn at-tāsiʿ . Cairo, 1934-36. Reprint: Dār al-Ǧīl, Beirut, Vol. VI, p. 207. Digitized
  • ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿUmar Ibn Fahd (d. 1517): Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā. Ed. Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn b. Ḫalīl Ibrāhīm and others. 4 vols. Cairo 2005. Digitized
  • Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd (d. 1547): Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā li-takmilat Itḥāf al-warā. 2 vols. Ed. M. al-Ḥabī al-Hīla. Mecca 2000. Digitized
  • ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Ǧazīrī (d. 1570): Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama fī aḫbār al-ḥāǧǧ wa-ṭarīq Makka al-muʿaẓẓama . 2 vols. Dār al-kutub al-ʿilmīya, Beirut, 2002. Digitized
  • Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī (d. 1590): Kitāb al- Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . Ed. Ferdinand Wüstenfeld . Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1857. Digitized
  • Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: al-Barq al-Yamānī fī l-fatḥ al-ʿUṯmānī . Ed. H. al-āsir. Riyadh 1387/1967. P. 88f.
  • Muḥyī d-Dīn ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Shaiḫ al-ʿAidarūs (died 1628): an-Nūr as-sāfir ʿan aḫbār al-qarn al-ʿāšir. Dār Ṣādir, Beirut, 2001. p. 37. Digitized
  • ʿAlī ibn Tāǧ ad-Dīn as-Sinǧārī (d. 1713): Manāʾiḥ al-karam fī aḫbār Makka wa-l-bait wa-wulāt al-ḥaram. Ed. Ǧamīl ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad al-Miṣrī. 6 vols. Ǧāmiʿat Umm al-Qurā, Mecca, 1419/1998. Digitized
  • ʿAbdallāh Mirdād Abū l-Ḫair: al-Muḫtaṣar min kitāb Našr an-naur wa-z-zahr fī tarāǧim afāḍil Makka min al-qarn al-ʿāšir ilā l-qarn ar-rābiʿ ʿašar. Edited by Muḥammad Saʿīd al-ʿĀmūdī, and Aḥmad ʿAlī. 2nd Edition. ʿĀlam al-maʿrifa, Jeddah 1986. p. 267. Digitized
  • ʿAbdallāh ibn Muḥammad al-Ġāzī (d. 1945): Ifādat al-anām bi-aḫbār balad Allāh al-ḥarām . Ed. ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Duhaiš. Maktabat al-Asadī, Mekka, 2009. Vol. I, p. 382. Digitized
Secondary literature
  • Guy Burak: "Between Istanbul and Gujarat: Descriptions of Mecca in the Sixteenth-Century Indian Ocean" in Muqarnas 34 (2017) 287-320. Digitized
  • Patrick Franke : "Educational and Non-Educational Madrasas in Early Modern Mecca. A Survey Based on Local Literary Sources" in Zeitschrift der Morgenländische Gesellschaft 170 (2020) 77-106. Here pp. 87f, 91-93.
  • ʿAdnān Muḥammad Fāyiz al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 2 Vols. Mekka 1995. Vol. I, pp. 253-306. Digitized , Vol. III, digitized
  • Richard T. Mortel: "Madrasas in Mecca during the Medieval Period: A Descriptive Study based on Literary Sources" in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60/2 (1997) 236-252. Here pp. 249–251.
  • Amy Whittier Newhall: The patronage of the Mamluk Sultan Qaʾit Bay, 872-901 / 1468-1496 . Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard University, 1987. pp. 235-237.
  • Ferdinand Wüstenfeld : History of the city of Mecca, edited from the Arabic chronicles. FA Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1861. pp. 291f, 296. Digitized

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ See the map of the Egyptian land surveying office at al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. II, p. 7 .
  2. ^ Newhall: The patronage of the Mamluk Sultan Qaʾit Bay . 1987, pp. 235f.
  3. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 225.
  4. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, p. 269.
  5. ↑ al-ʿAidarūs: an-Nūr as-sāfir ʿan aḫbār al-qarn al-ʿāšir. 2001, p. 37.
  6. ↑ ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd al-Qādir aṭ-Ṭabarī: al-Araǧ al-miskī fī t-tārīḫ al-Makkī. Ed. Asraf Aḥmad al-Ǧammāl. Al-Maktaba at-Tiǧārīya, Mecca, 1416/1996. P. 82. Digitized
  7. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, p. 294.
  8. ↑ a b as-Saḫāwī: aḍ-Ḍauʾ al-lāmiʿ fī aʿyān al-qarn at-tāsiʿ . 1934-36. Vol. VI, p. 207.
  9. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, pp. 272f.
  10. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, pp. 278f, 281.
  11. ↑ al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama . 2002, p. 517.
  12. ↑ See al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. III, plate 82 .
  13. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 1330.
  14. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, p. 283.
  15. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, p. 289.
  16. ↑ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad aṣ-Ṣabbāġ: Taḥṣīl al-marām fī aḫbār al-bait al-ḥarām wa-l-mašāʿir al-ʿiẓām wa-Makka wa-l-ḥaram wa-wulātihā al-fuḫām . Ed. ʿAbd-al-Malik ibn ʿAbdallāh Ibn-Duhaiš. Mecca, 2004. pp. 389f. Digitized
  17. ↑ a b al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, pp. 290f, Vol. II. Figure 59 .
  18. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1988. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  19. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, p. 300.
  20. ↑ Wüstenfeld: History of the City of Mecca . 1861, pp. 290f.
