Quaker theology

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This article describes the theology of the Quakers .

The early Quakers rejected the academic world as vain and decadent and thus also rejected theology as an intellectual discipline. William Penn even made the thirst for knowledge the cause of original sin:

As for the first point, it is clear that an unbridled desire for high knowledge brought about man's misery and caused a general fall from the glory of his original state. Adam wanted to be even wiser than God made him. It was not enough for him to know his Creator and to pay him the sacred homage to which his existence and innocence prompted and urged him. He was not content to have a mind; who raised him above all animals [...] and gave him the power to rule over all of God's visible creation; no, he wanted to be as wise as God himself too. This unforgivable pursuit, this equally foolish as unjust ambition, made him unworthy of the benefits he received from God. This drove him out of paradise; and instead of being lord over the whole world, Adam became the poorest on earth.

The no less influential George Fox is also very skeptical of theology as an academic discipline. So he dismisses the importance of learning languages ​​like Latin, Greek, and Hebrew:

"The language difference come from Babylon, and the Greeks, whose mother tongue was Greek, the word of the cross was folly, and to the Jews, whose language was Hebrew, Christ was a stumbling block (1 Cor. 1:23). The Romans who spoke Latin persecuted the Christians; and Pilate, the ruler of Rome, wrote an inscription on the cross of Christ in Hebrew, Greek and Latin; on that, I said, one could see that the languages ​​of Babylon are coming, there the inscription was written about the cross in these languages. John, who proclaimed the word that was in the beginning, says that the beast and the harlot have power over tongues and tongues which are like water (Rev. 17); so see that the beast and the harlot have this power over the tongues that arise from the confusion of Babylon. The persecutors of Christ then placed them higher than him when they crucified him, but afterwards he was risen higher than all s other, he who has been before all. "
Title page of the Apologia by Robert Barclay

But with Robert Barclay (1648–1690) the Quakers were to get a theologian who, with the work An Apology for the True Christian Divinity, created an important basis for them to distinguish themselves both externally and internally. Barclay's Apology was translated into various European continental languages ​​early on. The work was an important "piece of equipment" for the first Quaker missionaries on the European continent. It was usually distributed free of charge or at cost. It served many theologians of other denominations as a starting point for a theological debate. The Apology of Barclay was translated into German for the first time also the 1684th

The next theologian who was supposed to have a comparable effect both externally and internally was again Rufus Matthew Jones (1863-1948). He gave the community important impulses again by giving the peace certificate a new meaning and thereby succeeding in uniting the fragmented and divided Quakerism to a certain extent.

catechism

Contrary to popular belief, Quakers actually formulated catechisms early on. However, they had no normative significance for community life. Examples of catechisms are: "Catechism and Confession of Faith" by R. Barclay and "Catechism for Children" by George Fox (as a translation, Pfullingen 1922)

Position on the Bible

The Bible has had an important place in Quaker theology since its early beginnings. In the speech battles z. B. George Fox delivered with his opponents, the Bible was always the central starting point for his argument. For example, he reports in his diary entries:

"[...] Then he [Alexander Parker] addressed me [George Fox], because I stood by in silence because he said a lot that was incompatible with the Scriptures. I asked him if he could refer to the Scriptures He said, "yes;" I told people to take their Bibles and go to the places he said, but he couldn't.

Today the Bible is still very important in conservative Quakerism, even if no literal or dogmatic interpretation is given. The evangelical wing tends to interpret it literally. The liberal branch is sometimes critical or even hostile to the Bible.

The so-called "Quaker Bible" is a translation of the Bible by the Quaker Anthony Purver (1702–1777) from the year 1764. Quakers never used only one specific translation.

Christology

The Quaker preacher James Nayler has his tongue pierced for blasphemy and a "B" branded on his forehead

As for Christology , the majority of Quakers differed little from popular belief. There were some scandals, such as the person James Nayler , who was celebrated as the reincarnation of Jesus Christ, or members who were inclined to the mystical-esoteric like the Quaker Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont , but the majority of the members still had Into the 20th century, very conventional views on the person of Jesus Christ. As much as the scandals surrounding some members of the Quakers increased their popularity, it was also very uncomfortable for them to be noticed in this way.

