Mausoleum of Theodoric
The mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna is the burial place of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric , called the great. The unusual building, which Theodoric the Great had probably built for himself and the closest confidants of his court in the 6th century, is considered the most outstanding building work of the Ostrogoths in Italy.
Research history
Robert Heidenreich , Heinz Johannes and Giuseppe Bovini have published what is probably the most extensive information collection on the building history of Theodoric the Great's mausoleum to date . An overview of the state of research up to 1928, in which, among other things, the various reconstruction proposals by Durm , Schulz and Haupt are discussed, was published by Jänecke . These representations are mainly used in the following.
history
In the Latin text Anonymus Valesianus it is described that the Gothic king “erected himself a monument made of hewn blocks during his lifetime, for the completion of which he had a huge stone found.” Around 520 the tomb was built on the orders of Theodoric, who lived in Ravenna had his court built as a future mausoleum in the cemetery of the Goths suburb. However, it was apparently not completely finished before his death. The name of the builder has not been passed down.
According to the creed, Theodoric was an Arian . When the Byzantines under General Belisarius conquered Ravenna in 540 and the Orthodox Catholic clergy there gained the upper hand, traces of Theodoric and Arianism were removed as far as possible. Theodoric's sarcophagus also fell victim to the campaign and was removed from the mausoleum as a "curse-worthy heretic" (because Arians).
Mainly due to floods, the tomb of the mausoleum was half buried for a long time. It was completely exposed again in 1918–1919. During the excavations, remains of ancient walls and other relics came to light in the vicinity of the mausoleum, including a gold-decorated breastplate.
architecture
The mausoleum has a decagonal symmetrical floor plan with an edge length of approx. 4.40 meters and consists of two floors.
The interior of the basement served as a burial chamber and is vaulted with a groin vault. The inside of the crypt has four niches arranged in a cross shape. The entrance door is in one of the niches.
The also decagonal upper floor, which can only be reached via an external staircase and a bridge, houses a chapel room with a round floor plan. In the east wall there is an altar in a niche.
The false ceiling rests on the vaulted structure of the basement, which consists of numerous seamlessly assembled stone blocks, the static stability of which is ensured by inserting the keystone . Drawings of the structure and its cross-sections have been given in the literature.
ground floor
The ground floor houses the crypt of the mausoleum, which is empty today. The inside of the crypt has three niches each approx. 3.50 meters wide and approx. 2 meters deep for the accommodation of sarcophagi, but there are no more sarcophagi. The three crypt niches are arranged in a cross shape to one another.
Northern crypt niche (behind the entrance door on the left) with two unequally sized window openings.
Central crypt niche on the eastern inner wall of the crypt room with two light shafts arranged one above the other.
Lower light shaft of the central crypt niche.
Conch shell bas-relief in the right corner of the central tomb niche seen up close.
In the outer wall there are ten arched niches, each with a base area of 2.45 meters by 1.75 meters. One of the niches contains the entrance door to the crypt room. One can only speculate about the purpose of the remaining nine outside niches. The architecture of the mausoleum seems to become more understandable when the question of how the visual representation of the people buried there should be done. Since Theodoric had previously had himself depicted in a clearly visible (later destroyed) mosaic high up on the south wall of his court church S. Apollinare Nuovo - in the opinion of historians sitting on a horse - it can be assumed that he also had a corresponding representation of himself had aimed for the mausoleum.
While mosaics or wall paintings are more suitable for interiors, life-size statues are most suitable for figurative representations in cemeteries. In each of the three crypt niches there would be room for three sarcophagi if they were placed parallel - with the head ends facing the inner wall - so a total of nine sarcophagi. Since there are nine arched niches on the outer wall, it can be assumed that these were originally intended to accommodate the statues. The roof dome and basement show less signs of weathering on the outside than the part of the upper floor below the roof dome. The reason for this is probably to be found in the fact that softer stone was used for the part of the upper floor below the roof dome in order to be able to engrave window patterns more easily on all sides.
The basement has five vertical window slots that are arranged quite high, are at the same height and lead through the outer wall below the arches of the outer niches. Opposite the entrance door, below a window slot, there is also a slightly wider window at normal height, through which a standing person can look at the area in front of the tomb.
The two adjacent arched niches on the north side of the mausoleum, into which the two light shafts of the left crypt niche open.
