Ravenna

The title of this article is ambiguous. Further meanings are listed under Ravenna (disambiguation) .

Ravenna
Country	Italy
region	Emilia-Romagna
province	Ravenna  (RA)
Local name	Ravena
Coordinates	44 ° 25 '  N , 12 ° 12'  E Coordinates: 44 ° 25 '0 "  N , 12 ° 12' 0"  E
height	4  m slm
area	652 km²
resident	158,058 (Dec. 31, 2019)
Postal code	48100
prefix	0544
ISTAT number	039014
Popular name	Ravennati or Ravegnani
Patron saint	Sant'Apollinare
Website	www.comune.ravenna.it

The center of Ravenna, the Piazza del Popolo, west side with the Venetian Palace, which is part of the town hall

Piazza del Popolo, east side

Ravenna is a city in Italy with 158,058 inhabitants (as of December 31, 2019). It is the capital of the eponymous province of Ravenna in the Emilia-Romagna region . The city was originally located directly on the Adriatic Sea . As a result of silting up , the city center is now around nine kilometers from the coast. The port is connected to the coast and the seaside resort of Marina di Ravenna by the Canale Candiano . Ravenna has been the seat of the archbishopric since the 5th century .

From 402 to 476 the city was the main residence of the Western Roman emperors . In the following decades Odoacer , Theodoric the Great and his successors also resided here . After the reconquest of Italy by Eastern Roman troops, Ravenna was the center of an imperial exarchate ( Exarchate of Ravenna ) until it was conquered by the Lombards in 751 .

The city has hosted the Ravenna Jazz music festival every spring since 1974 . In 1990 the Ravenna Festival, held in the summer, was added, at which mainly opera and classical music , but also dance , jazz , folk music , musical , ballet , sacred music , electronic music , theater and film are presented and awarded; In addition, various conventions and exhibitions take place here.

story

Historians suggest that the settlement was found during the Gallic invasions since the 6th century BC. Chr. Gradually emerged. At that time, scattered members of the defeated Umbrians and Etruscans used to seek refuge together on the numerous small lagoon islands on the southern edge of the Po mouth delta. The Etruscans called the settlement Ravena . Ravenna is said to have been built by the Greeks as a trading port .

Imperial naval base

In the early and high imperial times , Ravenna was a lagoon city enclosed by water with up to 50,000 inhabitants at times. In 88 BC The city received Roman citizenship . Decades later, in 49 BC BC, Caesar set out from here to cross the Rubicon , with which he started the civil war . His great-nephew, Emperor Augustus , made the military port of Classe in front of the city the second largest naval base of the Roman Empire (the largest naval port was Misenum ). The overthrown Marcomannic King Marbod was interned here in 19 AD until his death in 37 . The Cherusci Thusnelda and Thumelicus, captured by Germanicus , also lived here .

Late antique royal seat

In 402, the Western Roman Emperor Honorius moved his court from Milan to Ravenna, as the city was very easy to defend. The Visigoths under Alaric I besieged Ravenna in vain in 408. In the same year, the general Stilicho fell victim to an intrigue at the imperial court. Accused of making a pact with Alaric and thus of high treason , he was executed in Ravenna. A later legend says that in 410 the nephew of the Hun king Rugila, Attila , was held hostage at the court.

After the death of the (co-) emperor Constantius III. 421 in Ravenna and the death of Honorius, his half-sister Galla Placidia first ruled for their underage son Valentinian III . She let the city expand magnificently. Although some later emperors resided temporarily in Rome, from then on Ravenna remained the clearly preferred seat of government in Italy.

After the deposition of the Western Roman (counter) emperor Romulus Augustus , the Germanic rex Odoacer ruled in the city from 476 , who was killed with his own hands in 493 by the Ostrogoth ruler Theodoric after his defeat in the " Battle of Raven ". The Ostrogoths under Theodoric, who resided in Ravenna since 493, established an empire in Italy that lasted until the final defeat against Ostrom (552). Until 535 they ruled nominally as the emperor's deputy in Constantinople . The capital Ravenna once again experienced a cultural and economic heyday under them.