The Quaker George Fox , who can be considered one of the founding fathers of Quakerism, was often forced to demonstrate his beliefs in order to contradict allegations. So also in a letter to the governor of Barbados from 1671:

[…] And we believe in Jesus Christ, his [God's] beloved and only begotten Son, in whom he is well pleased; who is conceived of the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary; in which we have redemption through his blood, namely the forgiveness of sins; […] And we believe and recognize that he was a sacrifice for sin, […] and that he was buried and rose again on the third day through the power of his Father, for our justification; and that he ascended into heaven and is now seated at the right hand of God. [...] who tasted death for all, shed his blood for all people; there is atonement for our sins, not only for ours but also for the whole world; [...] We believe that he alone is our Savior and Redeemer, [...] and destroys the devil and his works; [...] He alone is the Shepherd and Bishop of our souls; [...] He has now come in the spirit and has given us a meaning that we can recognize as true. He rules in our hearts through his law of love and life and frees us from the law of sin and death. [...]

This confession is identical in all essential statements of the Apostolic Creed . The only remarkable thing is the emphasis that Jesus Christ died for all people in the world and that he reveals himself in every person and already guides people directly and can free them from sin (or sinful life) during their lifetime. But that in itself is not a unique selling point among Christian denominations . This Christology is still represented by the Evangelical wing and the Conservative wing, thus the majority of today's Quakers. The views within the Liberal Quaker range from Christocentric (English Christian-centered ) to nontheistic - atheistic . Nevertheless, the Christocentric Quakers also relativize the importance of such confessions as that of G. Fox, when, for example, the London annual meeting of 1829 wrote in one of their epistles:

But since the mere confession of pure and healthy doctrines is not enough to save the soul, we wish that all may attain a living and effective faith which, through the power of the Holy Spirit, produces the fruit of holiness, the end of which is eternal life, in Christ Jesus our Lord.

The formal commitment to a certain Christology was never a decisive criterion for membership in a congregation among Quakers. In the "Zucht der Freunde" from 1792 to read:

[...] so we do not ask you [who want to be accepted by us] to formally sign any of the articles, neither as a condition under which you will become a member, nor in order to make yourself capable of serving the church. We therefore prefer to judge people by their fruits, [...]

But here, too, there were of course exceptions, for example, in connection with a disciplinary measure, the Quaker Dietrich Reckefuß was forced to commit to the Trinity in writing in 1810 .

In 1985 the British Quaker John Lampen published the book "20 Questions about Jesus". In it he deals in great detail with the central questions of Christology. The starting point is the statements that can be found in the Bible, taking into account (then) current research. It will u. a. It deals with questions about the authenticity of the Gospels, the question of sacrificial death and the sonship of God. The last question ties in with the starting point of the Quaker movement and asks, following G. Fox (quote: "but what canst thou say?" - in German: "but what can you say yourself?") With "What do you believe ?" you?"

Theology of the Cross and Original Sin

W. Penn says about the meaning of the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ:

In this way, self-denial was the constant practice and glory of our ancient ancestors who were forerunners of the outward appearance of Christ. And how can we hope to go to heaven now without the same ? since our Savior himself has become the most exalted specimen of self-denial; and not, as some would like, - for us, or instead of us , so that we do not need them; but so for us that we should deny ourselves and in this way become true followers of his holy example?

The death of Jesus is already understood as a sacrificial death for the redemption of sins, but also inseparably as a call to discipleship in humility and willingness to make sacrifices. So the undeserved grace through the atonement and guilt ( original sin ) of the people is not emphasized , but the encouraging gesture, the willingness to make sacrifices to the people. George Fox writes in his diary:

Now I had entered the paradise of God past the flaming sword. All things were transformed for me and all creation had a different smell for me, about everything that words can express. I only knew of purity, innocence and righteousness because I was renewed in the image of God (Col. 3:10) through Christ, in the state in which Adam had been before the fall.