  21. ↑ See Mortel: "Madrasas in Mecca during the Medieval Period". 1997, p. 249.
  22. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 225.
  23. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1988. Vol. IV, pp. 638f.
  24. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1988. Vol. IV, p. 634.
  25. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 426.
  26. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 226.
  27. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 234f.
  28. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1982-1990. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  29. ↑ So Ibn al-Ǧīʿān: “Kitāb al-Maǧmūʿ aẓ-ẓarīf”. 1976, p. 680.
  30. ↑ So Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, pp. 226, 225.
  31. ↑ a b c Ibn al-Ǧīʿān: "Kitāb al-Maǧmūʿ aẓ-ẓarīf". 1976, p. 681.
  32. ↑ a b c Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1982-1990. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  33. ↑ On this position, see Jonathan Porter Berkey: The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic Education . Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1992. pp. 74f.
  34. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 354.
  35. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1982-1990. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  36. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 226.
  37. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 225.
  38. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 226.
  39. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 225.
  40. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1982-1990. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  41. ↑ as-Sinǧārī: Manāʾiḥ al-karam . 1998, Vol. III, pp. 83f.
  42. ↑ Ibn Fahd: Itḥāf al-warā bi-aḫbār Umm al-Qurā . 1982-1990. Vol. IV, p. 648.
  43. ↑ Muḥammad Ibn Fahd: Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā . 2000, pp. 341, 600.
  44. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 226.
  45. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 235.
  46. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 307.
  47. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 514.
  48. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, pp. 307, 1050.
  49. ↑ al-Ḥāriṯī: ʿImārat al-madrasa fī Miṣr wa-l-Ḥiǧāz. 1995, Vol. I, pp. 270f.
  50. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, pp. 718, 1184.
  51. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, pp. 628, 802, 1009.
  52. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, pp. 1557, 1610, 1655f, 1710, 1819, 1877, 1930, 1967, 2021.
  53. ↑ So the expression in al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama . 2002, Vol. I, p. 508.
  54. ↑ Burak: "Between Istanbul and Gujarat". 2017, p. 306a.
  55. ↑ Muḥammad Ibn Fahd: Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā . 2000, pp. 97f, 198, 200, 202, 546, 557, 578, 734.
  56. ^ Richard Blackburn: Journey to the Sublime Porte: the Arabic memoir of a Sharifian agent's diplomatic mission to the Ottoman imperial court in the era of Suleyman the Magnificent; the relevant text from Quṭb al-Dīn al-Nahrawālī's al-Fawāʾid al-sanīyah fī al-riḥlah al-Madanīyah wa al-Rūmīyah . Ergon, Würzburg, 2005. p. 300. Digitized
  57. ↑ Muḥammad Ibn Fahd: Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā . 2000, pp. 32f, 548, 559, 592, 631, 737, 774.
  58. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, p. 285.
  59. ↑ Muḥammad Ibn Fahd: Kitāb Nail al-munā bi-ḏail Buluġ al-qirā . 2000, pp. 578, 636, 740, 780f.
  60. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: al-Barq al-Yamānī fī l-fatḥ al-ʿUṯmānī . 1967, 124, 157, 448f.
  61. ↑ al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama . 2002, Vol. I, pp. 567, 590, 598, 616f, 663.
  62. ↑ al-Ǧazīrī: Durar al-fawāʾid al-munaẓẓama . 2002, Vol. II, p. 491.
  63. ↑ Ibrāhīm Rifʿat Bāšā: Mirʾāt al-ḥaramain: au ar-riḥlāt al-Ḥigāzīya wa-l-ḥaǧǧ wa-mašāʿiruhū ad-dīnīya . Dār al-kutub al-Miṣrīya, Cairo, 1925. Vol. I, p. 242. Digitized
  64. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 1042.
  65. ↑ ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Ibn Fahd: Bulūġ al-qirā fī ḏail Itḥāf al-warā . 2005, p. 1050.
  66. ↑ Quṭb ad-Dīn an-Nahrawālī: Kitāb al-Iʿlām bi-aʿlām bait Allāh al-ḥarām . 1857, pp. 225f.
  67. ↑ Cf. Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje: Mekka. 1. From today's life . Nijhoff, Haag, 1889. p. 232. Fn. 1. Digitized
  68. ↑ See Burak: "Between Istanbul and Gujarat: Descriptions of Mecca". 2017, p. 299.
  69. ↑ See the description of the tile at Museum with no frontiers
  70. ^ Tile with the Great Mosque of Mecca Entry from the Walters Art Museum.
  71. ↑ For the metadata see here .
  72. ↑ Muḥammad al-Amīn ibn Faḍl Allāh al-Muḥibbī: Ḫulāṣat al-aṯar fī aʿyān al-qarn al-ḥādī ʿašar. 4 vols. Cairo 1284h (Reprint Beirut undated). Vol. IV, pp. 204-208. Digitized and ʿAbdallāh Mirdād Abū l-Ḫair: al-Muḫtaṣar min kitāb Našr an-naur wa-z-zahr fī tarāǧim afāḍil Makka min al-qarn al-ʿāšir ilā l-qarn ar-rābiʿ ʿašar. Edited by Muḥammad Saʿīd al-ʿĀmūdī, and Aḥmad ʿAlī. 2nd Edition. ʿĀlam al-maʿrifa, Jeddah 1986. pp. 431-434. Digitized
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  78. ^ John Lewis Burckhardt: Travels in Arabia . Henry Colburn, London, 1829. p. 214. Digitized
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