Historical currency of Tibet

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In the historical currency of Tibet (also: Tibetan currency , Tibetan currency ) is in the period of autonomy or independence of Tibet circulating cash . These were not only gold, silver, copper coins and banknotes, but in some cases natural products such as pressed tea ( tea bricks ), salt, tobacco and butter were also used.

units

There were two systems in use side by side.

Srang

Tibetan 1 Srang silver coin with the date 15-43 (= AD 1909), obverse
Tibetan 1-Srang silver coin with the date 15-43 (= AD 1909), reverse

The older system was based on the srang, which originally corresponded to the Chinese tael (liang) as a unit of weight , i.e. just over 37 g. It is said to have been in use even before King Songtsen Gampo's reign in the 7th century. It was divided as follows:

  • 1 srang = 10 qian ( Tibetan : zho )
  • 1 qian = 20 sawa
  • 1 sawa = 6 qung kier (barley grains)

the silver rang ( dngul srang ) had the following subdivisions:

  • 1 ngul-srang = 10 zho = 6 tangka + 1 zho (6 2/3 tangka ) = 100 skar
  • 1 zho = 10 skar = 4 kha
  • 1 kha = 2½ scar

In 1908 a silver ring was minted for the first time, but it was only half the weight, namely approx. 18.65 g. For 1919 the value of one dngul srang (19.63 g) is given as 1 rupee 11 annas . The metal content was around 80%. The coin hardly circulated, but was mostly hoarded because of its high purity. In 1933 coins of 3 rang were struck, which corresponded in weight to the standardized Indian rupee of 11.66 g, so the value decreased.

Tangka

Tibetan “Gaden” tangka, undated (approx. AD 1840), obverse
Tibetan “Gaden” tangka, undated (approx. AD 1840), reverse

The Tangka (also Tam, Tamka, Tamba ) was adopted from Nepal . The weight originally corresponded to 10.5 g of silver. The Nepalese Malla dynasty normalized the weight around 1640 at around 5.4-5.6 g. The pieces struck according to this standard were called Nepalese mohar , Tibetan bal tam. After the Tibetan-Nepalese War of 1792, coins for Tibet were no longer minted in Nepal.

The subdivisions were as follows:

  • 1 tangka = 1.5 zho = 15 skar = 6 kha = 0.15 srang
  • ½ tangka = 1 phyad brgyad = 7½ skar
  • ⅓ tangka = 1 skarma ngna = 2 kha = 5 skar
  • 1 khakang = 1/4 zho = 2½ skar
  • In 1914, 1 tangka was equivalent to approx

history

Tea brick

For the Tibetan border region, Marco Polo described the use of salt for change. To some extent, butter or tea bricks were used as currency in Tibet. Tobacco, betel nuts and ceremonial ribbons (Tibetan: Khata ) were also used for smaller transactions .

The period in which coins and banknotes made in Tibet circulated can be roughly periodized as follows:

1. 1763–1792 The first silver coins minted in Tibet.

2. 1792–1835 Silver coins in the name of Chinese emperors are minted in Lhasa.

3. 1840–1908 Tibetan silver coins (tam or tangka) are minted in Lhasa.

4. 1909–1910 Coins in the name of Emperor Xuan Tong are issued in Lhasa.

5. 1909–1959 Copper, silver and gold coins of various denominations and banknotes are put into circulation.

Gold means of payment before 1650

Before the government of the 5th Dalai Lama took over government, a large number of different gold pieces, at least partially embossed, were in circulation in Tibet. There is still no agreement as to whether these means of payment can be called coins .

We are informed of the existence of these gold currency, which were called gold sho (Tib .: gser zho ), because the tax officials of the new central government received tax revenue in these gold currency, which they obtained with the Tibetan abacus with loose stones had to convert to a uniform monetary standard. For the measurement of the gold content of these gold pieces, a standard gold weight was used, which was designated Sewa (Tib .: se ba). The following different gold pieces can be found in the lists of the tax officials:

Surname Gold weight Distribution area Inscription after Wylie
1. Phagsho 30 Sewa Possibly Phag ri phag zho
2. Gugsho 27 Sewa mNga'ris gug zho
3. Tagsho 27 Sewa spu hreng stag zho
4th Losho 27 Sewa spu hreng glo zho
5. Changsho 24 Sewa lHa ngam byang zho
6th Gursho 23 Sewa gTsang stod tshong ´dus mgur zho
7th Usho 20 Sewa dBus dbus zho
8th. Esho 19 Sewa dBus e zho
9. Gosho 32 Sewa In the area of ​​Trashislhünpo mgo zho

The Tsangsho (Tib .: gtsang zho ) is also mentioned, although its gold weight is not specified.

