Typology
The type theories (also personality typology ) try to categorize people according to their characteristics .
In modern psychology, the concept of types has not been used consistently and has therefore caused confusion. Since the results of personality tests tend to fall on a bell curve rather than in distinct categories, personality type theories have been heavily criticized by psychometric researchers. Because of these problems, personality type theories have taken a back seat in psychology. Most researchers now assume that it is impossible to explain the diversity of the human personality in terms of a small number of distinct types. Instead, they recommend feature models such as the five-factor model.
Western-ancient type theories
The ancient type theories were mostly related to natural elements.
Empedocles: four-element teaching
Empedocles (495–435 BC) considered people to be shaped by the " four elements " fire, air, water and earth.
Hippocrates and Galen: doctrine of the four juices
Hippocrates (approx. 460–370 BC) differentiated human physiology and its diseases on the basis of several body fluids (blood, mucus, yellow and black bile, water).
Galen (2nd century AD) wrote down the doctrine of humoral pathology in a systematic form and assigned four juices to four temperaments . This doctrine of temperament refers to the character traits of a person. The juices and temperaments also each correspond to one of the elements .
Aristotle
Aristotle (384–322 BC) believed to find temperaments in blood quality (in De generatione et corruptione ). The blood can be warm or cold, as well as dry or wet. These properties arise from the relationship between two elements.
In addition to the four elements, according to Aristotle, there is also a »quinta essentia« (“fifth element”), the eternal ether that pervades everything.
The theory of types can also be found in many other places in his writings, such as the Ethica Nicomachea (1150–1154) and the Ethica Eudemeia.
Modern, theory-guided approaches and mixed types
There are several theory-based type theories that are used in management theory , but have so far hardly received any reception in scientific-empirical personality research.
"Psychological Types" by CG Jung
CG Jung (1875–1961) tried to classify people because they needed different therapies due to their differences (in Psychological Types, 1921).
Jung first distinguished people into extroverted and introverted with regard to their basic attitude towards the world . Jung calls this differentiation types of attitudes. In addition, he distinguishes between four other types, which he regards as functions of consciousness . These are thinking, feeling, feeling and intuiting. Jung differentiates according to the type of attitude and the consciousness function, i.e. H. there are, for example, the introverted feeling type, the extroverted intuitive type, etc. Thus, one can distinguish eight types.
Extensions or modifications of Jung's theory
If you combine the aspects of Jung differently, you get 16 types.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (American)
→ Main article: Myers-Briggs type indicator , see also Keirsey Temperament Sorter
The Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) is a further development of Jung's type theory. There are two options (which can be combined as required) for each of the four dimensions:
- Introversion ( I ) or Extraversion ( E )
- Intuition ( N ) or Sensing ( S )
- Feeling ( F ) or Thinking ( T )
- Judging ( J ) or Perceiving ( P )
Thus there are 2 4 = 16 types (for example ISTJ or INTP etc.).
A questionnaire was developed for the type indicator, but it can only be purchased and has not been scientifically analyzed independently. It is advertised for coaching and company personnel and decisions. However, the usefulness of the application is highly controversial.
A study in which the MBTI was compared to a trait test ( NEO-PI ) based on the “ Big Five” model found that the NEO-PI trait test was a better predictor of personality disorders .
Socionics (from the former Soviet Union)
Socionics was developed in the 1970s by the Lithuanian Aušra Augustinavičiūtė . It is also based on Jung's theory and is similar to the Myers-Briggs type indicator, but was created completely independently of it.
The assessment is based more on personal assessment than on questionnaires (as in the MBTI).
A special focus in socionics is not only to describe the sixteen types individually, but also to analyze the various (couple) relationships. According to leading socionists, some relationships are usually very harmonious, while others are almost certainly doomed to failure.