View of the outer arched niche in which the two light shafts of the central crypt niche open. Probably the most probable place on the outer wall that could be used as a stand for a Theodoric statue.
The two adjacent arched niches on the south side, into which the two light shafts of the right crypt niche open.
Close up of the entrance door of the crypt.
First floor
Outside
The upper floor, which is far back, is reached today via an external staircase that leads to a veranda that runs around the building and from which the entrance door to the chapel room can be reached. The outside staircase was added in 1927. The corridor leading around the upper floor is about 1.30 meters wide. The entrance door is arranged exactly above the entrance door of the basement.
The chapel room has an altar niche that is exactly opposite the entrance door. The altar niche is about 1.20 meters deep. At the weak point where the altar niche is set into the wall, a reinforcement wall about three meters wide, two meters high and 85 centimeters thick was attached to the outer wall, the side edges of which have been carefully rounded. As photographs from before the First World War show, the altar niche used to have a window. This is walled up today.
Since the architectural cladding elements that used to be on the outer wall are now missing, this niche porch looks clumsy and inharmonious. How the mausoleum might originally have looked in the area of the niche porch was made clear by Schulz in a reconstruction drawing that is still valid today, as far as the niche porch is concerned. Because of the niche porch and the window that used to exist in it, the access to the left and right of the niche porch may have ended, ie there was probably no railing at this point.
The upper floor used to have a floor covering made of Verde antico , an olive-green stone with greenish-white and dark-green grains and inclusions, which was used for decorative purposes in ancient times.
The stairs to the upper floor are on the east side of the mausoleum and were added in 1927.
Section of the south side of the upper floor as seen from the access bridge.
Access bridge leading to the upper floor. In the background the cuboid niche porch.
Section of the north side of the upper floor as seen from the access bridge.
The building's axis of symmetry is roughly aligned from west to east; its angular deviation from the east-west axis is around 10 ° in a northerly direction. The building material is so-called Istrian limestone, a natural stone that was used more frequently as a building material in the region in later centuries; The limestone probably comes from a quarry near today's village of Vrsar .
Missing architectural cladding
The use of the upper floor used to have architectural cladding that was used for decoration. This is indicated by recesses carved into the outer wall of the upper floor to accommodate support inserts and other structural elements. A well-preserved support insert can still be found in one of the recesses. The distance from the floor of the walkway to the lower edge of the support insert is about 2.28 meters.
Sketches of the mausoleum made by Giuliano Sangallo in the 16th century show that console-like decorative elements that protruded from the outer wall by about 30 centimeters and arched over the blind doors indicated on the outer walls of the upper floor in the area of the lunettes had loaded these support inserts . The opinion has also been expressed that on the two halves of the corridor to the left and right of the entrance door, up to the porch of the altar niche, there could have been a loggia that rested on supporting pillars on the outside. Against such reconstruction proposals, which include a complete or partial overbuilding in the form of an arcade or loggia, Jänecke has asserted that, in view of the relatively small depth of the artificial indentations found in the outer wall, the builders would have to have used additional constructional aids at that time could not even dispose of it. Since the corridor, which is only about 1.30 meters wide, is not intended for permanent residence, an earlier roof in the form of an archway or a loggia can be excluded.
Haupt has given reconstruction drawings that show how to use a railing. He was of the opinion that the 4.20 meter long bronze grids that Charlemagne together with other historical components (marble columns, two statues of Theodoric and an equestrian statue, probably of the predecessor Theodoric) could be used for the construction of the Aacheners with the permission of Pope Hadrian I. Had brought the Palatine Chapel from Ravenna, which are likely to be the former railing of the mausoleum. This is suggested by the remarkable correspondence with the side length of the decagon of the first floor, which is about 4.40 meters.
Typical recess carved into the outer wall of the upper floor, rectangular at the bottom, to accommodate a round arch support insert.
Well-preserved support insert for holding cladding elements on the outer wall of the upper floor.
At the top left, next to the entrance door of the upper floor, indentations worked into the outer wall to accommodate architectural cladding elements.
At the top right next to the entrance door of the upper floor there are indentations for the accommodation of components.