Against his protest, the frail Pope John I was sent by the Arian Theodoric to Constantinople in 525 to negotiate with Emperor Justin I about his decree against the Arians. Theodoric allegedly threatened the Pope with reprisals against the Catholics. When John returned without having achieved anything, Theodoric had the Pope arrested on the charge that he had conspired with the emperor. He was held in Ravenna and died there due to poor treatment in 526. Theodoric died shortly afterwards on August 30th in Ravenna. His tomb there is empty today; whether a sarcophagus with the remains of Theodoric ever stood there is controversial.

In 535 the Eastern Roman troops began to recapture Italy. In May 540, Ravenna, besieged by the army master Belisarius on behalf of Emperor Justinian I , fell; Ostrogoth nobles had probably offered the army master the imperial dignity of the West. Belisarius initially agreed and conquered the city without bloodshed. It is unclear whether Belisarius only pretended to be imperial; in any case, after the capture of Ravenna, he did not allow himself to be proclaimed Augustus . Nevertheless, this process aroused the suspicion of Justinian, who in any case never really trusted his generals. In 541/42 the war broke out again in Italy, in 549 Belisarius was recalled and replaced by his rival Narses . For a time the Eastern Romans could only maintain Ravenna, while the Goths under King Totila again controlled almost all of Italy; they were not subject to Narses until 552.

Exarchate of Ravenna

Emperor Justinian , mosaic detail from the Basilica of San Vitale (6th century).

Now Ravenna regained importance as an outpost of the Eastern Roman Empire in Italy, the city soon after the incursion of the Lombards (568) became the capital of the Exarchate of Ravenna . Around twenty biographically known exarchs , who were subordinate to the Eastern Roman emperor in Constantinople , took turns as administrators of the exarchate and Ravennas. Not infrequently they had been given secret powers to take the Pope prisoner.

From this period of upheaval from antiquity to the Middle Ages (see especially late antiquity ) one can find numerous important buildings in Ravenna, which often still show the original mosaic decorations from the 5th to 7th centuries and which have since been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . Above all, they are unique because almost all such mosaics in the core area of ​​the Eastern Roman Empire later fell victim to the iconoclasm .

middle age

In 751 the Longobard king Aistulf conquered the city ​​and the exarchate, ending the exarchate of Ravenna. In the Treaty of Quierzy (754), Pippin the Younger promised to hand over the former Byzantine exarchate of Ravenna to the Holy See ( Pippin donation ); in return, Pope Stephen III legitimized . the Carolingians as the new royal family of the Franconian Empire . As early as 755 the Frankish king was asked to help fulfill the contract through deeds. Until his death, Pippin led two successful campaigns against the Lombards and gave the conquered territories to the Roman See , which Charlemagne confirmed in 774. Pippin is considered to be the founder of the Papal States , to which Ravenna also belonged.

With this, the bishopric of Ravenna finally came under papal suzerainty. Because at the time of Pope Vitalian in 666 the Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II withdrew the Church of Ravenna from the sovereignty of Rome and made it an independent church. The resulting schism was removed again under Pope Donus and his successor Agatho , but as a result the Ravennatic bishops had repeatedly seen themselves as patriarchs of a capital as largely equal. Archbishop Leo therefore held the title servus servorum Dei, divina gratia sanctae catholicae Ecclesiae Ravennatis archiepiscopus et primas, Italiae exarchus . So he continued to regard himself as the master of the city as well as a spiritual leader. Charlemagne, who did not take up residence in the palace of the Exarch of Ravenna, recognized its symbolic value. Accordingly, the Pope gladly agreed when Charles asked him to bring the marble columns and mosaics of the Eastern Roman palace with him to Aachen. On the other hand, the Carolingians supported the city's prestige with repeated imperial visits. Charles I visited the city four times, his son Pippin even resided there; Charlemagne stayed there in 877, Charlemagne in 880 and 882.

