Self-determination theory

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The self-determination theory ( Engl. Self-Determination Theory , SDT ) is a both process content-oriented theory of motivation. It was developed by Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci at the University of Rochester , USA. According to this theory, the motivation for a certain behavior always depends on the extent to which the three basic psychological needs for competence, social integration and autonomy can be satisfied. Motivation is understood as a quantity that not only quantitatively describes the interest in exercising the behavior in question, but also has qualitatively different characteristics. These express themselves in the associated degree of creativity, problem-solving behavior and perseverance as well as the associated well-being.

Frustration as a failure to satisfy basic psychological needs leads, depending on its type and duration, to different restrictions on the motivation for the behavior in question. The consequences range from a simple change in behavior to the development of replacement needs to self-destructive actions or complete lack of drive. However, this is always associated with a loss of behavioral quality, well-being and health.

The importance of basic psychological needs for the development of long-term behavior also has consequences for the design of optimal learning environments. It is beneficial here to provide comprehensible reasons for the learning content, to enable personal initiative, to renounce performance comparisons, to set normative targets or to result-dependent rewards as well as to avoid excessive and insufficient demands.

starting point

The starting point for the development of SDT was the observation that contrary to what was generally expected at the time, the motivation for activities that are intrinsically interesting is often not increased by additional incentives or rewards, but on the contrary decreases. For a more precise description of this fact, which is also known as the corruption effect , the concept of motivation had to be refined, insofar as it only differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

From SDT's point of view, there is another reason to use an expanded concept of motivation. The different strategies to be observed, for example when acquiring a new area of ​​knowledge, either fact-oriented to learn the presented content in great detail, or structure-oriented, above all to strive for the broader context of this content, suggests that for motivation as well as its strength to assume qualitatively different characteristics. In fact, according to SDT, it is more a matter of these than the respective strength of motivation itself.

Basics

Basic psychological needs

According to SDT, there are empirically proven three permanent and cross-cultural basic psychological needs , the satisfaction of which is important for effective behavior and mental health. These are competence , autonomy and social integration. Under competence feel is understood as effective at each deemed important things can act accordingly and desired results to be achieved. Autonomy here denotes a feeling of voluntariness that can accompany any behavior (for example also following the instructions of the security staff at the airport if one is convinced that these controls are necessary); thus in this context it is not to be understood as objective independence from other persons or other circumstances. Finally, social integration does not only mean the meaning that others have for one, but also the meaning that one has for others. The way in which these basic needs can be satisfied depends essentially on the value system acquired in the respective socio-cultural context.

Motivation and degree of autonomy

The focus of SDT is the concept of motivation that controls a certain behavior . Motivation is viewed here as a non-unitary, i.e. multidimensional, variable that is characterized not only by its overall strength, but also primarily by the degree of autonomy on which it is based. Based on the corresponding presentation by Ryan and Deci, taking into account their more recent classification of intrinsic motivation only as a subcategory of autonomous motivation, the following picture emerges for the autonomy dimension of motivation:

MOTIVATION externally determined rather externally determined rather autonomous autonomous
REGULATION external introjected identified integrated
IMPORTANT
CONTROL
PROCESSES 		Reward, punishment,
seduction, coercion,
external pressure 		Avoiding feelings of guilt or fear,
increasing self-esteem,
developing pride 		Goal or regulation
is personally
deemed important or valuable 		intrinsically (action itself is interesting or joyful),
or at least completely voluntary and goal or regulation are integrated into the sense of self

The degree of autonomy describes the subjectively perceived internal part of the regulation and, like the overall strength of motivation, is viewed as a continuum.

Motivation-determining factors

In addition to the motivation for a single task or for a specific area, SDT is particularly interested in the motivational factors of the individual personality. On the one hand, there is the causal attribution (sometimes also referred to as control belief), which indicates where a person generally sees the cause of their own behavior and thus describes the general extent of self-determined behavior of this person.

On the other hand, these are the behavioral goals or motives of the person, which are further subdivided into extrinsic motives, such as material wealth or social recognition, and intrinsic ones, such as group membership or personal development.

Results

Quality of behavior

If a behavior is autonomously motivated, it is more effective than an externally motivated behavior of the same motivation strength, especially if creativity, problem-solving behavior or perseverance are required, and thus has a higher quality. At the same time, it's linked to better mental health and wellbeing. The reason for this is the satisfaction of the three above-mentioned basic psychological needs made possible by the behavior, mainly that for autonomy, but also for competence and social integration.

Integration of behaviors

The three basic psychological needs are also of central importance for the long-term internalization and integration of behavior. The internalization process of special behavior patterns can indeed take place in stages, but it explicitly does not have to go through every single station of the autonomy dimension of motivation.

vitality

Psychic energy is not used up through autonomously motivated behavior. Instead, the satisfaction of the above-mentioned basic psychological needs associated with the behavior increases vitality , i.e. the energy that is available to the self for its actions.

Causal attribution and motive system

The characteristics of autonomously motivated behavior can be generalized to the motivational factors of the individual person: a more stable internal causal attribution and a more intrinsic motive system generally result in greater psychological well-being and more effective and thus qualitatively higher behavior.

Personality traits

Both the development of a stable internal causal attribution and the formation of one's own motive system are largely determined by how the three above-mentioned basic psychological needs are satisfied or suppressed in the dialectical process of the interaction of the person concerned with their social environment. Corresponding experiences thus have a direct effect on the development of their personality traits . The extrinsic motives mentioned in the above section Motivation Determining Factors (SDT) act as a kind of substitute for a true satisfaction of these needs, whereby the pursuit of such extrinsic behavioral goals, even if they are achieved, contributes little to behavioral integration and well-being.

If the above-mentioned basic psychological needs are permanently suppressed, this leads to a state of amotivation in which the person concerned remains without motivation for any action, i.e. their motivational strength is generally zero and a degree of autonomy cannot be assigned. This state is associated with feelings of inferiority and a lack of vitality. The associated causal attribution is impersonal, so that neither yourself nor other people are understood as the cause of experienced events.