Inside (chapel room)
The interior of the upper floor, which was previously used as a chapel, is circular-cylindrical. The entrance door is on the west side. Opposite it, on the east side, there is an altar niche about 190 centimeters high, 150 cm wide and 120 centimeters deep. A cross-shaped light shaft is located above the altar niche below the roof dome. On the north side and on the south side, there are three additional light shafts below the roof dome.
Altar niche in the chapel room. On the inside walls of the altar niche, grooves for attaching the altar table are carved on the left and right.
Altar niche from a different perspective. There is a cross-shaped light shaft above the altar niche.
Two light shafts and a hatch below the roof dome on the south side of the chapel room.
Three light shafts below the roof dome on the north side of the chapel room.
Roof dome
The roof dome has twelve corbels, on the front of which the names of eight apostles and four evangelists are engraved.
At one point there seemed to have been a spiral staircase and a straight staircase leading diagonally to the top right of the roof dome. Remaining traces of attachment indicate this.
The roof dome has a continuous crack that is clearly visible from the chapel room.
A cross symbol surrounded by a circular ring is painted on the ceiling of the chapel room in the middle of the roof dome.
The round roof dome with a diameter of approx. 11 m, a height of 2.5 m, a thickness of approx. 1 m and a weight of around 230 t, which was made from a single block of natural stone (see also list of ancient Roman monoliths ), is remarkable . Franz Kugler saw in it the artistic development of the Germanic tradition, which had previously been implemented in megalithic graves , which was adapted to the new living conditions of the Goths, of making the graves of the mighty inaccessible by heavy stone loads such as boulders . Twelve angular stone handles, with the help of which it could be lifted and placed on the substructure, are included as an integral part of the architectural composition. The names of eight apostles and four evangelists are engraved on the front of eight of these handles. With the exception of a south-facing handle, the top of which is flat and in which the name PETRUS was originally engraved, all handles have an obtuse-angled gable roof. A statue could possibly have stood on the handle with the horizontal platform.
The next corbel east of the 'Petrus-Henkel' has three rectangular fastening holes arranged one above the other. The name Paul is engraved on its front . Below that, a slight circular arc-shaped recess is visible at the lower edge of the roof dome. At this point there was evidently a spiral staircase and to the right of it a sloping staircase, which was set into the roof dome on one side for attachment. It is not certain whether these stairs were in accordance with the original plan or whether they belonged to a square lighthouse that was later built next to the mausoleum.
With its twelve tall, bulky corbels on the outer edge, the vaulted roof looks like a crown. The roof had apparently been raised once for restoration work and then put back on too hard: It has a continuous crack on one side, which was probably made on this occasion. The fact that the roof was actually raised once can be seen from the fact that it was not put back on completely symmetrically in its old position. As you can easily see in the pictures that show the mausoleum from the side of its entrance doors, the arched roof spire is “incorrectly” attached to the axis of symmetry of the substructure by a rotation angle of about 6.3 ° counterclockwise. (Comment on this thesis of the "false twist" of about 6 °: This could also be due to the fact that the mausoleum has a dome with twelve handles (i.e. a dodecagon with twelve times 30 °) on a decagonal plan (ten times 36 °) and this creates "twisting" purely geometrically.)
On the roof dome there is a conical elevation about 3.75 meters in diameter, the vertical edge of which protrudes about 10 centimeters from the surroundings. There is a base on it that is 77 centimeters by 52 centimeters wide and 28 centimeters high. The truncated cone and base are integral parts of the monolith used to make the roof dome and have been carved out of it. Presumably these were devices for attaching a symbol or a sculpture.
Interpretations of the frieze ornament
A wide, ribbon-shaped frieze with rectangular ornament fields runs around the outer wall below the roof dome. The ornament shown is essentially the same in all ornament fields: it shows a pattern in which there are concentric circular rings and lines extending downwards from them. Because of the similarity of the ornament pattern with lined up, hanging gripping tongs (for example coal tongs), the ornament pattern is often described as "pincer-shaped". Similar pliers patterns are known from Germanic goldsmithing.
As far as the literature used for this article can be seen, art historians have so far mainly considered two possible interpretations of the ornament pattern. The most common is the comparison with ornamental patterns of the Germanic goldsmith's art. In contrast, Italian art and travel guides regularly point to a possible interpretation suggested by Ferri, in which the similarity of the external shape of the mausoleum with a round nomad tent is brought to the fore: The rings depicted in the ornament are perhaps nothing more than around the running rings threaded onto a kind of curtain rod, from which the tent walls hang down and with the help of which the tent walls can be pushed aside.