Finally, there is also mention of the gold currency sertam (Tib .: gser tam ), the gold weight of which was 2 sewa . 15 Sertam were a standardized Changsho ( Chagsho Tshema, Tib .: byang zho tshad ma ). The currency Gursho ( mgur-zho ) was already mentioned by Sarat Chandra Das in his dictionary. According to this, 1 Gursho = 24 Sewa.

1650-1792

At that time, silver coins were in circulation in Nepal. Initially these were those of the Newari kingdoms of Kathmandu , Patan and Bhaktapur . After 1767, coins of the early Saha dynasty made on behalf of the Tibetan rulers began to circulate . There were also older issues from the Malla dynasty. In Lhasa, attempts were made to produce coins based on the Newari models themselves. It was customary to cut coins into smaller pieces to get change. The executing silversmith usually pinched another corner for his work, but without damaging the flower pattern on the coin, which determined the value of the fragment.

1792-1835

During this period, coins made of good silver were predominant and were minted under the joint responsibility of Chinese and Tibetan officials during the Qianlong , Jiaqing and Dao Guang eras . The lettering was Tibetan on one side and Chinese on the other. The inscription mentioned the name of the era, e.g. B. Qian Long, together with the words bao zang , "Tibet money". In the 58th year of the Qian Long era, silver coins were minted in four different denominations: 1/2 Sho ( qian ), 3/4 sho (equivalent to 1/2 Tangka), 1 Sho and 1½ Sho (= 1 Tangka). From the 59th year of the Qian Long era, only one single coin unit was minted for general circulation, the Sho weighing approx. 3.7 g.

Tangkas known as Kong-par were minted in 1791–93. These were only inscribed in Tibetan, were first minted in the province of Kongbo, later in Lhasa and contained only about 2/3 silver. They had the same circulation value as the Nepalese mohars and the Sino-Tibetan editions of a Sho.

1836-1911

Undated Kelsang-Tangka, which was distributed to monks in 1910, Avers
Undated Kelsang-Tangka distributed to monks in 1910, lapel

In this period one took up its own coinage, which in turn was based on the Newari models. Before 1909, all coins were minted by hand, only afterwards were machines available, which were initially operated by water power and then electrically operated after around 1925. The standard coin after 1840 was the gaden tangka at 5.18–5.32 g (ø 26–28 mm). From 1850, especially in Eastern Tibet , Indian rupees replaced local coins. In order to reduce the excessive inflow of British coins, the Chinese embossed 1903-11 the Sichuan - rupee (11.3 g, 30.5 mm ø) in Chengdu , also in pieces of ½ and ¼. This coinage was resumed in Kangding in 1930–42 (see more detailed description below).

A special coin (3.8 g, ø 25.8 mm), the (current) return of the Dalai Lama celebrated between its exiles 1909 and 1910 was the occasion of Mönlam distributed -Festes to Monks.

independence

Tibetan 2½ scarred copper coin with the date 15-53 (= AD 1919), obverse
Tibetan 2½ scarred copper coin with the date 15-53 (= AD 1919), reverse

After the Chinese influence was again dominant in 1910-11, the now “independent” Tibetan government tried to reduce the inflow of foreign currency. They began to issue their own coins and banknotes with Buddhist motifs. From 1912 the snow lion can be found as a national emblem. The only Tibetan gold coin was minted in its own mint in 1918-21, the gser khang west of the Norbulingka . It weighed 11.1 g and was 26.5 mm in diameter. Originally it was worth 13 silver ranks. Inflation increased this to 20 rang by 1921. Copper coins of 1 Zho (4.2 g, ø 24 mm) were minted in large numbers. Due to frequent forgeries, 6 million coins (5.6 g) of a new type were struck in 1932–38 on the new electrically operated machines imported from England. 3 Srang coins with a reduced silver content, roughly equivalent to the Indian rupee, were minted in 1933–34. After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama , its design (11 g, ø 31 mm) was changed. Half pieces were also minted.