Personal relationships

Friendship , partnership , love relationships or other interpersonal relationships are important for the individual not only with regard to his need for social integration. Rather, high-quality personal relationships are characterized by the fact that they also satisfy the basic psychological needs of autonomy and competence of each partner to a high degree. If, on the other hand, a partner has to back off on one of these basic needs in order to maintain the relationship, the quality of the relationship is called into question.

Application reference

Areas of application

The significance of the social environment for internalization and integration, and thus for increasing the efficiency of behavior, as described by SDT, leads to a wide range of applications for SDT. The areas of partnership and family, education, work, health, sport and environmental awareness are named.

Autonomy support

Desired behavior of other people should be based on the prompt “Don't ask how you can motivate others! Ask how you can create the conditions in which others will motivate themselves! ”Can be achieved through autonomy support. This includes taking the perspective of others, giving them options, giving them the opportunity to discover things on their own, giving them space for their own initiative and providing convincing, comprehensible reasons.

Self-determination theory as both process and content theory

Active organism

In SDT is man than of nature from active to growth oriented organization considers that in order to function optimally and simultaneously the greatest possible well-being to ensure its psychological elements into a unified self to integrate themselves into larger social structures studied insert.

Adjustment mechanisms

Actively implementing cultural requirements, values and regulations of one's own social group and integrating them into one's own self is an adaptation that does not simply happen automatically. This also applies in particular to the internalization of regulations for behavior that was originally imposed from outside. From the point of view of SDT, the mechanisms that have emerged in the course of human evolution for a highly flexible adaptation of the individual to the requirements of the respective physical and social environment are precisely the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration specified in the above section Basic Psychological Needs (SDT) . As a rule, precisely such behavioral goals are pursued and precisely those areas of action and social relationships are selected that enable or support the satisfaction of these basic psychological needs . The desired behavior is then characterized by optimal efficiency, the best ability to integrate and the associated high level of well-being , and therefore optimally adapted to the corresponding situation.

The individual needs concern different aspects of the adaptation of the individual to his socio-cultural environment.

Competence. The need for competence is expressed in the joy of learning itself and is important for the development of skills and techniques of the individual from birth. It is precisely the cross-divisional, universal character of this need that enables optimal adaptation to the diverse challenges of the environment, in particular through specialization in new areas or cultural niches.

Social involvement. The need for social inclusion developed out of the archaic need to protect and care for one's offspring. The integration of the individual into a larger social whole brings him advantages in terms of resource use and protection and ensures an effective transfer of knowledge and values ​​from his group. On the other hand, his group benefits from the possibility of division of labor organization and coordination.

Autonomy. The need for autonomy , which in this context should not be confused with the desire for independence from others or with the need for distance from others, describes, from the point of view of SDT, the tendency, deeply rooted in the organism, to self-regulate one's own actions and the coherence of its behavioral goals. Self-regulated action is associated with the experience of wholeness , voluntariness and vitality , while externally regulated action goes hand in hand with the feeling of restriction, pressure and being constrained. Autonomy is now indispensable for effective adaptation to changed external circumstances. Because it is not enough if these circumstances automatically set specific mechanisms in motion. Rather, the new mechanisms must be incorporated into a hierarchically structured whole through integrating processes of self-organization. If behavior is instead controlled by non-integrated external processes, the result can even be catastrophic, as in the classic experiment by James Olds (1958). He showed that rats, whose behavior was influenced by the giving of rewards in the form of electrical brain stimulation, exhausted themselves to the point of complete exhaustion, ignoring the basic needs of the organism.

A comparison of basic psychological and physiological needs

Basic physiological needs such as hunger, due to physiological deficiencies, cause behavior that is directly aimed at remedying the respective deficiency. This satisfaction is usually learned and has a passive state as its goal, namely to calm the state of excitement of the organism caused by the deficiency . The more the physiological need is suppressed in a situation, the more it is felt and the more dominant the satisfaction-oriented behavior becomes. For most questions, the possibility or impossibility of satisfying this need based on the respective interaction with the environment is more of interest than its current strength itself.

Behavior that brings about the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy or social integration, on the other hand, does not have to be aimed directly at the respective need satisfaction and, as a rule, is not. It can simply be about an interesting activity or an important goal, as long as it allows such satisfaction in its context. In most cases, one is not even aware that one's current behavior is causing such a need to be satisfied. Nevertheless, behavior directed towards the satisfaction of one of these basic psychological needs also occurs. An example would be consciously seeking sociability when feeling lonely .

From SDT's point of view, as in the case of basic physiological needs, a lack of satisfaction of basic psychological needs initially leads to increased efforts to achieve them. In the event of ongoing suppression of needs, protective mechanisms and replacement needs are then developed that reduce direct attempts to satisfy the original needs. Such defensive adjustments always have negative consequences for their vitality, intactness and health, regardless of any possible appreciation by the person concerned.

Wellbeing

According to SDT, the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is always associated with well-being . Well-being is not only understood as the subjective experience of a positive feeling, but also as a function of the organism that causes the perception of immediate vitality, psychological flexibility and a deeply felt well-being. The fact that the experience of mental health and well-being presupposes the satisfaction of all three basic psychological needs can be observed not only when comparing different people with one another, but also within one person on a daily basis.

Internalization and self

Internalization is treated in many theories as a central, but differently formulated, concept of socialization . From SDT's point of view, internalization represents the active and natural process in which the individual transforms social norms , especially socially sanctioned customs and requirements, into personally internalized values, behavioral regulations and behavioral goals. The success of this internalization process depends in large part on the extent to which the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs (SDT) section above for competence, autonomy and social integration in the exercise of the behavior in question is supported. In the best case, one identifies with the importance of social regulations, integrates them completely into oneself and accepts them as part of oneself. The associated behavior is characterized by great stamina, great effectiveness and mental and physical health.