Ornamental pattern of the Germanic goldsmith's art
Against the interpretation as a no further symbolic, pure decoration in the form of a pincer pattern speaks that the represented circular rings would then have to be open at the bottom in order to merge into the spread gripping arms of the pincer. However, the rings of the ornament are closed. In addition, two concentric circular rings are shown each time in the ornament, which are arranged around a small circular recess. Each concentric pair of rings is apparently intended to indicate a closed circular disk. Jänecke contrasted the ornament with comparable circle-triangle friezes that are related to the pincer frieze. It is true that an ornament pattern of goldsmithing, which is already known in detail, will not simply have been transferred to stone on an enlarged scale. However, it cannot be ruled out that such a pattern was sensibly modified in order to make a symbolic statement in the imagery that matches the mausoleum.
Suggestion of a device for hanging and moving tent walls
As far as the ornamental pattern of the frieze is concerned, the fact that the illustrated rings are concentric rings and each have a circular, punctiform depression in the middle speaks against Ferri's suggestion for interpretation. This image is incompatible with the running rings known from curtains. In addition, the concentric circular rings are occasionally shown with numerous, symmetrically arranged points and thus more reminiscent of a round shield with rivets arranged in a circle.
Tub upstairs
Front of the porphyry tub, with a bas-relief of a lion's head on the lower rim of the tub and two bas-reliefs with the motif of an anchor ring on the upper rim of the tub.
Back of the tub, with two bas-reliefs with the motif of an anchor ring for mooring larger ships on a quay wall.
The right head end of the tub. In the background the altar niche, above a cross-shaped light shaft.
The left head end of the tub, seen from the altar niche, in the background the entrance door of the chapel room.
Interior of the tub, seen from the right head end at an angle from above, in the background the altar niche.
Lion head at the lower edge of the tub, seen at an angle from the side.
In the center of the stone floor of the chapel room is a massive, approx. 1.50 meter wide, 1 meter high and originally 3 meter long porphyry tub with sloping, approx. 16 centimeter thick walls that are polished inside and out. The angle of inclination of the two side walls is approx. 70 °, the angle of inclination of the two head ends is approx. 60 °. The tub had been walled in for a while at the bottom right in front of the so-called Palace of Theodoric . As an old engraving shows, the tub had a hood-shaped lid back then. The left head end of the tub was apparently badly damaged later and was then lowered. The tub has strong, large-scale dents with a diameter of about 20 centimeters on all sides, caused by impacts and corresponding splintering.
The tub, which has two bas-reliefs in the form of a large anchor ring and a bas-relief in the form of a protruding lion's head with an open mouth and on the back only two anchor ring bas-reliefs, stands flat on the floor. It has no sharp edges on its edge, but rather has a uniform, round bulge about 18 centimeters wide, which protrudes 1.5 centimeters over the side walls and apparently has the purpose of a person sitting in the tub with wet hands has to provide a firm hold when getting up. The approximately 210 centimeters long and 70 centimeters wide tub floor is flat and polished and has an irregular semicircular border at the two head ends. The mentioned circular boundaries of the flat tub bottom have a slightly larger radius on the side facing the front tub wall than on the rear tub wall. The two boundaries therefore have an asymmetrical effect on a viewer looking into the tub in the longitudinal direction. It does not seem to be a malpractice on the part of the stonemason, rather the tub was apparently not planned to be longitudinally symmetrical from the beginning , but transversely symmetrical .
The interior of the tub is 65 cm deep; the flat bottom of the 1 meter high tub is about 35 centimeters thick. The depth of the tub is roughly the same as that of a modern bathtub . The four anchor rings shown on the outer walls are the size of the iron rings that were used to moor larger ships to quay walls. With this allusion to a harbor wall, the manufacturer of the bathtub apparently intended to trigger associations with “water”, “water trough” or “bathtub” in the viewer. The reason why the lion's head protruding from the tub wall was attached to the lower edge of the tub in a somewhat hidden manner is that it does not stand in the way of the tub user there. If it were mounted higher up, the user could easily hit it and injure himself.