Any ruler of Italy who came close to their ideas was therefore viewed by the Ravennates as an ally against the Roman claims. For example, John VIII (850–878) turned to Ludwig II for help against Rome. In return, he supported the emperor in his divorce and Engelberga in their plan to enforce Lambert of Spoleto as emperor, who was crowned in Ravenna in 892.

The Ravennater clergy was supported by the most important families of the Duchi, Sergii and Romualdi. This policy was made materially possible on the basis of extensive country estates in Romagna up to Bologna , towards Ancona and Umbria, but also on Istria. In addition, there were the important monastic lords, such as S. Apollinare in Classe , S. Giovanni Evangelista or S. Vitale , but also the metropolitan rights over the bishops of Emilia and Romagna.

Around the year 951 the holy founder of the Camaldolese Romuald was born in Ravenna , who later had a great influence on Emperor Otto III. should win. In the second half of the century, some metropolitans were elected popes. In practice, Empress Adelheid led Ravenna, after her death in 999 she was followed by Archbishop Gerbert . But the city lacked a suitable saint to be able to play at the top level of the religious centers. The relics of St. Andreas had to return Ravenna to Constantinople, Apollinaris of Ravenna , who was quite important in clerical circles, did not attract any pilgrims.

967 held in Ravenna Emperor Otto I a Reichstag from. At the suggestion of the emperor , Pope John XIII , who was meeting at the same time, approved a synod . the establishment of the three dioceses of Meißen , Merseburg and Zeitz (later Naumburg (Saale) ), which from then on belonged to the Metropolitan Association of the Archdiocese of Magdeburg .

Ravenna later led the league of cities , which grew into an autonomous republic , to which Ancona , Fano , Pesaro , Senigallia and Rimini belonged and was the seat of an important legal school as early as the 11th century . 1231 held Emperor Frederick II. In Ravenna a Reichstag down, on which he already by I. Friedrich made investiture of the Brandenburg Askanier with Pomerania including Pommerellen renewed. In 1275 the town came under the rule of the da Polenta family .

Dante Alighieri , to whom Guido Novello da Polenta had granted asylum in Ravenna a few years earlier , completed the Divine Comedy , begun in 1307 , which influenced European literature like no other work, and died shortly afterwards on September 14, 1321. His bones have been resting since its rediscovery in 1865 in a tomb erected for him in Ravenna as early as 1780/81 .

Dante's tomb

City map of Ravenna around 1907. Grid square H1 shows the location of Theodoric's mausoleum, which at that time was used as the chapel of S. Maria Rotonda . After the end of the monarchy, the Piazza Vitt. Emanuele (D4) renamed in Piazza del Popolo . The Corso Giuseppe Garibaldi today (E3, F6) is called Via di Roma . The tram that used to run on this street has been completely abolished. The hippodrome (G6) has given way to a public park. The so-called ' Palace of Theodoric ' (F5) is also known as Palazzo di Calchi and dates from the 7th to 8th centuries, i.e. from a later period. The area on which Theodoric's residence was located was behind it (G4, G5), but is now built on.

Brancaleone Citadel

Modern times

From 1441 to 1509 Ravenna was in the hands of Venice . After the League of Cambrai was founded, it was conquered by Pope Julius II in 1509 . The Venetians had built the Brancaleone fortress in the city, the ruins of which are now home to a spacious park and an open-air theater. With the Peace of Tolentino in 1797, Ravenna came temporarily under French rule and became part of the Cisalpine Republic . Through the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it came back to the Papal States, to which it then belonged until 1860. In 1860 Ravenna was united with the new Kingdom of Italy . In 1951 the city received the Medaglia d'oro al valor militare for its services in World War II. Today, Ravenna is endangered by salinization of the groundwater and the flooding of land areas by seawater and by earthquakes (most recently in May 2012).