If the internalization process is hindered, however, the result is a correspondingly lower degree of autonomy in the associated behavior. As can be seen from the overview in the section Motivation and degree of autonomy (SDT) , the associated control processes also change with the degree of autonomy. The lower the degree of autonomy, the stronger there is an inner conflict between the control processes and the desire not to carry out the corresponding action, and the more likely the corresponding behavior is given up as soon as the current control processes are no longer effective.

The process of internalization is made easier if, when executing the relevant behavior, one feels connected to those who demand the behavior and if, on the one hand, one understands the importance of behavioral regulation and, on the other hand, has already developed the ability to fully meet the demand through one's own actions correspond. In order to fully integrate the values ​​and behaviors into one's own self, one must also be able to carry out the corresponding action voluntarily and thus, if necessary, modified. So if all three basic psychological needs are supported in such a situation, this not only promotes the internalization process, but also ensures that it runs optimally.

The self as the goal of optimal internalization is characterized in SDT by its inherent tendency to activity, its integrative process and the basic psychological needs that work in it. Through the integrative process, cultural values, motives and behaviors as well as emotional regulations are constantly incorporated into the self and thus perfected. The self acts as the source of the autonomous motivation given in the Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) section above . However, if behavior is not fully integrated into the self and therefore not autonomously motivated, its control processes take place mainly inside the person, but outside the self.

frustration

Although one constantly strives to find suitable ways of satisfying the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration mentioned in the above section on Basic Psychological Needs (SDT) , the social environment can still partially or completely prevent this in certain situations. According to the SDT, the possible consequences of such frustration range from simple behavioral changes to the development of non-autonomous behavioral regulation to the amotivation specified in the section on Personality Traits (SDT) above. Other protective mechanisms that are developed in such situations are replacement needs and rigid behaviors. Although these mechanisms represent the best possible adaptation, they are nonetheless associated with losses in mental and physical health and the quality of behavior. Once established, they also prevent the original basic psychological needs from being satisfied, even when satisfaction would actually be possible.

Different limitations in the ability to satisfy basic psychological needs affect the motivation for current behavior in different ways. If, for example, one is induced to show certain behavior solely through external rewards or punishments, the need for autonomy cannot be satisfied. The behavior that is motivated by someone else is characterized by relative ineffectiveness, accompanied by feelings of constrainedness and pressure and is given up again as soon as the external control processes have lost their effect.

If one receives additional rewards for an intrinsically interesting activity, as described in the section Starting point (SDT) above , the satisfaction of the need for autonomy is limited to the extent that one can no longer see oneself as the master of this activity. In addition to the degree of autonomy of the associated motivation, this also reduces the original interest, i.e. the strength of motivation. Because the interest in an activity depends on how strongly the basic psychological needs can be satisfied when it is carried out. Threats, surveillance, regular assessments or setting deadlines also reduce the degree of autonomy and motivation strength accordingly.

Negative feedback signals incompetence and accordingly reduces the level of motivation for the job in question, because it limits the satisfaction of the need for competence. Overload and underload have the same effect . If you are overwhelmed, you see yourself not able to meet the requirements of the current task and recognize your own lack of competence, while if you are under-challenged the current task is so simple that you cannot understand its solution as an expression of your own competence. In both cases it is not possible to satisfy the need for competence.

If in certain situations, for example in a learning group of children, the desire for affection is not adequately met, the need for social integration is only partially possible. The motivational strength for the behavior in question is reduced accordingly.

Internalization processes are always affected by the suppression of basic psychological needs if this suppression is of long duration. So, if support for competence and social integration is always granted when exercising a certain behavior, but autonomy is permanently denied, this behavior can be perfected more and more. The internalization process then only runs to a limited extent and may lead to introjected or partially integrated regulation, but not to complete integration.

Conditional care, as it is sometimes found as a means of parenting, forces the abandonment of autonomy, i.e. being who one really is, in favor of the longed-for care. An internalization of the corresponding behavior can then only lead to introjected regulation with its negative consequences for behavior quality and health. Additionally, there are psychological costs in the form of resentment and the feeling of not being loved.

When children grow up in an environment in which they are neglected or mistreated and arbitrarily punished, the satisfaction of their basic psychological needs is almost entirely suppressed. As a result, they come into a state of amotivation, described in the above section on Personality Traits (SDT) , which is characterized by listlessness and feelings of inferiority as well as an impersonal attribution of causes, and they show unregulated emotions and behavioral disorders when being with other people.

The development of compensatory behavioral goals is also a possible consequence of prolonged suppression of basic psychological needs. For example, prolonged suppression of the need for social integration can result in a striving for material wealth through which one hopes to finally achieve the previously failed recognition and appreciation. The pursuit of a positive image or fame can also be observed in such cases.

Finally, rigid behaviors such as anorexia can also be traced back to prolonged suppression of basic psychological needs. In this special case one tries to develop a feeling of effectiveness and self-determination in the area of ​​eating behavior, i.e. in an area over which one is in control. This compensates for a long-term failure to satisfy needs for competence and autonomy. Regular drug use, total psychological withdrawal and antisocial behavior, as well as other forms of self-destructive behavior are other examples of such compensatory processes.

Process orientation

The theoretically based connection in SDT between the quality of behavior and the associated well-being and mental health on the one hand and the degree of autonomy of the corresponding motivation specified in the above section Motivation and degree of autonomy (SDT) on the other hand can be empirically proven in many areas. According to this, a high degree of autonomy of the underlying motivation is associated with a high quality of behavior and a high level of well-being, whereas a low degree of autonomy is associated with a correspondingly lower degree of these characteristics.