Body types
Ernst Kretschmer (1888–1964) classified four body types in his physical constitution and character studies. They each have typical character traits and, in the case of mental illness, each tend to have a well-defined type of psychosis, which was described by the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926). These body types are the pycnic, athletic, leptosomal and dysplastic types. The same basic direction that shows itself within the character structure occurs in the disease in an exaggerated form. These relationships are not absolute, but are secured in a static sense. Kretschmer's work was groundbreaking because it enabled the concept of endogenous psychosis to be underpinned.
| Body feature | character | psychosis | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pykniker | broad-rounded | cyclothyma, syntonic | Manic depressive |
| Athlete | bony-muscular | viscous-excitable-explosive | epilepsy |
| Leptosomes | long-narrow | rigid-cool-suspicious | schizophrenic |
| Dysplastic | atypical malformed | ? | epilepsy |
Four-quadrant model
Based on the idea that different areas of the human brain are responsible for different tasks and areas (see Triune Brain ), Ned Herrmann published his questionnaire on the four-quadrant model in 1978. According to this, each of the four areas (cerebral, limbic, right and left hemisphere) stand for a thinking style and thus a personality type.
DISG types
William Moulton Marston published his typology in 1928, which he developed from the (subjective) observation of behavioral children from New York City and inmates of a Texas prison. Marston was a scientist, but did not specify his methodology and made reference to various natural forces such as water and gravity. This typology thus falls within the border area between science and esotericism. The letters stand for dominance, inducement, submission and compliance (German conscientiousness). The special characteristics of D-types are among others: striving for dominance, determination, willingness to fight, boldness and a tendency to aggressiveness. Marston compares this principle of behavior, among other things, with the natural power of water, which makes its way and overcomes all possible obstacles.
The C-type, which is complementary to the D-type, is more introverted and tends to be anxious, cautious, reserved and shy. People of this type often strive for harmony and emotional ties, they feel connected to nature and often believe in higher powers. I-types assume - like D-types - that they are (intellectually) superior to their environment. Their behavior is less characterized by willingness to fight, but more by seduction and conviction of others. As a rule, they are charming and impressive, have an attractive (charismatic) aura - so they are good salespeople and self-promoters. Marston compares this pull to gravity. The S-type is complementary to the I-type. The term submission in German (for example in the German DISG test) is represented by "continuity". People of this type tend to willingly follow others; they are generous, kind, obedient, benevolent, prudent, and altruistic. It is through these behavioral tendencies that they benefit from the strength of their (complementary) I-Types by allying themselves with them. John G. Geier developed the DISC test from these terms.
Empirical-scientific approaches
Big Five
A lexical approach that assumes that personality traits are reflected in language. According to this approach, people are classified on scales of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and tolerance. The Big Five are now internationally recognized as the universal standard model in personality research. They have been used in over 3,000 scientific studies over the past twenty years.
Personality prototypes
Research over the past 20 years has identified a number of three replicable personality types: resilient, over-controlled, and under-controlled personalities. Resilient individuals are characterized by self-confidence, emotional stability and a positive focus on others. Overcontrolled individuals are emotionally fragile, introverted, and tense, while undercontrolled individuals are poor to deal with and have no self-control.
Esoteric type theories
Enneagram
The Enneagram is the best known esoteric type theory. It is based on nine different types (three each from the area of head, heart and belly people) that are related to each other. The Enneagram is geared towards (spiritual) growth or maturation.
The roots of the enneagram lie in the dark.
Zodiac sign (astrology)
The system of astronomical division of the year according to the signs of the zodiac (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces), which goes back to early antiquity, is the basis for a typology with twelve types. The date of birth determines the type.
The classification can still be refined to an almost individual horoscope , for example by the ascendant .
The astrology has also taken up the classical element by beiordnet each zodiac sign one of the elements.
(Far) Eastern type theories
Dosha / Ayurveda
This theory divides people into types according to their Dosha (life energy): Vata (unsteady), Pitta (excessive) and Kapha (slow). Here, too, there are assignments to elements.
The medicine based on it is Ayurveda .