Demographics

Number of inhabitants since the beginning of the 19th century

year	population	Remarks
1809	<15,000
1867	approx. 19,100
1901	11,989	excluding the suburbs, as a municipality 64,031 inhabitants
1991	135,844	on October 20th
2001	134,631	on October 21
2011	153,740	on October 9th
2019	157,663	on 1 January

Twin cities

Ravenna is connected through town twinning with:

• Speyer (Germany), since 1989
• Chichester (United Kingdom)
• Chartres (France)

structure

The center of the city is the historic old town, which stretches between the Circonvallazione S. Gaetanino in the north, Via Fiume Abbandonato in the west, the Circonvallazione al Molino in the south and the railroad tracks in the east. Newer residential districts are connected in all directions, with the transitions partly still marked by remains of walls and city gates.

The industry is concentrated in a port and industrial zone that extends on both sides of the Canale Candiano in the northeast of the city to the seaside resorts of Marina di Ravenna and Porto Corsini .

Economy and Infrastructure

Via Cavour, a popular shopping street in the historic center

Tourism is an important industry. The seaside resorts of Lido di Ravenna, Marina di Ravenna, Lido di Classe etc. have numerous campsites , holiday homes and hotels , but also extensive nature reserves . There is also an extensive nudist beach at Lido di Dante .

But Ravenna also has an oil refinery and an important industrial area for the chemical and energy sectors, as well as a steelworks owned by Marcegaglia SpA. Other important branches of industry are the shoe, clothing and food industries. The port of Ravenna is one of the most important ports on the Adriatic.

Handicrafts

Mosaic products are the flagship of local handicrafts. Byzantine masters brought the expressiveness of the dazzling mosaics to artistic perfection. The tradition of laying mosaics lives on in the city and is cultivated in numerous mosaic workshops and taught in training courses at schools. In summer, those interested can take part in mosaic courses in the nearby Adria lido Lido Adriano .

Another artistic activity widespread in Ravenna is Byzantine embroidery (or Byzantine ornamentation ). It is of oriental origin and originally served exclusively to decorate chasuble robes . The patterns of the embroidery are taken from the classic mosaic ornaments, the bas-reliefs and the classic marble ornaments of the local churches. Embroidery thread is used, the color tones of which are adapted to the mosaics.

Attractions

Church of San Vitale (6th century), the Mausoleum of Galla Placida seen from

The Ravenna Cathedral

Arian Baptistery

The Tomb of Theodoric in Theodoric Park ( Parco di Teodorico )

Ravenna's early Christian churches, baptisteries , mausoleums and mosaics are of particular importance in terms of art history . Under the Ostrogoth king Theodoric , these buildings were shaped by early Byzantine architecture . They influenced the subsequent buildings of the Lombard pre-Romanesque (see also: Pre-Romanesque ) . Eight buildings from the 5th and 6th centuries AD were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1996 .

The art historian Anna Maria Cetto writes: "Ravenna is the only place in the area of ​​the Western Church whose early Christian mosaics can compete with those of Rome, and even put them in the shade."

UNESCO World Heritage Sites

• San Vitale (6th century)
• Galla Placidia Mausoleum (5th century); a mausoleum decorated inside with mosaics, which the Empress Galla Placidia had built for herself in 425 AD, but which probably never housed her body, since she died in Rome in 450 and was probably buried there.
• Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (6th century); the former Arian court church of Theodoric, which had been built by him and which was located directly next to his palace.
• Mausoleum of Theodoric , with a natural stone roof about eleven meters in diameter and one meter thick, which was carved out of a single monolith from Istria .
• Arian Baptistery (6th century)
• Orthodox Baptistery (5th century), north of the cathedral, also known as the neon baptistery , is the oldest of the octagonal ancient buildings in Ravenna.
• Archbishop's Chapel (6th century), also oratory of St. Andreas , located south of the cathedral in the Archbishop's Palace and accessible via the Archbishop's Museum .
• Sant'Apollinare in Classe