The 10-Srang coins, which were minted in different variants in 1948–51, only contained 14% silver and weighed 16.7 g (ø 32.5 mm).

The last coin minted in Tibet

Tibetan special issue from 1953/54, obverse
Tibetan special issue from 1953/54, reverse

The last originally Tibetan silver coin is a 5-Srang coin minted in 1953/4, with an edition of 331,292 pieces. The pattern on the obverse shows the eight Buddhist good luck symbols. In the center of the lapel is a wheel with eight spokes. This means the wheel of (Buddhist) teaching or "the wheel of law" (Tibetan chos ´khor ; Sanskrit dharma cakra ), which was set in motion by the Buddha. In the center of its axis are two comma-like ornaments, which are called nor bu dga´ khyil ("rotating jewel of joy"). The Tibetans called this coin made of good silver tangka dkar po gsar pa ("new white tangka").

The circulation of Indian and Chinese rupees in Tibet

Sichuan rupee. Early issue of good silver, minted in Chengdu in 1902 or shortly afterwards, obverse
Sichuan rupee. Early issue made of good silver, minted in 1902 or shortly thereafter, lapel. The Chinese inscription reads (read from top to bottom and from right to left): si chuan sheng zao ("made in the province of Sichuan"). Neither a date nor a face value is given on the coin.

Numerous foreign silver coins circulated in Tibet during the 19th century and the first third of the 20th century. These included Mexican and Spanish-American 8 reales coins, as well as Russian rubles and German marks , which were usually traded in according to their weight. The only foreign coins that had a fixed exchange rate were the Indian rupees with the portrait of Queen Victoria , which circulated all over Tibet and were usually more eagerly accepted than Tibetan coins because of their consistently high silver content. Indian rupees were less popular with the portraits of Queen Victoria's successors. Around 1900 Victorian rupees could be exchanged for three Tibetan tangkas, and in the further course of the 20th century their value in Tibetan tangkas increased considerably.

The Chinese authorities viewed the success of the British Indian rupee in Tibet with suspicion and decided to take countermeasure. The minting of silver rupees began in Chengdu in 1902 ; their appearance, weight and silver content were closely related to the Indian rupees with the portrait of Queen Victoria. On the obverse, the portrait of the British monarch was replaced with that of the young Chinese Emperor Guang Xu . From the 1930s onwards, similar rupees were minted in Kangding , the former Tibetan-Chinese border town in western Sichuan. While the first Chinese coins were minted from almost as good silver as the Indian models, this soon changed: The silver content fell over the long minting period from 1902 to 1942, until it was found in most of them in Kangding minted rupees were only about a third. Most Tibetan traders gladly accepted the early coins, while the later coins were understandably rejected. To get change, it was customary to cut the rupees into two or four pieces with the help of a sword and hammer. During the first minting phase, however, fractional coins to the value of half a rupee and a quarter rupee were also minted. However, these were mostly used as silver buttons or as decorative elements, which is why these embossings were soon discontinued. Only 130,000 half and 120,000 quarter rupees were minted in Chengdu. In contrast, the minting number of the whole rupee was very high, with an estimated 25,500,000 to 27,500,000, which were in circulation from 1902 to 1942.

The yuan shikai dollar

In the period immediately after 1950 , the Yuan Shikai dollar, re-minted in Chengdu for Tibet, became popular. This coin was used by the Chinese occupiers to pay Tibetan road workers and to buy the goodwill of influential Tibetans.

Banknotes

Main article: Tibetan paper money

Modern banknotes, which are certainly among the most unusual in their design, but also the most appealing, were printed using the xylographic process from 1912 and issued in Tam denominations from 1913, but the designation "Tangka" has become established for these denominations. The notes were printed in Lhasa, a serial number and seal (usually two, a red from the Dalai Lama and a black from the financial administration) then inserted by hand or by machine. The (theoretical) value of the notes was converted into silver:

  • 5 tam = ¾ srang (xylographs valid until 1936)
  • 10 tam = 1½ srang
  • 15 tam = 2¼ srang
  • 25 tam = 3¾ srang
  • 50 tam = 7½ srang blue (1912 / 13-1926)
  • 50 tam = 7½ srang new series, multicolored (machine-printed) 1926–41

The 1913 50 tam notes were often forged to the detriment of the government. Since around 1932, banknote paper has been manufactured in Kyemdong ( Dhagpo District ). As a security feature, the paper was made from two different layers, which were obtained from different shrubs, namely Daphne papyracea and D. bholua . Individual monasteries issued banknotes to be used to purchase high quality tea bricks . In the 1930s, Chinese banks issued their notes with Tibetan overprint for the former province of Xikang, which comprised parts of eastern Tibet and western Sichuan.