At the same time, a similar connection can be observed if one proceeds from the causal attribution of the acting person instead of the motivation for the current behavior. According to the SDT, causal attribution is the result of the dialectical interaction process of the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration of the person with his social environment mentioned in the above section Basic Psychological Needs (SDT) , in the course of which these needs are either satisfied or suppressed. A far-reaching satisfaction of these needs in the past leads to a stable internal attribution of causes in which one sees oneself as the cause of one's own behavior. A high quality of the respective behavior and corresponding well-being is the result of this conviction, while an external or even impersonal causal attribution has the opposite effect.

Since SDT now allows predictions about the quality of behavior and the associated well-being on the basis of the degree of autonomy of the corresponding motivation and the causal attribution of the person acting, SDT presents itself as a process-oriented motivation theory.

Content orientation

As a rule, based on the content of behavioral goals, a connection can be made between them and the mental health and associated well-being associated with their pursuit. This is done in SDT by dividing behavioral goals into intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Intrinsic goals such as group membership, personality development and social commitment are those that are closely related to the satisfaction of the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration specified in the above section on basic psychological needs (SDT) , while extrinsic goals such as material wealth, positive image or Fame are more likely to be associated with the achievement of outward recognition and outward signs of appreciation, and therefore tend not to lead to a satisfaction of basic psychological needs.

In the above section, Frustration (SDT) , the reason for the development of extrinsic goals is their compensatory function in situations in which the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is not possible in the long term. The strength of the suppression of the respective need determines the strength of the corresponding extrinsic goal or motive. This in turn depends on the extent to which this motive distracts attention from the original need and thus prevents its satisfaction in the future. Empirical findings confirm a corresponding limitation in well-being when pursuing extrinsic behavioral goals.

In contrast, intrinsic behavioral goals are linked to a high level of well-being. However, intrinsic goals are always culturally determined, so that a purely phenomenological comparison of their content can lead to false conclusions. For example, a comparative study between Americans and Asians by Sheena Iyengar and Lepper (1999) suggests culturally determined differences in the content associated with the feeling of autonomy. It was investigated whether one would rather accept the decision of a trusted member of his group or rather decide for oneself. While in the Asian sample the possibility of adopting decisions and thus values ​​of the person with whom one identified with was favored, in the American sample the possibility of making one's own decision was preferred. Autonomy seems to be bound to different content in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures.

From SDT's point of view, cultural and subcultural goals and values ​​can only be transformed into intrinsic goals and thus integrated into the self if they are compatible with human nature and especially with basic psychological needs. An example of non-integrability is the culturally anchored appreciation of genital mutilation . Another, if not so dramatic, example is the socially rooted belief that boys shouldn't cry. Pursuing such non-integrable behavioral goals is always associated with psychological costs in terms of personal development, intactness and health and marks the culture in question as internally less stable. However, the more a society enables its full integration into the self through the nature of its goals and values ​​as well as the regulations effective in it, the more of its members can live in harmony and the more stable its culture is.

Since SDT allows to predict related well-being based on the content of behavioral goals, SDT also presents itself as a content-oriented motivation theory.

Since the satisfaction or suppression of basic psychological needs controls both the process according to which behavioral goals are pursued and the formation of behavioral goals in general and thus their content, there is a positive statistical relationship between process and content according to SDT in the sense that from rather intrinsic goals are pursued for self-determined reasons, whereas extrinsic goals are more likely to be pursued for reasons determined by others. This is also suggested by previous studies.

Differentiation from other motivational theories

Classic theories of needs

There are two different lines of tradition that work with the concept of needs within empirical psychology. The drive theories according to Hull (1943) and Spence (1956) are based on basic physiological needs. The organism is activated by the respective instinctual states to satisfy these basic needs. If behavior successfully leads to drive reduction, the corresponding relationship is learned. On the basis of instinctual states and the associated stimulus-reaction relationships , certain behavior can be predicted.

However, a large number of behaviors such as curious exploration, creating experimental conditions for interesting questions, lively play and many spontaneous activities cannot be convincingly ascribed to drive reduction. According to SDT, on the other hand, both the latter and those behaviors based on drive reduction according to Hull and Sigmund Freud are not so much regulated by physiological, but mainly by psychological processes.

The second tradition goes back to Murray (1938). Needs are understood by him as psychological needs, but are not viewed as naturally present, but largely as learned. His very broad definition of the concept of need includes almost everything that leads to an action. His list of relevant needs is correspondingly extensive.

From SDT's point of view, the needs listed by Murray are motives that translate socio-cultural values ​​into individual behaviors, whereby the resulting behavior can, but does not have to be, optimal. Without the assumption of naturally existing basic needs, which are linked in a specific way with the respective motives, there is no basis for predicting the effectiveness of the associated behavior or the degree of the associated well-being for different motives.

The works of David McClelland (1965, 1985), John William Atkinson (1958) and Winter (1973) also assume the assumption of learned psychological needs. Different behavior can only be explained with different combinations of the respective needs with different strengths. This in turn prevents a connection between the satisfaction of these needs and the healthy functioning of the organism.

Social cognitive learning theories

The behavioristic theory of BF Skinner (1953) can be seen as a forerunner of social-cognitive learning theories , according to which reinforcements made in the past are formative for individual behavior, as well as social learning according to Julian B. Rotter (1954, 1966), according to which especially expectations of the future Reinforcements make the difference. As with these authors, in the social-cognitive learning theories, the behavioral repertoire and the self-concept of the individual are traced back to their experiences in their social environment and are thus largely regarded as learned. The best known here is the self-efficacy theory of Albert Bandura (1977, 1989, 1996). According to this theory, motivated behavior is characterized by the endeavor to achieve a desired result that can be achieved through one's own actions. As soon as you are able to influence your environment accordingly, develop your own incentives and set your own cognitive impulses, you can use them to motivate yourself to behave like this. The determinants of human activity are on the one hand the desired result and on the other hand the feeling of being able to achieve this result through one's own behavior. The own competence perceived here is called self-efficacy. As a rule, it is differently pronounced in different areas. As a cross-divisional personality trait, however, self-efficacy is rarely treated in theory and then seems to be based only on a kind of secondary reinforcement.