Churches

• S. Croce
• S. Maria Maggiore (5th century)
• S. Eufemia (1742–1747), the interior is decorated with paintings from the 18th century.
• S. Giovanni Battista
• Spirito Santo (5th to 6th and 16th centuries), under the (Greek-Byzantine) name Hagia Anastasis (German Resurrection Church ), was the main Arian church in Ravenna at the time of Theodoric the Great .
• S. Maria del Suffragio
• Ravenna Cathedral ( Duomo ) (1734); In the cathedral are the pulpit of Bishop Agnellus (6th century), sarcophagi from the 5th century and a crypt from the 10th century.
• S. Francesco (5th, 9th and 12th centuries)
• S. Agata Maggiore (5th century)
• S. Giovanni Evangelista (5th century)
• S. Maria in Porto (1553-1606)

Museums

• Municipal art museum and municipal art gallery ( MAR - Museo d'Arte della città e Pinacoteca Comunale , homepage (Italian) here online ); Lombard loggia (1508).
• National Museum ( Museo Nazionale , Via Fiandrini, collections of the Roman, early Christian, Byzantine and medieval epochs, homepage (Italian) here online ).
• Archbishop Museum , Piazza Arcivescovado; among the exhibits the bishop's chair of Bishop Maximianus (546–552), the so-called Maximianskathedra , a masterpiece of early Byzantine ivory carving from the 6th century, the Emperor Otto III. received as a gift from the Venetian Doge Orseolo II and which he brought to Ravenna in 1001 and donated to the church.
• So-called Palace of Theodoric , building from the 8th century with an exhibition room on the upper floor, in which fragments of floor mosaics are shown that were uncovered in the palace grounds.
• Domus dei Tappeti di Pietra (Via Barbiani, access through the Chapel of S. Eufemia)
• Dante Museum and Dante's Tomb ( Museo Dantesco e Tomba di Dante )
• S. Nicolò building complex ( Complesso di San Nicolò , Via Rondinelli 6); the single-nave, spacious former church of S. Nicolò, which was last used in the past as a military riding arena ( Cavallarizza ), is now used as an exhibition hall.
• Historical library of Classe ( Museo del Risorgimento presso la Biblioteca Classense , 16th century, website (Italian) here online .)
• Municipal Natural Science Museum 'A. Brandolini '( NatuRa - Museo Ravennate di Scienze Naturali' A. Brandolini ' . Homepage (Italian) here online .)
• S. Maria delle Croci, Via Guaccimanni

Other sights

Saint Apollinaris (left) and Saint Vitalis on Venetian columns, in the Piazza del Popolo

One of the four pillars of the Venetian Palace, which show Theodoric's monogram on the upper edge of their capital

Ravenna's leaning city ​​tower Torre comunale e Sala d'Attorre (12th century)