The banknotes issued in Lhasa from 1939 on were denominated "Srang".

  • 5 srang: 1942–5
  • 25 srang: 1950–55
  • 100 srang: 1939–49 and 1951–59

Banknote issuance ended in 1959 with the printing of the last 100 Srang notes, and since then the renminbi has been the sole currency. During the Cultural Revolution , coupons served in a sense as a banknote substitute.

Data on coins and banknotes

Multi-colored 50 tam banknote with the date 1672 of the Tibetan era ( bod rgyal lo ) (= AD 1926). Mention of the 15th cycle in the last line ( rab byung bco lnga )
Multi-colored 50 tam banknote with the date 1673 of the Tibetan era ( bod rgyal lo ) (= AD 1927). In the last line mention of the 16th cycle ( rab byung bcu drug )
5-Srang copper coin with the date rab lo 927 (= AD 1953), obverse
5-Srang copper coin with the date rab lo 927 (= AD 1953), reverse. The full inscription reads: chos srid gnyis ldan rab lo 927 (freely translated: “927th year [in the land in which] both religion and politics [rule]”).

The earliest coins minted in Tibet are undated. The Sino-Tibetan coins (1792 to 1836) are dated according to the year of the reign of the respective Chinese emperor. For example, the 58th year of the Qian Long era corresponds to the western year 1793. The coins of the 20th century and the Kong Par Tangkas minted in the 18th and 19th centuries are dated from the 60-year Tibetan Rab-byung cycle , the first Year corresponds to the western year 1027. The first digit indicates the cycle (Tibetan rab byung ) in which the coin was minted, the second digit the year (Tibetan lo ). Examples: The earliest Kong-Par-Tangkas have the year 13-45. This means that the coin was minted in the 45th year of the 13th cycle. Starting from the first year of the first 60-year cycle, i.e. the year 1027, twelve 60-year cycles plus 45 years of the 13th cycle are to be counted. So the western year results as follows: 1027 + (12 × 60) + 45 - 1 = AD 1791.

A variant of counting according to the 60-year cycle is the year counting rab-lo , which uses the first year of the first Rab-byung cycle as the epoch , i.e. as the starting year. This corresponds to the year 1027. This type of dating can be found on sample coins with the face value of 25 Srang and 50 Srang, which bear the inscriptions rab-lo 925 and spyi lo 1951 ("foreign year" = western year). Another trial coin for 5 Srang bears the date rab-lo 927 , but not the corresponding western year (see illustration).

Most banknotes indicate the 60-year cycle in which they were issued (that is, the 15th or 16th cycle), but not the exact year within the cycle. The early banknotes in Tam and the 10-Srang banknotes also bear an exact date in an era whose first year corresponds to the western year 255. This is the assumed year of the establishment of the Tibetan monarchy . For example, the 5 tam notes bear the year 1658. If you add 255 to this and subtract 1, since the first year is counted, you get the western year 1912. Except for the banknotes, no documents from Tibet have so far been known that are dated after this era.

In the English-language specialist literature on Tibet one can sometimes find the claim that the first Tibetan banknotes were issued at the end of the 19th century and not until 1912/13. This is due to the fact that instead of 254 the authors assume an earlier year as the starting point of the bod rgyal lo . From the inscriptions on two multi-colored 50-tam notes, however, it can be deduced beyond any doubt that the Tibetan government based the dating of the banknotes on the year 255 as the first year of this era. It is a 50 tam note that mentions the year 1672 and the 15th cycle at the same time. The 50 tam note issued in the following year bears the year 1673 and at the same time mentions the 16th cycle. From this we can deduce that the first note was issued in the 60th and last year of the 15th cycle (corresponds to AD 1926), while the second note appeared in the first year of the 16th cycle (corresponds to AD 1927). If you subtract the year 1672 from 1926 and add 1, the result is the year 255, which corresponds to the starting year (epoch of a chronology) determined by the Tibetan government for dating banknotes according to bod rgyal lo .