In contrast to this, in SDT competence is seen as a universal need and therefore the experience of one's own competence alone is understood as a source of satisfaction and well-being, regardless of any additional satisfaction based on the results achieved. The view of SDT, according to which humans naturally have a complex internal structure, which includes the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration specified in the section above for basic psychological needs (SDT) , differs significantly from the standard social science model, the the social-cognitive learning theories are based. According to this model, which is also criticized by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides (1992), on the other hand, human nature can be shaped at will and can be compared with an empty vessel that is only filled with remarkable content through social processes. Furthermore, the evolutionary psychological view of David Buss (1989, 1996), represented in social-cognitive learning theories , according to which psychological processes regularly run in a specific area, contradicts the universality of basic psychological needs according to the SDT, which is explained in more detail in the above section Adaptation Mechanisms (SDT) . Finally, social cognitive learning theories do not differentiate between self-regulated and externally regulated behavior. Therefore, on the one hand, it is not possible in them to describe differences in the effectiveness of behavior based on the degree of autonomy of the respective motivation described in the above section Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) . On the other hand, they cannot explain why different behavioral goals, even if they are regarded as equally valuable and pursued with the same effectiveness, can have different effects on well-being.

Terror Management Theory

The terror management theory developed by Greenberg, Solomon and Pyszczynski (1997) sees the avoidance of the deep, often unconscious fear that arises from the awareness of one's own mortality as a basic human motive. By internalizing the values, beliefs, and behaviors of your cultural environment, you develop self-confidence that will help you overcome this fear. And by adopting the worldview of your social group, you can maintain the impression of permanence and avoid feelings of isolation and hopelessness. The central process here is a mechanism of fear reduction analogous to the drive reduction according to Hull specified in the above section on Classical Theories of Needs (SDT) , through which the corresponding adoption of values ​​and behavior is controlled. An extension of the theory to a two-process model takes into account the ability to become aware of one's own future non-existence, which is only developed after a certain age.

In SDT, on the other hand, the fear of death is viewed as an emotion that is regulated by processes that are fed by the three needs for competence, autonomy and social integration specified in the above section on Basic Psychological Needs (SDT) . Death threatens the relationship with loved ones, the completion of important projects and one's own self-organization in general. Therefore, there is no need to consider avoiding this fear as a separate, additional basic need.

From SDT's point of view, becoming aware of one's own mortality can set both externally regulated, more defensive processes in motion as well as self-regulated processes such as a renewed awareness of close personal relationships. Terror management theory cannot explain this difference. And although the research based on this theory has shown that awareness of mortality can induce special behavior under special conditions, it is unable to state to what extent this effect actually occurs in each case and through what type of intervention in the social environment positive aspects can be reinforced and negative aspects can be mitigated.

Control process theory

The control process theory of Carver and Scheier (1998) is a cybernetic theory of self-regulation of behavior. It describes self-correcting mechanisms that maintain the pursuit of goals once chosen depending on the effectiveness of the respective behavior. A distinction is made between approach goals, which one strives for in order to achieve desired results, and avoidance goals, which one pursues to avoid undesired results. With behavioral activation on the one hand and behavioral inhibition on the other, the two types of goals include different forms of regulation.

Since the subject of research in control process theory is above all the way in which already selected goals are pursued, this theory represents a valuable addition to the questions in SDT, which mainly include the content of the goals and the reason for which they are selected , affect.

However, the statement by Carver and Scheier (1999), according to which the differences between autonomous and heteronomous behavioral regulation presented in the above section Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) can also be adequately described within control process theory, cannot be followed from the SDT's point of view.

With the assignment of a more approximation-oriented mode to autonomous motivation and a more avoidance-oriented mode to externally determined motivation, the control process theory cannot explain the corruption effect specified in the starting point (SDT) section above and described in the frustration (SDT) section . This is because, contrary to this classification, behavior directed towards rewards is mostly approximate. In addition, in contradiction to this assignment, there is also autonomously motivated avoidance action, for example when one voluntarily quits smoking in order not to get sick. In the latter case, seeing an approximation of a state of health instead will usually not be compatible with the person's point of view.

Achievement motivation

Nicholls (1984) and Dweck (1985, 1986, 1998) differentiate in their work on achievement motivation between behavioral goals that serve to demonstrate competence and those that expand one's own competence. In the first case you want to constantly compare yourself with others and achieve that your own competence is valued highly. Properly successful demonstrations of one's abilities develop pride and self-confidence. Conversely, one tends to be helpless in the face of possible failure and easily blame oneself for a negative outcome. Sometimes self-hindering strategies are used as a precautionary measure, which in the event of failure help to shift one's own responsibility onto the circumstances and thereby save face.

On the other hand, if you pursue goals that expand competency, you seek appropriate challenges, use your skills to achieve results that are considered valuable, and, if you are confronted with possible failure, try to improve your own skills and overcome difficulties that arise.

From the point of view of SDT, the classification of behavioral goals made here can be roughly equated with the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic goals explained in the content orientation (SDT) section above . This means that goals demonstrating competency can generally be viewed as extrinsic goals, and goals expanding competency as intrinsic goals. However, a more differentiated set of instruments is available in SDT for describing associated behavior compared to achievement motivation. Both the effects of differently successful internalization in the formation of the selected goals and the degree of autonomy of the motivation in pursuing them, as explained in the above section Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) , are also taken into account . From SDT's point of view, there is another disadvantage of achievement motivation. Because based on her research approach, she hides social or relationship-oriented behavioral goals that can also influence performance.

Despite the theoretical differences mentioned, there is general agreement with regard to the optimal design of learning environments. Both theories related to achievement motivation and SDT consider result-dependent rewards, performance comparisons and normative targets to be unfavorable motivational strategies, as these are associated with multiple hidden psychological costs. And at the same time, they see less evaluative motivation strategies that support the joy of learning more as crucial for better performance and a higher well-being of the learners.