Although the tub has all the characteristics of a bathtub and no insignia, inscriptions or Christian symbols - and its artistic execution is nowhere near the level of some surviving sarcophagi from the 6th century - it has had a reputation for centuries, perhaps the sarcophagus of Theodoric des To have been great. Since this reputation precedes the bathtub, Bovini and Richard Delbrück apparently did not even ask whether the bathtub was constructed with longitudinal or transversal symmetry, but instead wrongly assumed that it - like an ordinary sarcophagus - was longitudinally symmetrical and consequently both Long sides must have a lion's head bas-relief. However, a lion's head is only present on one of the two long sides of the tub.
Theodoric the Great had ordered particularly skilled marble stonemasons from Rome to Ravenna, primarily for the manufacture of sarcophagi. The tub installed on the upper floor of the mausoleum not only lacks the typical features of a sarcophagus, it is also much more than the ornate sarcophagi from the 6th century that are exhibited in museums (e.g. Archbishop's Museum in Ravenna) quite a mediocre work of art. As far as the literature provides information about this, the news that the tub may have been used as Theodoric the Great's grave is mainly based on a report by Andreas Agnellus (approx. 805-846) from the 9th century, according to which it was once in the neighboring monastery should have stood, d. H. "At the foot of the tomb itself".
Equestrian statue
It is certain that Charlemagne had a gilded bronze equestrian statue brought from Italy to Aachen, which was then apparently placed in a niche in the atrium between his palace and the Palatine Chapel in a group of other statues. It depicts a larger than life, naked warrior on a horse who held a shield in his left hand and wielded a lance with his right hand. In literature, this statue is mostly referred to as the equestrian statue of Theodoric , although it is likely that it was actually supposed to represent the emperor Zeno . According to Felix Dahn , the equestrian statue in question belonged to Theodoric's mausoleum (i.e. not to his palace, as is often claimed in literature). It is well known that sculptures or symbols are gold-plated, especially when they are intended for an elevated location and are supposed to shine for a long time in the sunlight - e.g. B. a cross symbol on a steeple. Although the larger-than-life design also suggests that this equestrian statue was designed for an elevated location, the literature states that it did not stand on the mausoleum, but in front of it , i.e. probably on a pillar.
Later uses
Around the year 1000, the mausoleum became part of one of St. Mary consecrated monastery of the Benedictine order . The upper floor was used by the monks as an oratory . Because a lighthouse was added to the mausoleum, which at that time was still by the sea, the monastery was named S. Maria ad farum . In the Middle Ages the mausoleum became as much a coveted burial place as the Pantheon in Rome . Sarcophagi of important personalities were placed in the crypt. In addition to the original Gothic necropolis , another one that has been discovered over the last few centuries was built.
In one of the sarcophagi, the body of Pope Viktor II (approx. 1020-1057), which the residents of Ravenna had secretly brought out of the funeral procession in 1057 during the intended transfer of the deceased from Arezzo to his former bishopric in Eichstätt in Bavaria , rested for a while to be buried in the mausoleum. The sarcophagus was later robbed and the bones of Victor II have since been considered lost.
There have been no traces of the lighthouse, which had a square floor plan, since the 12th century. The monastery was destroyed in the 17th century. Until the middle of the 18th century, the mausoleum was so neglected that the lower part of the ground floor was largely covered with earth as a result of flooding from the nearby Badareno River .
In the years 1774–1776 , two outside staircases were added to the upper floor, which was used as the S. Maria Rotonda chapel. Cleaning work began in 1844 to expose the basement, penetrating almost to the foundation of the building. Numerous graves were found. After the basement was completely exposed in the years 1918-1919, the outside staircase was removed again.
World Heritage
The mausoleum is along with several early Christian churches in and around Ravenna since 1996 World Heritage Site of UNESCO .
Ephemera
With regard to its floor plan, the mausoleum served as a model for the design of the Bismarck mausoleum in 1899 and the Bismarck tower in Szczecin in the first quarter of the 20th century by the architect Wilhelm Kreis . The Bismarck Tower in Jena (1906) and the Bismarck Tower in Radebeul (1907), which Kreis had designed, already showed stylistic parallels to Theodoric's tomb.