This means that deliverance from sin requires an active attitude, a conscious determination. Man does not take on a passive role in which he is redeemed by grace alone, as is understood, for example, in Protestantism .

Perpetual revelation

Discussion at the Friends General Conference between theist and nontheist Quakers, 2008

Theological core message and foundation of Quakerism is the special position on the question of revelation and the meaning of the Bible in this context. This is the point where there is probably the greatest discrepancy to other Christian denominations. In this point they also differ significantly from the Mennonites , to whom they are otherwise very close theologically.

From the beginning until today, Quakers have emphasized the importance of God's personal revelation for their own salvation. This revelation is not understood and expected indirectly, but rather directly - for every person, whereby the experiences in community and social work count in particular . People who do not have this experience are either accused of misjudging a revelation or of a refusal. Here is an excerpt from George Fox :

“The Lord revealed to me through his invisible power that everyone would be enlightened by the holy light of Christ (John 1: 9). And I recognized that it shines in everyone, and that all who believe in it, came out of damnation to the light of life and became children of light (John 12:36). But those who hated it and did not believe in it, it condemned how well they seemed to confess Christ. I saw such in the pure revelation of light, without any human help; Nor did I then know where to find it in Scripture; but later, when I searched the Scriptures, I found it. But then I had seen that light and that spirit which existed before the scriptures were given, and which the holy men of God had urged to write the scriptures; and I recognized that all who want to know God, Christ or the Scriptures rightly must come to this spirit. But I noticed an indolence and lazy sleepiness in the people that astonished me; [...] "

This view is no longer shared by all Quakers today. Meanwhile, in the evangelical branch of Quakerism, indirect revelation (in the form of sermons, pastors, Bible reading, prayer, song, ...) is given great importance. In liberal Quakers , in turn, the meaning of the Bible and a revelation are completely denied in part, especially among the nontheist Quakers .

Only in conservative Quakerism (English conservative friends ) is this opinion still held that personal revelation is relevant to salvation, is equivalent to the Bible and cannot be in contradiction to it. As a criticism it can be objected that the subsequent search for legitimacy in the Bible is a self-fulfilling prophecy .

Doctrine of justification

The Quaker doctrine of justification has not changed in principle since it was founded and is one of the few things that are essentially the same in all three main branches (in the evangelical, conservative and liberal wing) of Quakerism.

The understanding of justification is very similar to that of the Mennonites , which was also the reason that on the one hand the two groups - when they first clashed in Holland and Germany in the 17th century - tried massively to join the ranks of the other on a missionary basis poaching , but on the other hand, close collaborations have also developed. The Quakers were temporarily more successful in poaching members, but the Mennonites remained the larger and on the mainland the more successful in the long term.

The doctrine of predestination of Calvinism was fundamentally rejected by the Quakers from the start. George Fox boasted in his diary that he had preached particularly successfully against the Calvinists and their doctrine of predestination and that he had convinced the audience of the opposite:

This soon came to the ears of the priests; for the eyes of the people who had been led astray by their terrible teachings gradually opened and came into the covenant of light. The news that I had come to Scotland spread among the priests. And they raised a great shout that it was all over now;

In "no cross no krown" William Penn deals almost exclusively with justification. He sets out the principles there on almost 400 pages. The title of the work is the leitmotif of the entire treatise. He states that every human being has an accusing voice within them that is Jesus Christ. This Inner Voice would point out one's own sins. Only when you begin to fight against them would you bear the true cross. The inner light would not only show you your own sins, but also the way out of them and the strength to overcome them. If one did not follow the guidance of God (or the Inner Light) and persist in sin, one would be condemned.