See also

literature

  • Ngag-dbang chos-´byor: rDe´u´i rtsis-rig la mkho-re´i byis-pa mgu-ba´i long-gtam . Old Tibetan block print of a treatise written by an officer of the Treasury of Trashilhünpo Monastery.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: The Currency of Tibet; Dharamsala 2002; ISBN 81-86470-32-8 (catalog and comprehensive bibliography of non-Tibetan sources)
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "The Tibetan Tangka with Rañjana Script". Oriental Numismatic Society, Newsletter , No. 185, Fall 2005, pp. 18-31.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "The Use of Tea Bricks as Currency among the Tibetans". The Primitive Money Collector, Bulletin of the European Association for Collecting, Preserving and Researching Original and Extraordinary Forms of Money (EUCOPRIMO ). Volume 27, Issue 1 (Vol. 27, No. 1), Rüsselsheim, 2006, pp. 19–51. Another publication of this article in the Tibet Journal also exists as a website: http://ltwa.tibetanbridges.com/tibet_journal/Summer-2009/Wolfgang.pdf
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "The Kong-par Tangka of Tibet". Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society , No. 195, Croydon and Ringwood, Spring 2008, pp. 35-46.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "The coins of Tibet at a glance". Coin Review. International Coin Trend Journal , Vol. 40, No. 9, H. Gietl Verlag & Publikations Service, Regenstauf, September 2008, pp. 140-147.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "Some Early Tibetan Tangkas". Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society , No. 198, Winter 2009, pp. 43-44.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang: "A Survey of the Money Used in Tibet". Mudraa. Journal of the Nepal Numismatic Society , No. 2, Kathmandu, March 2010, pp. 3-23.
  • Bertsch, Wolfgang and Rhodes, Nicholas: "The Use of Cut Coins in Tibet". Mudraa. Journal of Nepal Numismatic Society , No. 1, Kathmandu, October 2007, pp. 22-35. Another publication of this article in the Tibet Journal also exists as a website: http://ltwa.tibetanbridges.com/tibet_journal/Tibet_Journal-2010_Autumn/pdf%20files/cut%20coins.pdf
  • Bronny, Klaus: Fascination Himalaya. From Ladakh to Bhutan - money and trade on the roof of the world. The window in the Kreissparkasse Cologne. Subject 174, Cologne, February 2010.
  • Cao Gang: Zhong guo xi zang di feng huo bi (The regional currency of Chinese Tibet), Sichuan Minzi Chubanshe, Chengdu, 1999. ISBN 7-5409-2203-6 /C.37
  • Dahnke, K.-H .; Tibet: Manual of and Catalog of Brands and Stamps . Essen 1978, 1981 (Research Association China-Philatelie e.V.)
  • Sarat Chandra Das: A Tibetan-English Dictionary . Calcutta 1902.
  • Gabrisch, Karl: Money from Tibet. Collection Dr. Karl Gabrisch, Winterthur and Rikon, 1990.
  • Hellrigl, Wolfgang; Gabrisch, Karl: Tibet: A Philatelic and Numismatic Bibliography . Santa Monica 1983.
  • Martynov, AS: "Some Aspects of Qing Policy in Tibet at the Close of the 18th Century". Rolamba, Journal of Joshi Research Institute , Vol. 7, No. 3, Lalitpur (Nepal), July – Sept. 1987, pp. 6-20.
  • Marvin, William Theophilus Roger: "The Coins of Thibet". American Journal of Numismatics , Vol. 42, No. 1, New York 1907, pp. 9-13.
  • Rhodes, Nicholas G .: "The Gaden Tangka of Tibet". Oriental Numismatic Society, Occasional Paper , No. 17, January 1983. This article also exists as a website: http://gorila.netlab.cz/coins/Tibet/ONS_TangkaTibet.pdf
  • Rhodes, Nicholas G .: "The Development of Currency in Tibet". In: Tibetan Studies in Honor of Hugh Richardson . Edited by Michael Aris and Aung San Suu Kyi . Warminster, 1981.
  • Rhodes, Nicholas G .: "Tibetan Mints". Oriental Numismatic Society, Information Sheet , No. 19, August 1978.
  • Shakapa, WD (translated by Lhakdor): "Tibetan Currency". Tibet House Bulletin , Vol. 7, No. 1, New Delhi, Spring 1992, pp. 1 and 3.
  • Shrestha, Bhupendra Narayan: Tibetan Paper Currency . St. Albans (UK) 1987.
  • Terrien De La Couperie: "The Silver Coinage of Tibet". The Numismatic Chronicle. Journal of the Numismatic Society . Third Series, Vol. 1, London, 1881, pp. 340-353.
  • Walsh, EHC: "The Coinage of Tibet". Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , Vol. II, No. 2, Calcutta 1907, pp. 11-23.
  • Wang Haiyan: Xi zang di fang huo bi ("The regional money of Tibet"). Zang xue wen ku (Tibetology series). Qing hai ren min chu ban she (Qinghai People's Publishing House), Xining, 2007.
  • Wood, Howland: "The Coinage of Tibet". American Journal of Numismatics , Vol. 46, No. 4, New York, Oct. 1912, pp. 164-167.
  • Xiao Huaiyuan: Xi zang di fang huo bi shi ("History of the coins of the local Tibetan government"), Min zu chu ban she (People's Publishing House) Beijing, 1987.
  • Yin Zhengmin: Zhong guo xi zang qian bi tu lu ("Illustrated catalog of Chinese-Tibet money"), Xizang Renmin Chubanshe (Tibetan People's Publishing House ), Lhasa 2004, ISBN 7-223-01686-8 .
  • Zhu Jinzhong (eds.), Wang Haiyan, Wang Jiafeng, Zhang Wuyi, Wu Hanlin, Wang Dui [dbang ´dus] and Tsering Pincuo: Zhong guo xi zang qian bi ("The money of Chinese Tibet"), Xi zang zi zhi ou qian bi xue hui (Numismatic Association of the Tibet Autonomous Region), Zhong hua shu ju, Beijing 2002, ISBN 7-101-03360-1 / Z. 449.