In 1912 the sculptor Wilhelm Wandschneider designed a mausoleum based on Ravenna for the Schlutius family in Karow ( Schlutius mausoleum ).
literature
- Bruno Schulz : The tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna and its position in architectural history . Wuerzburg 1911.
- Albrecht Haupt : The tomb of Theodoric the Great in Ravenna . Seemann, Leipzig 1913.
- Wilhelm Jänecke : The three issues at the grave of Theoderich (= meeting reports of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences, Philosophical-historical class. Born 1927/28). Winter, Heidelberg 1928.
- Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann : Ravenna. Capital of the late antique western world . Volume 1, Steiner, Wiesbaden 1969, pp. 213-219; Volume 2.1, Steiner, Wiesbaden 1974, pp. 209-239.
- Robert Heidenreich , Heinz Johannes : The tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna . Steiner, Wiesbaden 1971.
- Giuseppe Bovini : The tomb of Theodoric the great. Longo, Ravenna 1977.
- Manolis Korres: How did the dome stone get onto the wall ring? The unique construction of Theodoric the Great's tomb in Ravenna and the moving of heavy loads. In: Roman communications . Volume 104, 1997, pp. 219-258.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Robert Heidenreich, Heinz Johannes: The tomb of Theodoric in Ravenna. Steiner, Wiesbaden 1971.
- ^ Giuseppe Bovini: The tomb of Theodoric the Great (translation from Italian). Longo, Ravenna 1977.
- ^ Wilhelm Jänecke : The three issues at the tomb of Theodoric. In: Meeting reports of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences. Philosophical-historical class. Year 1927/28, 3rd treatise. Carl Winters University Bookstore, Heidelberg 1928.
- ↑ See for example Fritz Baumgart: Upper Italy - art, culture and landscape between the northern Italian lakes and the Adriatic. 3. Edition. DuMont, Cologne 1979, ISBN 3-7701-0829-9 , p. 204.
- ↑ Bruno Schulz: Theodoric's tomb at Ravenna and its position in architectural history . Würzburg 1911, p. 21, Figure 20.
- ^ Theodor Gsell Fels : Northern Italy and Central Italy (up to the gates of Rome). 8th edition. revised by R. Schoener, Leipzig 1907, p. 278.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 62, Figure 13, and p. 63, Figure 14.
- ↑ Jänecke (1928), p. 12, Figure 6.
- ↑ See Jänecke (1928), p. 6 ff .; Heidenreich and Johannes (1971), p. 121.
- ↑ Heidenreich, Robert; Johannes, Heinz (1971): Theodoric's tomb in Ravenna. Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, p. 63.
- ^ Franz Kugler : History of Architecture . Volume 1, Stuttgart 1859, pp. 398-400. .
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 83, Figure 39.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), pp. 8-11 and p. 55, Figures 4. and 5.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 23 and Figure 40.
- ↑ See for example Heidenreich and Johannes (1971), p. 135, figure 143, and p. 152–159.
- ↑ See for example Giuseppe Bovini: Ravenna - Art and History . Longo, Ravenna 1991, pp. 122-123.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 41; 45.
- ↑ Jänecke (1928), p. 21, Figure 7.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), Figure 36.
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 20.
- ^ Richard Delbrueck: Ancient porphyry works . de Gruyter, Berlin and Leipzig 1932, pp. 166–167 (quoted from Bovini (1977), p. 20).
- ↑ Felix Dahn and Friedel Dahn: The kings of the Germanic peoples . Volume 3: Constitution of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy . Würzburg 1866, p. 171 footnote 3).
- ↑ Bovini (1977), p. 21.
- ^ Ernst Dümmler : Poems from the court circle of Charlemagne. In: Journal for German antiquity and for German literature. 12, 1865, p. 469 .; Herman Grimm : The equestrian statue of Theoderich zu Aachen and the poem of Walafried Strabus on it . Berlin 1869 ( full text ).
- ↑ Felix Dahn (1866), p. 171, footnote 3.
- ↑ Germany in the past and present . Volume 33, 1985, p. 29.
- ↑ Gianfranco Bustacchini: Ravenna - Its mosaics, its monuments, its surroundings . Salbaroli, Ravenna 1984, pp.?.
Web links
Coordinates: 44 ° 25 ′ 30 ″ N , 12 ° 12 ′ 33 ″ E