Flow theory

The central concept of the flow theory established by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi (1975, 1990) is the experience of being completely absorbed in an activity, which is accompanied by uninhibited joy. Such experiences, which can be seen in SDT as a prototype of the autonomous motivation given in the above section Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) , are referred to here as flow. You experience flow when you enjoy doing the activity and the requirements it contains are precisely in line with your own abilities. If these demands instead represent excessive demands, they result in anxiety and ultimately giving up the activity, whereas under-demand leads to boredom in abandoning the activity.

There is full agreement between SDT and the flow theory in their assertion that the experience of flow in itself is sufficient to carry out and maintain the corresponding behavior, regardless of any results obtained with it. In addition, both theories agree that an optimal requirement according to one's own abilities is seen as a prerequisite for the experience of flow. But while in SDT the needs specified in the section Basic Psychological Needs (SDT) , especially those for competence and autonomy, are important for the experience of flow , according to flow theory the experience of flow is only determined by the optimal requirements. Neither a concept of basic needs nor a formal concept of autonomy is therefore required here for an understanding of flow. From SDT's point of view, however, the set of instruments provided by flow theory is not sufficient to determine the respective context in which flow is made possible or not made possible by optimal requirements.

Attachment theory

The one founded by John Bowlby (1958, 1979) and, among others, by Mary Ainsworth et al. (1978), Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw (1988), Blais et al. (1990), Rusbult & van Lange (1996) as well as Reis & Patrick (1996) continued attachment theory says that the relationships between children and their first caregivers serve as a prototype for later relationships with others. Therefore, a secure bond with caregivers in early childhood is crucial for building healthy relationships later in life and, in a broader sense, experiencing health and wellbeing.

There are close parallels between attachment theory and SDT. In earlier formulations, attachment theory is explicitly based on a universal need for close connection to others, in later formulations it is more implicit. Empirical findings obtained within the framework of attachment theory confirm that this search for closeness is universal and show that its suppression leads to negative consequences for well-being. Just as in SDT it is mainly not the respective strength of the basic psychological needs that matters, the central concept of attachment theory is also not the strength of the need for closeness, but instead the type of attachment that results from the interaction between the child looking for closeness and his or her caregivers more general, the respective social context. While attachment theory can make predictions about individual well-being based on the respective associated attachment type, this is similarly possible in SDT based on the associated type of behavioral regulation. According to the approach of attachment theory, high mental health is therefore related to a secure attachment type, according to the approach of SDT, as described in the above section Motivation and Degree of Autonomy (SDT) , with largely autonomous behavioral regulation.

However, there is an important difference between attachment theory and SDT. It concerns the relative extent of the influence of early childhood experiences on the effective attachment security in current relationships. The attachment theory sees the attachment type acquired in early childhood development as a variable that is highly stable over time and largely independent of the respective partners. According to this, different social relationships of a single person should all have approximately the same degree of security of attachment. In SDT, on the other hand, the influence of early childhood experience is also recognized, but above all the degree of the possible satisfaction in a relationship of the needs for competence, autonomy and social integration specified in the above section on basic psychological needs (SDT) is seen as the cause of the respective bond security. According to this, a different degree of security of attachment can be expected in different social relationships entered into by a single person, depending on how the partners contribute to the relationship. A correspondingly high variability in the bond security within individual persons is shown by a study by La Guardia et al. (2000) confirmed.

Self-determination theory as a meta-theory

The term meta-theory used on the SDT homepage to characterize the self-determination theory refers to the dual function that this theory assumes there. On the one hand, it provides terms and statements, formally organized in six mini-theories, that are to be further refined and refined through research. As a theory, it is therefore in constant development. On the other hand, its formal structure serves as a framework and reference system for empirical research based on SDT. Various instruments are also offered to support such research projects.

Mini theories

The six mini-theories each cover parts of the overall presentation above:

  1. The Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) concerns intrinsic motivation and its relationship with external incentives and rewards.
  2. The Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) deals with the degree of autonomy of extrinsic motivation.
  3. The Causality Orientations Theory (COT) describes differences in the causal attribution of individuals.
  4. The Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT) represents the three basic psychological needs listed above.
  5. The Goal Contents Theory (GCT) differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and examines their influence on motivation and well-being.
  6. The Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT) finally deals with developing and maintaining close personal relationships and their connection with the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs.

Reference system for further research

A large number of research results based on SDT are listed on the SDT homepage. The results cannot be given here in their entirety. However, the following are examples:

  1. The role of basic psychological needs in developing psychological robustness or vulnerability.
  2. The role of domain-specific psychological needs in the development of personal goals.
  3. The different effects of intrinsic and extrinsic goals on the quality of learning processes.
  4. The effect of a) autonomy support and b) clear structuring of the learning content on motivation, learning success and problem behavior in high school lessons.
  5. Forms of internalized motivation in teaching at German universities, also with regard to measures in the sense of public reform administration.
  6. Influences of the workplace on burnout problems.
  7. Motivational aspects with regard to well-being within a partnership.
  8. The role of mechanistic dehumanization in the relationship between external coercion and interpersonal violence.
  9. Compatibility of ecological sustainability with the satisfaction of basic psychological needs and personal well-being.
  10. Development and validation of the Index of Autonomous Functioning , a measure of human autonomy.
  11. Development and validation of the work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale , a measure for the satisfaction of basic psychological needs in the workplace.

literature

  • Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health . In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  • Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being . In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  • Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.

Web links

Individual evidence

In order to understand the self-determination theory, which is constantly evolving, recourse to primary sources seems inevitable. Due to its dual function as described above, the self-determination theory itself partly has the characteristics of a secondary source.