Ludwig Seebohm was somewhat more succinct in his treatise "About the Kingdom of God" from 1794:

"[...] by clearing away the evil things and habits that hold back the glow of Christ's light in our hearts and not allowing others to take their place, we give it freedom to increase its appearance, and so the appearance and teaching of grace can become ever clearer and clearer; and in this way the spirit of Christ wins supremacy in us, which is then the establishment of the kingdom of God. […] We then find far more pleasure in virtue and goodwill, rejoice far more of truth and righteousness, [...] And this change in our natures is the fruit of a birth from above, a sure sign that we have come out of death into life and have been moved to our measure in the kingdom of the beloved Son of God, which does not consist in outward observations and empty words, but in righteousness, in peace, and in joy in the Holy Spirit, [...] "

A certain consequence is already evident in the quote. It is postulated here that true belief shows itself in positive traits in a person. This brought the Quakers the accusation of " work righteousness " but also the sympathy of the Mennonites, who had similar views of a Christian life. Certainly also with other groups of radical pietism . The majority of the members of the German Quaker settlement in Friedensthal came from these circles before their conversion . The so-called Quaker products are the direct result of this conception of justification. They too are still a central part of the Quaker identity across all borders of the various wings.

In the justification doctrine of Quakerism, a perfectionism is assumed. In the sense that man is in principle able to lead a sin-free life. The "life in the kingdom of God" is understood as the state without sin, but not without suffering. In addition to the concept of suffering, the word suffering became a standing term in English . The absence of suffering is not seen as a feature of the kingdom of God , but as a trial of the righteous (derived, among other things, from the book of Job ). The state of the kingdom of God or salvation is not considered to be immutable or immortal:

"We are not of the opinion of those who say: 'once in grace and always in grace,' or that one cannot fall away from the slightest degree of true and saving grace, once it has been achieved. ..] Nobody is safe longer than as long as he is on his watch. When David and Peter lost their watchfulness, they fell. (Cf. Mt 26: 69-75; Lu 22: 54-62; Joh 18 , 15-18; 2 Samuel 11: 1-27) "

Sinfulness of man

The early Quakers believed that people could live sin free while they were still alive. And through the redeeming power of Christ and the turning to inner light, the revelation of Christ.

[...] I replied: "If you are true believers in Christ, you have entered life from death, and if you are free from death, then it is you also from sin that brings death. And if you are If your faith is true, it will give you the victory over sin and devils and purify hearts and conscience - for true faith is in a pure conscience (1 Tim. 3) and it will make you please God and give you access to again got him. " But they did not want to hear about purity and about victory over sin and the devil; because they said they cannot believe that anyone can be sinless [...]

The conflict with most other denominations is described here. Fox did not believe that one could live a sinless life on one's own, but that faith in Jesus Christ can. And he makes the reverse conclusion that someone who lives in sin has no true faith and cannot stand before God either. This radicalism is largely only adhered to in the conservative branch of Quakerism. The liberal and evangelical quakers have largely moved away from this position.

purgatory

The idea of ​​purgatory is rejected. Beniamin Holme justifies this as follows:

Or, if they believe that there is a purgatory or a place where they can be cleansed of their sins after death, what wonder then when they lead a life that is sufficient to fulfill and satisfy their carnal graces and affections? .

exegesis

The relationship of the Quakers to the biblical scriptures varies  greatly depending on the orientation - liberal, conservative or evangelical . For the first Quakers, "Jesus Christ" was the "Word of God" and not the Bible. In a writing from 1693 it says:

That in the Word (or Son of God) was life, and life was the light of men; and that he was truly light, which illuminates all people who come into this world; and that therefore all should believe in the light, that they may become children of the light; therefore we believe in Christ, the Son of God, as the light and life in us, [...]

Like George Fox , they emphasized that the authors of the biblical scriptures were inspired by the Holy Spirit. George Fox wrote about this in 1671:

We believe that the holy scriptures are given by the holy spirit of God; through the holy men of God, who [..] spoke, driven by the holy spirit. We believe that it should be read, believed, and fulfilled (who fills it is Christ) [...]