Web links

Commons : Coins of Tibet  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files
Commons : Banknotes of Tibet  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Bertsch, Wolfgang; The Currency of Tibet; Dharamsala 2002; ISBN 81-86470-32-8 ; Introduction
  2. ↑ on purchasing power see: Brauen, Martin; Peter Aufschneiter: His life in Tibet; Innsbruck 1983
  3. ↑ Aug. 1933: 24 khang = 12 karnga = 8 chegye = 6 cho = 4 trangha = 1½ rupees = 1 ch. Tael :; Michel stamp catalog, Europa-Übersee 1934, Leipzig 1934, p. 1573.
  4. ↑ Lemke, Hans; The journeys of the Venetian Marco Polo; reprint: Cologne 2001, ISBN 3-89340-004-4 , p. 319f.
  5. ↑ 5 pounds of butter = 1 ch. Silver dollar; see. Ekvall, Robert; Fields on the Hoof…; New York 1968, pp. 60f.
  6. ↑ Jordan, Reinhold; A contribution to the tea brick money; in: Die Münze, Vol 6 (1975), p. 248ff.
  7. ↑ Bertsch, Wolfgang: “The money used in Tibet in the early 18th century according to a report by the Italian Capuchin Domenico da Fano. (Currencies at Tibet of the early 18th century from an account of the Italian Capuchin Domenico da Fano) ". The Primitive Money Collector, Bulletin of the European Association for Collecting, Preserving and Researching Original and Extraordinary Forms of Money (EUCOPRIMO). Volume 29, Issue 1 (Vol. 29, No. 1), Rüsselsheim, 2008, pp. 3–8.
  8. ↑ Sarat Chandra Das indicates that one se ba corresponds to two grains , which is 0.128 g. For the late 17th century, Khachikian gives the weight of a se ba as 0.25 g, which is more likely to correspond to the standard before 1650. See Das, Sarat Chandra: A Tibetan English Dictionary with Sanskrit Definitions , Calcutta 1902 (reprinted from Book Faith India, New Delhi 1998), p. 1273 and Khachikian, Levon: "The Ledger of the Merchant Hovhannes Joughayetsi". Journal of the Asiatic Society , Vol. 8, No. 3, 1966, pp. 153-186.
  9. ↑ Das, Sarat Chandra: A Tibetan English Dictionary with Sanskrit Synonyms , Calcutta 1902 (Reprint by Book Faith India, New Delhi1998), p. 282. According to Das, one mgur zho 24 se ba or 24 rattee (1 rattī = 1.75 grains ( = 0.11339825 g) (1 grain = 0.064799 g)
  10. ↑ Bertsch, Wolfgang, Gabrisch Charles and Nicholas Rhodes, "A Study of Sino-Tibetan Coins of the Jia Qing Era." The Journal of East Asian Numismatics , Vol 2, No. 4, Taibei and Niskayuna, summer 1995 p. 23. -34.
  11. ↑ The name comes from the first two syllables of the coin inscription, which reads dga 'ldan pho brang phyogs las rnam rgyal ("The Gaden Palace, victorious in all directions"). The Ga (n) den Palace is located in Drepung Monastery approx. 5 km west of Lhasa and served as the residence of the 2nd to 5th Dalai Lama. This term has also been used to describe the Tibetan government since the middle of the 17th century