Other
Other type systems are:
- Bioclimatic reaction type (K-type / W-type) according to Manfred Curry (1946)
- Factor analysis as an open procedure
- Psychoanthropology according to Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss
- Social types, e.g. B. the Homo oeconomicus in Eduard Spranger
- Japanese blood group interpretation : assignment of characteristics to blood groups
- Terlusollogy (breathing type theory according to Erich Wilk)
See also
literature
- Fritz Riemann : Basic Forms of Fear . A depth psychological study . 33rd edition. Munich 2000, ISBN 3-497-00749-8 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Tammy L. Bess, Robert J. Harvey: Bimodal Score Distributions and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: Fact or Artifact? In: Journal of Personality Assessment . tape 78 , no. 1 , February 2002, ISSN 0022-3891 , p. 176–186 , doi : 10.1207 / s15327752jpa7801_11 ( tandfonline.com [accessed November 12, 2018]).
- ^ Jens B. Asendorpf: Head-to-head comparison of the predictive validity of personality types and dimensions . In: European Journal of Personality . tape 17 , no. 5 , 2003, ISSN 0890-2070 , p. 327–346 , doi : 10.1002 / per.492 ( wiley.com [accessed November 12, 2018]).
- ^ David J Pittenger: The limitations of extracting typologies from trait measures of personality . In: Personality and Individual Differences . tape 37 , no. 4 , September 2004, ISSN 0191-8869 , p. 779–787 , doi : 10.1016 / j.paid.2003.10.006 ( elsevier.com [accessed November 12, 2018]).
- ^ Robert R. McCrae, Antonio Terracciano, Paul T. Costa, Daniel J. Ozer: Person-factors in the California Adult Q-Set: closing the door on personality trait types? In: European Journal of Personality . tape 20 , no. 1 , January 2006, ISSN 0890-2070 , p. 29–44 , doi : 10.1002 / per.553 ( wiley.com [accessed November 12, 2018]).
- ↑ Adrian Furnham, John Crump: Personality traits, types, and disorders: an examination of the relationship between three self-report measures . In: European Journal of Personality . tape 19 , no. 3 , 2005, ISSN 0890-2070 , p. 167-184 , doi : 10.1002 / per.543 ( wiley.com [accessed November 12, 2018]).
- ↑ Type theory . In: Peter R. Hofstätter (Ed.): Psychology. The Fischer Lexicon . Fischer-Taschenbuch, Frankfurt a. M. 1972, ISBN 3-436-01159-2 , p. 328 ff.
- ↑ Ernst Kretschmer: Physique and Character . 1921, 25th edition 1967.
- ^ William Moulton Marston: Emotions Of Normal People. New York / London, 1928, p. 114 f.
- ^ William Moulton Marston: Emotions Of Normal People. New York / London, 1928, p. 113 ff.
- ↑ Oliver P. John, Laura P. Naumann, Christopher J. Soto: Paradigm Shift to the Integrative Big Five Trait Taxonomy . In: Oliver P. John, Richard W. Robins, Lawrence A. Pervin (Eds.): Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research . 3. Edition. Guilford Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-60623-738-0 , pp. 114–117 ( google.de [accessed on May 22, 2018]).
- ^ Jens B. Asendorpf, Franz J. Neyer: Psychology of Personality . In: Springer textbook . 2012, ISSN 0937-7433 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-642-30264-0 ( springer.com [accessed May 22, 2018]).
- ^ M. Brent Donnellan, Richard W. Robins: Resilient, Overcontrolled, and Undercontrolled Personality Types: Issues and Controversies . In: Social and Personality Psychology Compass . tape 4 , no. 11 , October 20, 2010, ISSN 1751-9004 , p. 1070-1083 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1751-9004.2010.00313.x ( wiley.com [accessed May 22, 2018]).
- ↑ Manfred Curry: Bioclimatic. Riederau American Bioklimatic Research Institute, 1946.