The classic liberal position, which was widely recognized in the first two centuries of Quaker history and is largely consensus among European Quakerism today, was formulated in 1675 by Quaker theologian Robert Barclay in his Apology ,

"That the [biblical] scriptures are only a description of the source and not the source itself".

Ecumenism and freedom of belief

The two most numerically strong associations of North American Quakers, the FUM and the FGC, are members of the World Council of Churches . The early Quakers were ardent advocates of freedom of belief and in this respect very important pioneers of the modern idea of ​​tolerance and its realization. So in 1661 George Fox felt compelled to write to King Charles II of England :

[…] It is better for the king that the people speak their mind than that it boils in them and grows into action. May it be Jews, Papists , Turks, Gentiles, Protestants or anything else, or those who worship the sun, moon, sticks and stones, give them freedom so that each of them can show and speak of what he sees his strength in . For the servants of the gospel who carry spiritual weapons need not fear any of them [...]

The Quaker William Penn created a sanctuary for persecuted or discriminated religious minorities with his Pennsylvania colony in 1682 . With this he continued the connection between democratic form of government and religious freedom established by the Baptist Roger Williams and the congregationalist Thomas Hooker in 1636 in Rhode Island and Connecticut . This connection became groundbreaking for the further history of the English colonies in North America and received its final legal and political fixation in the United States' Declaration of Independence , the Constitution and the Bill of Rights . The American constitutional principles in turn became the model for the constitutions of many other states, especially in Europe and Latin America, and found their way into the Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the United Nations .

Sacraments

In contrast to most other Christian denominations, formal sacrament does not play a special role in Quakerism. Liberal Quakers in particular like to speak of the “sacrament of life” instead. Accordingly, in the Quaker tradition there is hardly any distinction between the sacred and the profane .

Lord's Supper / Eucharist

Like all liturgical acts, the Eucharist has no meaning for early, conservative or liberal Quakers. As a justification, reference is made to Matthew 3:11. Early Quakers were not only indifferent to the celebration of the Eucharist, but even negative. There was the case in the Netherlands in 1692, where a Quaker's wife was excluded from devotional because she was attending the Mennonite congregation and eating communion there.

George Fox stated the following on the subject of the Lord's Supper in 1656:

"The Quakers are often accused of denying the so-called sacrament of bread and wine, of which it is said that one must use it to commemorate Christ (Luke 22:19) until the end of the world. We had because of this and because of the different ways of using the sacrament in so-called Christianity, a lot of trouble with the priests and "pious" "ones, because some take it kneeling, some sitting; but none of all I have ever seen take it like the disciples took it, namely in a room after dinner, but most take it before lunch and some say when the priest has blessed bread and wine, "" it is the body of Christ "". Christ only said, "do it in my memory". He didn't tell them how often or how long to do it; Nor did he command them to do it for their entire life, nor that all who believe in him should do it until the end of the world. The apostle Paul, who was not converted until after Christ's death, tells the Corinthians that he has received from the Lord what he has communicated to them on this matter, and he cites Christ's words with regard to the cup as follows: "Do this as often as you like drink, in memory of me ""; and he himself adds: "for as often as you eat bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes" (1 Cor. 11:26) So what the apostle communicates here, neither Christ nor he commanded to do this at all times, but left it to everyone ... But as far as bread and wine were concerned, Christas had said that it was the bread of life ( John 6:48) that comes from heaven, and that he will come and dwell in them. The apostles now regarded this as fulfilled and exhorted others to seek that which comes from above (Col. 3,2) You now, who drink this external wine and eat this external bread to commemorate the death of Christ, do not know anything better about the death of Christ to get closer? "

The Quakers reject transubstantiation or real presence doctrine. G. Fox writes:

"[...] and then moved to another place where we had a very beautiful, edifying meeting, but some papists who had attended it were very angry and angry afterwards. When I heard this, I read one of them come to me, a schoolmaster, but he did not want to come. So I sent to him, as well as to all monks, friars, priests and Jesuits, an invitation to try their God and their Christ, which they made of bread and wine; but I could not get an answer from them. Then I explained to them that they were worse than the Baalz priests: for the Baalz priests had tried their wooden god, but they should not dare to try their god out of bread and wine, and neither the Baalz priests and their followers would not have eaten their God as they did and afterwards made another [...] "

marriage

Marriages are not concluded liturgically, nor by priests or clergy. The future spouses simply declare themselves together before the meeting. There is no set formula that is spoken. Confessional mixed marriages were rarely concluded until the 19th century and mostly came about because only one of the two partners had converted. Non-denominational marriages usually led to exclusion from the Quaker community. However, today there are no more restrictions. The Ohio Yearly Meeting, in its book of discipline, speaks of a sacrament in marriage. Other Quaker groups, especially the liberal Quakers, do not necessarily view marriage as a sacrament.

baptism

George Fox distinguishes between baptism by water and by the Holy Spirit. He is referring to John 1: 32–33

And John testified and said: “I saw the spirit power come down from heaven like a dove and it stayed on him. I did not know him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water said to me: 'He on whom you see the spirit power coming down and remain on him, it is he who baptizes with holy spirit power.' "

From this he deduces that it is no longer baptized with water, but that Jesus himself baptizes people with the Holy Spirit. (vg. Mt 3,11) 1 Cor 1: 12-17 is also given. From this it is deduced that the missionary mandate does not (necessarily) include baptism with water, but rather to proclaim the message of Jesus. The emphasis for George Fox is in Matthew 28.16 to 20 on "And teaching them everything I have commanded to do." In what the disciples are to plunge the peoples - whether in water - is for him not say so . Acts 1: 1-8 is also cited. Here, too, we speak of baptism with the Holy Spirit. Romans 6: 1-4 is also cited, where it says that one would be baptized through Jesus Christ (oneself) and thus one with him.

Ecclesiology

From the beginning, the term "church" was expressly used only for the "community of believers" and not for buildings. The formal membership is regulated in the so-called "order of coexistence". The theological basis is somewhat more complex and was dealt with in a separate article " Ecclesiology (Quakerism) ".

Clergy and liturgy

Establishment of an old meeting house in the United States

Quakers emphasize the priesthood of all believers . In the form of the Quaker service, this is expressed, for example, in the fact that all participants in a devotion are equally responsible for its organization. There are no “leaders”, pastors, preachers or the like.

In the liberal “European” tradition of Quakerism described here, people usually gather in a simple room for an approximately one-hour silent meeting for worship (“silent meeting for worship”), in which the participants try to “feel the presence of God to open ”(“ Waiting upon the Lord ”). The friends also speak of “waiting in the light” or “listening to / in the light”. Every worship participant can speak out of the silence if they feel pressured to do so. Quaker devotions, however, are often completely silent.

There are pastors in the so-called “programmed” and evangelical Quaker churches that arose in the USA in the middle of the 19th century and are particularly widespread in Latin America and Africa . The services of this relatively young, but now numerically largest variety of Quakerism resemble an evangelical service with a liturgical structure, with prayers, songs, reading and sermon. When it comes to other questions of faith and lifestyle, there are Quakers in these groups who see themselves more as conservative and conventionally Christian. 83% of Quakers organized in annual meetings had programmed devotions in 2000 . Only 9% still have a "silent" unprogrammed prayer.

prayer

In conservative and liberal Quakerism, no pre-formulated prayers, such as the Our Father, are spoken. At least not together and not as part of a liturgy. Prayer is done "as it is received by the Spirit".