• Piazza del Popolo, the central square in the center, with the Palazzetto Veneziano ( Venetian palace , 15th century), the capitals of which show the monogram of Theodoric . They could come from the Arian St. Andrew's Church , which was demolished by the Venetians and built by the Goths in their suburbs. The palazzo is now part of the town hall. The two Venetian columns in front of the building bear the patron saints of Ravenna: Apollinaris and Vitalis . The Basilica of San Vitale was consecrated to St. Vitalis in 547.
• Alghieri Theater ( Teatro Alghieri )
• Oriani Library ( Biblioteca Orioani )
• House of Marionettes ( Casa delle Marionette , Vicolo Padenna 4 / a)
• Provincial Palace ( Palazzo della Provincia )
• City center S. Domenico ( Urban Center San Domenico , Via Cavour), former church in the city center used as an exhibition hall
• Palace of Arts and Sports "De Andrè" ( Palazzo delle Arti e dello Sport "De Andrè" )
• House of the disabled and mosaic room ( Casa del Mutilato , Piazza JF Kennedy).
• Almagià, Via Magazzini Posteriori
• Market hall ( Mercato Coperto , in the city center)
• Rasi Theater ( Teatro Rasi )
• Doll Museum ( Picolo Museo delle Bambole , Via M. Fantuzzi 4)
• City tower ( Torre comunale e Sala d'Attorre , 12th century, Via P. Costa). He is crooked and is in a structural steel corset that improves his statics
• City gates
  • Porto Serrata
  • Porto Adriana
  • Porto Gaza
  • Postage S. Mam
  • Porto Sisi
  • Portonaccio
  • Porto Nuova
• In the Palazzo delle Rasponi tests (17th-18th c.) Is a branch of the University of Bologna housed.
• The Palazzo Rasponi Murat (15th - 16th centuries) has been privately owned by the Spalletti family since the 16th century.
• The planetarium is located in the public park south of the station forecourt.
• Theodoric Park ( Parco di Teodorico )
• The Brancaleone Citadel ( Rocca Brancaleone ), built in the second half of the 15th century by the Venetians, is located north of the station forecourt. Today there is an open-air theater and a park in the ruins.
• An exhibition of modern mosaics by contemporary artists can be seen in the Peace Park ( Parco delle Pace )
• The Andrea Purpurea fountain ( Fontana Andrea Purpurea , Piazza della Resistanza) is an elegant creation of modern design.

Other sights in the area

• Classe Archaeological Zone ( Parco Archeologico di Classe ), not far from the Church of Sant'Apollinare in Classe
• Museum of Mechanical Musical Instruments, 10 kilometers south on the road towards Cesena
• Museum of Modern Interior Design, 9 kilometers to the west, along Via Maggiore and Via Faentina on the road towards Bologna
• French Column, 5 kilometers south on the road towards Forlì ; reminds of the battle between the Spaniards and the French in 1512, erected in 1557 in Madonna dell'Abero
• Garibaldi Hut ( Capanno Garibaldi , 1810), 8 kilometers northeast on the road towards Marina Romea and Porto Corsini ; a fisherman's hut of historical importance, in which the Italian founder Giuseppe Garibaldi found shelter
• Roman villa in Russi ( Villa romana di Russi ), Via Fiumazzo - Russi (Ra.), Approx. 16 km in the direction of Bologna

traffic

The railway station of Ravenna is just east of the city center. This is where the Ferrara – Rimini railway meets the branch line to Castel Bolognese . Between 1883 and 1929 there was a direct connection with a steam tram to Forlì .

Behind the train station is the now little-used inner-city port basin, which is connected to the Adriatic Sea and the modern port of Ravenna via the Canale Candiano O Corsini .

The airport of Forli is 27 kilometers away. Ravenna also has a small local airport .

Personalities

Famous personalities of the city are included in the list of personalities of the city of Ravenna .

Honorary citizen

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), politician
• 1974 Friedrich Schürr , Romance studies
• 1984 Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann (1909–1993), Christian archaeologist
• André Frossard (1915-1995), author
• 2008 Mia Čaušević (* 1986)
• Riccardo Muti (* 1941), conductor
• 2009 Roberto Saviano (* 1979), writer
• 2012 Tonino Guerra (1920–2012), poet
• Alexander Alexandrowitsch Zinoviev (1922-2006), writer

literature

Historical research

• Judith Herrin: Ravenna. Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe. Princeton 2020.
• Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis: Ravenna in Late Antiquity . Cambridge 2010.
• Veronica Ortenberg West-Harling: Proclaiming power in the city: the archbishops of Ravenna and the doges of Venice , in: Cristina La Rocca, Piero Majocchi (ed.): Urban Identities in Northern Italy (800–1100 approx.) , Brepols, Turnhout 2015, pp. 219–249. ( academia.edu )