  1. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  2. ↑ Highlights of the Opening Remarks from the 5th Conference on Self-Determination Theory . YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4E10e8zIkw 10:40 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http://www.webcitation.org/6XvzmFC5E ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  3. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 233 ff. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4) , 227-268.
  4. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 2:25 ff. Retrieved on August 8, 2018. ( http: // www. webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  5. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 1:00 ff and 3:40 ff. Retrieved on August 8, 2018 ( http : //www.webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  6. ↑ Highlights of the Opening Remarks from the 5th Conference on Self-Determination Theory . YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4E10e8zIkw 3:29 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http://www.webcitation.org/6XvzmFC5E ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  7. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 74. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
    Highlights of the Opening Remarks from the 5th Conference on Self-Determination Theory . YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4E10e8zIkw 6:27 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http://www.webcitation.org/6XvzmFC5E ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  8. ↑ Highlights of the Opening Remarks from the 5th Conference on Self-Determination Theory . YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4E10e8zIkw 3:00 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http://www.webcitation.org/6XvzmFC5E ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  9. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , pp. 68 and 75. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  10. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 69. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  11. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 1:15 ff and 4:10 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015 ( http : //www.webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  12. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 72, Figure 1. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78 .
    Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 237. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227 -268.
    (The     amotivation described in the section Personality Traits (SDT) , which is also included in the illustration , has been omitted here, as it can be better assigned to the overall strength and it is also not of interest in relation to an individual task, but rather as a personality description .)
  13. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 182. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
    Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 6:36 ff. Accessed April 20, 2015. ( http: //www.webcitation .org / 6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  14. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 73. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  15. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  16. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  17. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
    Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 8:00 ff. Accessed April 20, 2015. ( http: //www.webcitation .org / 6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  18. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 71. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  19. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , pp. 71 and 73. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  20. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 73. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
  21. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 184. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  22. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  23. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  24. ↑ Richard M. Ryan, & Edward L. Deci (2000): Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being , p. 72. In: American Psychologist 55, 68-78.
    Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , pp. 182 and 183. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
  25. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ . Retrieved May 5, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6YIHP0ONZ ( Memento of May 5, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  26. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 12:00 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http: // www. webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  27. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2008): Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health , p. 184. In: Canadian Psychology 49, 182-185.
    sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/ . Retrieved April 20, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6Xw045kSN ( April 20, 2015 memento on WebCite ) ).
  28. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 13:20 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http: // www. webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  29. ↑ Promoting Motivation, Health, and Excellence: Ed Deci at TEDxFlourCity .YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I 9:07 ff. Retrieved on April 20, 2015. ( http: // www. webcitation.org/6XvzRvJ4N ( Memento from April 20, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  30. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 229. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  31. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 238. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  32. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 252. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  33. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 230. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  34. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 238, 243 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  35. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 252 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  36. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 253. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  37. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 231, 242. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  38. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 253 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  39. ↑ Olds, J. (1958): Satiation effects in self-stimulation of the brain . In: Journal of Comparative Physiological Psychology 51, 675-678.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  40. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 254. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  41. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 230 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  42. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 232. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  43. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 230. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  44. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 230 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  45. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 231. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  46. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 238, 243 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  47. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 243. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  48. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 229. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  49. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 244. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  50. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 235 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  51. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 238. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  52. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 236. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  53. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 241. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  54. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 236 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  55. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 238. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  56. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 238 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  57. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 248. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  58. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 248. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  59. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 248 ff. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4) , 227-268.
  60. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 249. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  61. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 236, 243. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  62. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 233 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  63. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 234. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  64. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 234 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  65. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 260. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  66. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 235. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  67. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 238, 242. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  68. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 249. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  69. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 249. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  70. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 249 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  71. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 245. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  72. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 251 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  73. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 229, 250 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  74. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 239 ff. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4) , 227-268.
  75. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 241. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  76. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 232, 234. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  77. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 241 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  78. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 244. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  79. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 249 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  80. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 244 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  81. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 244 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  82. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 246. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  83. ^ Iyengar, SS, & Lepper, MR (1999): Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation . In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76, 349-366.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  84. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 246 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  85. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 247. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  86. ↑ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 246. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  87. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 245 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  88. ^ Hull, CL (1943): Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory . New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  89. ↑ Spence, K. (1956): Behavior theory and conditioning . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  90. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 228. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  91. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 228, 230. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  92. ↑ Murray, HA (1938): Explorations in personality . New York: Oxford University Press.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  93. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 228. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  94. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 228, 232. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  95. ^ McClelland, DC (1965): Toward a theory of motive acquisition . In: American Psychologist 20, 321-333.