Trinity or Trinity

The discussion about the Trinity or Trinity is usually dismissed as theological subtleties among quakers. On March 11, 1676, the German Quaker Markus Schwaner recorded during an inquisitorial interrogation:

"Scripture has no such things. No, I don't find it in scripture, we [Quaker] don't know anything about the word Trinity, we do know about the Dreyen, about God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit [ ...] "

Peace theology

Probably the most well-known theological position of the Quakers is the theology of peace. George Fox in particular represented a consistent Quaker product very early on and thus had a lasting influence on the community. The reason for dealing with the question was the then raging English civil war. So he wrote to the Quaker churches:

"You friends everywhere! Beware of conspiracies and ravages, and of the arm of the flesh, for all these rulers are fallen sons of Adam; they destroy human life like dogs, pigs and other animals destroy themselves, bite and tear themselves apart How did fighting and killing come about other than from lust? And all this comes from the fallen Adam, but not from the Adam who did not fall, in whom there is life and peace (1 Cor. 15). You are at peace Called, therefore pursue him, and this peace is in Christ and not in the fallen Adam. All who now pretend to fight for Christ are deceiving themselves, for his kingdom is not of this world; therefore his servants do not fight Those who fight do not belong to his kingdom, because his kingdom is peace and righteousness [...] You who are heirs of the gospel of peace, which was before Satan was, live in this gospel, seek peace and what is good for r all, and live in Christ who came to redeem the souls of men from the fallen Adam; the Jews' external sword, with which they killed the Gentiles, was a symbol of the internal Spirit of God who kills internal pagan nature. So live in the peaceful kingdom of Jesus Christ, in the peace of God and not in the air from which war arises [...] and seek the well-being and prosperity for all people. "

See also

glossary

For the technical terms used in the article, see also the article " Glossary Quakerism ".