Art guides and illustrated books

• Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann : Ravenna. Capital of the late antique western world. Vol. 1: History and Monuments (1969). Vol. 2: Commentary, Part 1 (1974). Part 2 (1976). Part 3: History, Topography, Art and Culture, Indices for the Complete Works (1989). Plan annex (1976). Vol. 3: Early Christian buildings and mosaics from Ravenna (1958) [table volume]
• Ravenna Felix with 53 illustrations (color plates), Italian, French, English, German, Edizioni A. Longo, Ravenna.
• FX Bartl, Julie Boehringer: Ravenna - S. Apollinare Nuovo, Baptisteries des Domes and the Arians, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia and Archbishop's Chapel, Mausoleum of Theodoric with an introduction by FW Deichmann (German, English, French), Bruno Grimm Verlag für Kunst und Science, Baden-Baden 1959, 7 color plates, 73 illustrations.
• FX Bartl, Julie Boehringer: Ravenna - San Vitale, Sant'Apollinare in Classe with an introduction by FW Deichmann (German, English, French), Bruno Grimm Verlag for Art and Science, Baden-Baden 1959, 7 color plates, 70 illustrations.
• Giuseppe Bovini: Ravenna. The monuments and art treasures , Fratelli Lega Editori, Faenza 1958, 109 p. (With appendix by Dr. Angelo Lorizzo: Ravenna and its seaside , useful notes ).
• Anna Maria Cetto : Mosaics from Ravenna , Hallwag AG, Bern 1953
• Carola Jäggi: Ravenna. Art and culture of a late antique royal seat. The buildings and mosaics of the 5th and 6th centuries . Schnell and Steiner, Regensburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-7954-2774-0
• Ferdinand von Quast : The old Christian buildings of Ravenna from the fifth to the ninth century. Historically organized and illustrated by illustrations. With ten tables . Reimer, Berlin 1842 ( digitized version ).

Web links

Wiktionary: Ravenna  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Commons : Ravenna  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

• Mosaics in Ravenna
• Homepage of the Ravenna Information Office

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Statistiche demografiche ISTAT. Monthly population statistics of the Istituto Nazionale di Statistica , as of December 31 of 2019.
2. ↑ ^{a b c} Meyer's Large Conversation Lexicon . 6th edition, Volume 16, Leipzig / Vienna 1908, pp. 640–641 ( online )
3. ↑ Johann Friedrich Le Bret : History of Italy and all the old and new states founded there , Gebauer, Volume 1, Halle 1778, pp. 139 ff. ( Online ).
4. ^ Charles' letter to Pope Hadrian can be found in Codex Carolinus, Ep. 81, p. 64 and in Einhard, Vita Karoli, 26 (Veronica Ortenberg West-Harling: Proclaiming power in the city: the archbishops of Ravenna and the doges of Venice , in: Cristina La Rocca, Piero Majocchi (ed.): Urban Identities in Northern Italy (800–1100 approx.) , Brepols, Turnhout 2015, pp. 219–249, here: p. 232. ( academia.edu )).
5. ↑ Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon , Volume 4, Amsterdam 1809, pp. 81-82 Zeno.org
6. ^ Johann Rudolf Rahn : A visit to Ravenna . In: Year books of art history (A. von Zahn, ed.); Volume 1. Leipzig 1868, pp. 163-182 and pp. 273-321, especially p. 321 ( online ).
7. ^ ^{A b c d} Italy, Emilia-Romagna region, Ravenna province, population of the city of Ravenna
8. ↑ Città gemellate , on the city's website, accessed November 8, 2018
9. ↑ Schürr, Friedrich Josef Maria , on deutsche-biographie.de/, accessed on December 26, 209
10. ↑ Schürr, Friedrich Josef Maria
11. ↑ Ravenna - Manutenzioni di Hera, ecco dove mancherà l & # 146; acqua . In: Il Resto Del Carlino . July 14, 2008. Retrieved April 27, 2012.
12. ↑ Ravenna - Cittadinanza onoraria a Saviano Il Consiglio Approva all'unanimità . In: Il Resto Del Carlino . December 22, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2012.
13. ↑ [1] .