  12. ↑ Bertsch, Wolfgang: “The Silver Coin Presented by the 13th Dalai Lama to Monks in 1910 AD” Tibet Journal , Vol. 24, No. 4, Dharamsala, Winter 1999, pp. 22-34.
  13. ↑ Davies, Major HR: Yünnan. The link between India and the Yangtze . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1909, p. 279 and Clements, AJ: "The Coins of West China, a Manifold and Varied Currency". The North China Herald , Vol. 132, No. 2718, Shanghai, Sept. 13, 1919.
  14. ↑ Gabrisch, Karl: "The Szechuan Rupee and its Variants". Numismatics International Bulletin , Vol. 17, No. 4, Dallas, April 1983, pp. 103-112; Wright, RNJ: "The Szechuan Rupee". Coins and Medals , 1976, pp. 35-36; Wang Zhengzhi: "Si chuan zang yang (The Tibetan silver coins of Sichuan)". Zhong guo qian bi (China Numismatics) , No. 3, Beijing, 1988, pp. 12-18 and 54 and Chen Yishi: “Lu bi qing ying kang zhang ji ying xiang (The Penetration of the British Indian Rupee into Tibet and Xikang and the Consequences) ". Zhong guo qian bi (China Numsimatics) , No. 28, Beijing 1990.1, pp. 43-50.
  15. ^ Rhodes, Nicholas G .: "A Communist Chinese Restrike". Spink's Numismatic Circular , Vol. 83, London, 1975, pp. 239-240.
  16. ↑ Bower, Peter; Banknote Examination. Five Tibetan Banknotes…; London 1995 and Bower, Peter: "Splitting Tibetan Banknotes: An Investigation into the Structure of the Notes". The Quarterly. The Journal of the British Association of Paper Historians , No. 41, London, January, 2002, pp. 20-27.
  17. ↑ Bertsch, Wolfgang: "Tibetan monastery notes for buying tea bricks". Der Geldscheinsammler , No. 13, Issue 7, Regenstauf, October 1999, pp. 10-14
  18. ↑ cf. Bertsch, Wolfgang: "Bank Notes of the Farmer's Bank of China with Tibetan Overprints"; in: Spink Numismatic Circular , Vol. CIX (2001), p. 372f. and Bertsch, Wolfgang: "Banknotes from West China with legends in Tibetan script". Coins & Paper Money. Magazine for coins, medals & paper money . Regenstauf, March 2003 edition (03 / bear the date 13-452003), pp. 141–151.
  19. ↑ cf. Bertsch, Wolfgang; "Tibetan Ration Bills from 1960 to 1996"; in: Der Geldscheinsammler , Vol. 15 (2001), pp. 6-11, 25-8
  20. ^ Bertsch, Wolfgang: The Currency of Tibet ; Dharamśala 2002, p. 9.
  21. ↑ Shakabpa, Wangchuk Deden, Tsepon: Tibet. A Political History . Potala Publications, New York, 1984, pp. 10-11. Shakabpa believes the year 1890 was the first in which Tibetan banknotes were issued; Numerous authors follow him in this, especially since Shakabpa, as tsipon (roughly “financial secretary”) in ancient Tibet, was jointly responsible for the issue of coins and banknotes.
  22. ^ Bertsch, Wolfgang: The Currency of Tibet ; Dharamśala 2002, p. 10.