credentials

  1. ↑ From William Penn : Without a cross, no crown, Chapter 7 , § 3 ( page 120 )
  2. ↑ George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker. Translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), page 135
  3. ↑ Compare to the Apologia translations the information in Sünne Juterczenka: About God and the World. End time visions, reform debates and the European Quaker mission in the early modern period, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, page 177
  4. ↑ Compare Sünne Juterczenka: About God and the World. End times visions, reform debates and the European Quaker mission in the early modern period, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, page 172: "From the Quaker's point of view, printing books was a losing business"
  5. ↑ Digital copies of this German edition are available, for example, via the Göttingen Digitization Center and via Google Books . For more information on this edition, see Sünne Juterczenka: About God and the World. End time visions, reform debates and the European Quaker mission in the early modern period, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, page 170.
  6. ↑ To assess the person Jones, see the work of Claus Bernet, "Conscientious Objection in the 19th Century: A Contribution to the Cliché of the Military State of Prussia" on page 208
  7. ^ Page 239, "Deutsche Quäkerschriften", edited by Claus Bernet, Volume-2 (18th century), Georg Olms Verlag 2007
  8. ^ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), page 99
  9. ↑ For more see Wikipedia: Quaker Bible
  10. ^ Page 3, "Excerpt from a letter from Georg Fox to the Governor of Barbados, 1671", In the translation of 1835: "Excerpts from the recognized documents of the religious society of friends concerning Christian doctrine.", London, printed by S. Bagster. Copy of the State and City Library Düsseldorf
  11. ↑ Page 10, from section "From an Annual Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends, held in London, 1829", A translation from 1835: "Excerpts from the recognized documents of the Religious Society of Friends concerning Christian Doctrine.", London, Printed by S. Bagster. Copy of the State and City Library Düsseldorf
  12. ↑ Page 30 in "Deutsche Quäkerschriften", edited by Claus Bernet, Volume-2 (18th century), Georg Olms Verlag 2007, ISBN 9783487134086
  13. ↑ Since Reckefuss no longer wanted to represent Christian positions, the Quakers did not know what else to do than to demand a written commitment to the Trinity , which otherwise hardly played a role in Quakerism. Page 43, "Research on Brandenburg and Prussian History", Volume 18, 2008, Issue 1, ISSN  0934-1234 , [1]  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.atypon-link.com  
  14. ^ John Lamps, "20 Questions About Jesus," 1985, isbn 3929696118
  15. ↑ No crown without a cross, Chapter 4 , § 20
  16. ^ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", translation by Margrit Stühelin, published in Tübingen 1908, published by JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
  17. ↑ George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker. Translator: Marg. Stähelin. Tübingen 1908, published by JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
  18. ↑ See: Sünne Juterczenka: About God and the World - End Times Visions, Reform Debates, and the European Quaker Mission in the Early Modern Age. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, ISBN 978-3-525-35458-2 .
  19. ↑ from 1657 in Chapter 11, "But the farmer must wait in patience" - Chapter 11, from the diary of G. Fox
  20. ^ William Penn : No Cross No Krown. English: No crown without a cross. A treatise on the quality and effect of the holy cross of Christ. (1826) in Wikisource
  21. ↑ From "Comments about various objects of Christianity", Ludwig Seebohm, 1794. To be found in "Deutsche Quäkerschriften des 18. Jahrhundert", ISBN 978-3-487-13408-6 , THE INDEPENDENT FRIEND
  22. ↑ See chapter "Suffering and Redemption", from "Introduction to Quakerism"
  23. ↑ Beniamin Holme, 1795; Page 186 in "Deutsche Quäkerschriften", edited by Claus Bernet, Volume-2 (18th century), Georg Olms Verlag 2007, ISBN 9783487134086
  24. ↑ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), page 33
  25. ↑ Beniamin Holme, 1795; Page 171 in "Deutsche Quäkerschriften", edited by Claus Bernet, Volume-2 (18th century), Georg Olms Verlag 2007, ISBN 9783487134086
  26. ↑ a b Also from the letter from G. Fox to the Governor of Barbados, from the year 1671 In the translation of 1835: "Excerpts from the recognized documents of the religious society of friends concerning Christian teaching.", London, printed by S. Bagster. Copy of the state and city library Düsseldorf
  27. ↑ "... that the scriptures are only a declaration of the fountain and not the fountain itself ..."; Robert Barclay: An apology of the true Christian Divinity ; Amsterdam 1676
  28. ↑
  29. ↑ From the magazine "Quäker", 81st JG. 1/2007, page 3, ISSN  1619-0394
  30. ↑ Allen Weinstein and David Rubel, The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower , New York, NY, 2002, pp. 58, 62–63
  31. ↑ Clifton E. Olmstead, History of Religion in the United States , Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1960, pp. 74-76, 99-105, 111-116
  32. ^ Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789 , Revised and Expanded Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 2005, pp. 49-52
  33. ↑ Thomas S. Kidd, God of Liberty: A Religious History of the American Revolution , New York, NY, 2010, pp. 4–10, 222
  34. ^ Douglas K. Stevenson, American Life and Institutions , Stuttgart, 1987, p. 34
  35. ↑ G. Jasper, United Nations , in Religion in Past and Present , 3rd Edition, Volume VI, Column 1328-1329
  36. ↑ New Lusatian Magazine . New Series, Volume 13, 2010, ISBN 9783938583487 , p. 78.
  37. ^ "About God and the World: ...", Von Sünne Juterczenka, Publisher: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008, ISBN 3525354584 , 9783525354582, page 207 .
  38. ^ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", Translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Chapter X. Pages 125 to 126
  39. ↑ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Chapter X. Pages 121 and 122
  40. ^ Translation from the Bible into righteous language
  41. ↑ Annette Frike: Quäker und Baptism, in: Quäker 6/2006, 80th year, page 279, ISSN  1619-0394
  42. ↑ See also: George Fox: A Distinction Between the Two Baptisms, 1685: Adaptation Pickvance, 1986
  43. ↑ page 113, "the quakers - a very short introduction", Pink Dandelion, ISBN 9780199206797
  44. ^ "Neues Lausitzisches Magazin", Volume 13, published 2010, ISBN 9783938583487 , there on page 77.
  45. ↑ Claus Bernet, Specialized Prose Research - Crossing Borders, Volume 4/5 (2008/09), ISBN 978-3-86888-022-9 , DWV, page 154
  46. ^ "George Fox - Notes and Letters of the First Quaker", translator: Margrit Stähelin, Tübingen, 1908, Verlag JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Chapter 12, page 144