    McClelland, DC (1985): Human motivation . Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  96. ^ Atkinson, JW (1958): Motives in fantasy, action and society . Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  97. ↑ Winter, DG (1973): The power motive . New York: Free Press. Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  98. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 231 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  99. ↑ Skinner, BF (1953): Science and human behavior . New York: Macmillan.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  100. ↑ Rotter, J. (1954): Social learning and clinical psychology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
    Rotter, J. (1966): Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement . In: Psychological Monographs 80 (1, Whole No. 609). pp. 1-28.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  101. ^ Bandura, A. (1977): Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change . In: Psychological Review 84, 191-215.
    Bandura, A. (1989): Human agency in social cognitive theory . In: American Psychologist 44, 1175-1184.
    Bandura, A. (1996): Self-efficacy: The exercise of control . New York: Freeman.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  102. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 256 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  103. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 257. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  104. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 257. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  105. ↑ Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992): The psychological foundations of culture . In: JH Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.): The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture , 19-136. New York: Oxford University Press.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  106. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 252. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  107. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 257. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  108. ↑ Buss, DM (1989): Toward an evolutionary psychology of human mating . In: Behavioral and Brain Science 12, 39-46.
    Buss, DM (1996): The evolutionary psychology of human social strategies . In: ET Higgins & AW Kruglanski (Eds.): Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles . New York: Guilford.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  109. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 252. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  110. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 257. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  111. ↑ Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997): Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements . In: MP Zanna (Ed.): Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 61-139). New York: Academic.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  112. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 257. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  113. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 258. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  114. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 258. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  115. ^ Carver, CS, & Scheier, MF (1998): On the self-regulation of behavior . New York: Cambridge University Press.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  116. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 258. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  117. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 258, 259. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4 ), 227-268.
  118. ^ Carver, CS, & Scheier, MF (1999b): Themes and issues in the self-regulation of behavior . In: RS Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Perspectives on behavioral self-regulation: Advances in social cognition (Vol. 12, pp. 1–105). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  119. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 258 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  120. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 259. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  121. ↑ Nicholls, JG (1984): Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance . In: Psychological Review 91, 328-346.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  122. ↑ Dweck, CS (1985): Intrinsic motivation, perceived control, and self-evaluation maintenance: An achievement goal analysis . In: C. Ames & RE Ames (Eds.): Research on motivation in education: The classroom milieu (pp. 289–305). New York: Academic.
    Dweck, CS (1986): Motivational processes affecting learning . In: American Psychologist 41, 1040-1048.
    Dweck, CS (1999): Self theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development . Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  123. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 259 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  124. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 260. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  125. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 260. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  126. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 260. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  127. ↑ Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975): Beyond boredom and anxiety . San Francisco: Jossey bass.
    Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990): Flow . New York: Harper & Row.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  128. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 260. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  129. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 260 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  130. ^ Bowlby, J. (1958): The nature of a child's tie to his mother . In: International Journal of Psychoanalysis 99, 265-272.
    Bowlby, J. (1979): The making and breaking of affectional bonds . London: Tavistock.
    All quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  131. ↑ Ainsworth, MDS, Blehar, MC, Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978): Patterns of attachment . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  132. ↑ Shaver, P., Hazan, C., & Bradshaw, D. (1988): Love as attachment: The integration of three behavioral systems . In: RJ Sternberg & ML Barns (Eds.): The psychology of love (pp. 68-99). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  133. ^ Blais, MR, Sabourin S., Boucher, C., & Vallerand, R. (1990): Toward a motivational model of couple happiness . In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59, 1021-1031.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  134. ↑ Rusbult, CE, & van Lange, RAM (1996): Interdependence Processes . In: ET Higgins, & AW Kruglanski (Eds.): Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 564-596). New York: Guilford.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  135. ^ Reis, HT, & Patrick, BP (1996): Attachment and intimacy: Component processes . In: ET Higgins & AW Kruglanski (Eds.): Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 523-563). New York; Guilford.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  136. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 261. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  137. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , pp. 261 f. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  138. ↑ La Guardia, J., Ryan, RM, Couchman, C., & Deci, EL (2000): Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being . In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79, 367-384.
    Quoted from: Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior . In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  139. ^ Edward L. Deci, & Richard M. Ryan (2000): The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , p. 262. In: Psychological Inquiry 11 (4), 227-268.
  140. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/ . Retrieved April 20, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6Xw045kSN ( April 20, 2015 memento on WebCite ) ).
  141. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ . Retrieved May 5, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6YIHP0ONZ ( Memento of May 5, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  142. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/questionnaires/ . Retrieved May 5, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6YIHWxCAy ( May 5, 2015 memento on WebCite ) ).
  143. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ . Retrieved May 5, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6YIHP0ONZ ( Memento of May 5, 2015 on WebCite ) ).
  144. ↑ sdt - An Approach to Human Motivation and Personality . http://www.selfdeterminationtheory.org/publications/ . Retrieved May 5, 2015 ( http://www.webcitation.org/6YIHdwFgx ( May 5, 2015 memento on WebCite ) ).
  145. ↑ Maarten Vansteenkiste, & Richard M. Ryan (2013): On Psychological Growth and Vulnerability: Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Need Frustration as a Unifying Principle . In: Journal of Psychotherapy Integration 23 (3), 263-280.
  146. ↑ Marina Milyavskaya, Daniel Nadolny, & Richard Koestner (2014): Where Do Self-Concordant Goals Come From? The Role of Domain-Specific Psychological Need Satisfaction . In: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40 (6), 700-711.
  147. ↑ Maarten Vansteenkiste, Willy Lens, & Edward L. Deci (2006): Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Goal Contents in Self-Determination Theory: Another Look at the Quality of Academic Motivation . In: Educational Psychologist 41 (1), 19-31.
  148. ↑ Maarten Vansteenkiste, Eline Sierens, Luc Goossens, Bart Soenens, Filip Dochy, Athanasios Mouratidis, Nathalie Aelterman, Leen Haerens, & Wim Beyers (2012): Identifying configurations of perceived teacher autonomy support and structure: Associations with self-regulated learning, motivation and problem behavior . In: Learning and Instruction 22, 431-439.
  149. ↑ Uwe Wilkesmann, & Christian J. Schmid (2014): Intrinsic and internalized modes of teaching motivation . In: EBHRM 2, 6-27.
  150. ↑ Claude Fernet, Stéphanie Austin, Sarah-Geneviève Trépanier, & Marc Dussault (2013): How do job characteristics contribute to burnout? Exploring the distinct mediating roles of perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness . In: European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 22 (2), No. 23-137.
  151. ↑ Graham S. Gaine, & Jennifer G. La Guardia (2009): The unique contributions of motivations to maintain a relationship and motivations toward relational activities to relationship well-being . In: Motiv Emot 33, 184-202.
  152. ↑ Arlen C. Moller, & Edward L. Deci (2010): Interpersonal control, dehumanization, and violence: A self-determination theory perspective . In: Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 13 (1), 41–53.
  153. ^ Kasser, T. (2009): Psychological need satisfaction, personal well-being, and ecological sustainability . In: Ecopsychology 1, 175-180.
  154. ^ Netta Weinstein, Andrew K. Przybylski, & Richard M. Ryan (2012): The index of autonomous functioning: Development of a scale of human autonomy . In: Journal of Research in Personality 46, 397-413.
  155. ↑ Anja Van den Broeck, Maarten Vansteenkiste, Hans De Witte, Bart Soenens, & Willy Lens (2010): Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work-related Basic Need Satisfaction scale . In: Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 83, 981-1002.