Before sunrise

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Before sunrise is a social drama written by Gerhart Hauptmann in 1889 .

background

Before sunrise 1889

The premiere on October 20, 1889, organized by the Free Stage at the Lessing Theater , marked the breakthrough of naturalism in German theater and the establishment of a hitherto almost unknown author as a playwright . Captain had for the piece entitled The sower provided, but then on a proposal from decided Arno wood for Before Sunrise . The naturalistic doctrine of determination has central importance for the conception of the drama, which is unmistakably the successor to Ibsen's analytical drama Ghosts : Man is not self-determined and free in his decisions and possibilities, but decisively shaped and limited by the factors heredity , milieu and Upbringing .

The biographical background of his first drama is on the one hand the influence of Hauptmann's friends such as Alfred Ploetz and Ferdinand Simon , who both studied medicine and renounced alcohol. However, Hauptmann himself did not become a teetotaler like her , because he later wrote in his memoirs The Adventure of My Youth : “Ploetzen's idealism overturned one day, and he informed us that after six months of free abstinence he had committed himself to To avoid alcoholic beverages forever. I suspect that he has not broken this vow, which filled us with consternation, to this day. ”The nature apostle Johannes Friedrich Guttzeit , whom he met at Whitsun 1888 in Zurich , had a further influence on his first work . In addition, Hauptmann also deals with negative experiences that he himself had had in his childhood in a pietistic milieu (and which - according to his own words - had almost driven him to suicide), but also those of his first wife Marie Thienemann , those in a Herrnhut milieu Educational institution had become a rather anxious, moody, depressed person.

One of Hauptmann's sources was Gustav Bunge's book Die Alcohol Question (Leipzig 1887), from which he literally quotes a figure - Alfred Loth.

The piece was published in August 1889 by the Berlin publisher Paul Ackermann on the recommendation of Theodor Fontane . In 1892 the publisher Samuel Fischer added the drama to his publishing program.

construction

The structure of the drama is largely based on the classic model and consists of 5 acts. The event describes a day in the life of the Krause farming family and only has the Krause's yard or room as the setting. The action is closed and keeps the three units of place, time and action. However, none of the figures is noble, so the class clause is repealed. The tectonic structure of the drama is adhered to - the confession of the love of Helene forms the climax in the third act and the suicide the catastrophe at the end.

Table of contents

The following page numbers and quotations refer to Gerhart Hauptmann : Before sunrise . 38th edition. Ullstein Verlag, Berlin 2005.

Plot overview

The naturalistic drama aims to show the degeneration of a peasant family who became rich through coal discoveries. Many members of the family, especially farmer Krause and his daughter Martha, became addicted to alcohol as a result. Martha's first child has already reached for alcohol and is fatally injured by the broken pieces of a vinegar bottle that supposedly contains his “beloved booze” (p. 117). Martha's second child is stillborn in the final act of the drama. Only the main female character, Helene Krause, differs from her milieu, because at the request of the mother who died “of childbed fever ” (p. 98, line 18), she was brought up in a Herrnhut boarding school (see p. 24 , 57, 64, 94, 96); it is thus differentiated from the rest of the family in terms of education and habits. As a result of her otherness, she suffers from the drinking environment of her parents' house. When Alfred Loth, a childhood friend of her brother-in-law Hoffmann, comes to visit to study economic milieu, they fall in love. Similar to Goethe's Faust , in a gazebo there are rapprochements, confessions of love and the common desire to start a new life together. However, Helene is rejected and abandoned by Loth without hesitation when he learns of the family's drunkenness. He is concerned about his future children as he is convinced of the inheritance of alcoholism . The sensitive Helene then takes her own life.

Contents of the five acts

I. act

(in the "room" of the residential building)

During his trip to Witzdorf in Silesia, where he intends to write a report on the conditions of the miners there, the economist Alfred Loth learns that his old student friend Hoffmann has married into a local farming family who have made wealth through the sale of coal-rich lands , and visit him. In the first conversation between Hoffmann and Loth it turns out that both apparently pursued socialist ideals in their youth, but Loth is the only one who is still emulating them and is still committed to a fair distribution of goods. In contrast, Hoffmann has largely rejected those ideals and morals and now leads a luxurious life. Before and during dinner with the farming family, Loth's aversion to alcohol is discussed. He underpins his aversion by describing the encounter with a drunk farmer in the local inn, without knowing, however, that it is farmer Krause - the head of the farming family. Everyone present at the table is embarrassed. Helene, Krause's daughter from her first marriage, who begins to develop a certain sympathy for Loth, leaves the room ashamed.

II. Act

(On the farm, the next morning at four o'clock)

The morning after Loth's arrival at the farm, Farmer Krause staggered drunk from the inn back to the farm. Unable to walk alone, he lets his daughter Helene help him, embracing her "with the clumsiness of a gorilla" and doing "some lewd grips" (p. 43). Helene pushes him away and, with the help of the worker Beibst, carries him into the house. Shortly thereafter, Wilhelm Kahl, the nephew of Frau Krause, Farmer Krause's second wife, steps out of the doorway and it becomes apparent that he is having a sexual affair with her. Afterwards there is a conversation between Loth and Helene, during which they get closer to each other. But she becomes more and more insecure and finally fears that Loth thinks bad of her, so she rushes to end the conversation. Helene then argues with Frau Krause, as she intends to fire a maid who she has caught in bed with the foreman. But Helene is ultimately able to convince her stepmother to keep the maid at the farm by threatening to make her affair with Wilhelm Kahl - her own nephew - public.

III. act

(in the "room" of the house, a few minutes later)

Hoffmann and Dr. Schimmelpfennig, one of Loth's former fellow students - as it should later turn out - consult in the manor house about the imminent birth of Hoffmann's wife. Schimmelpfennig advises Hoffmann to separate the child from the mother after the birth and to leave it in the care of his sister-in-law Helene in order to allow the child a healthy development, since the mother is also addicted to alcoholism. Helene, dismayed by the social grievances and the milieu in which she finds herself, enters the room crying after Dr. Schimmelpfennig has left this. Hoffmann uses the opportunity to physically approach Helene, under the pretext of comfort, and to seduce her. Helene waits first, but then sees through her brother-in-law's plan and is outraged. A heated argument ensues, which is only interrupted by Loth's entrance. During breakfast afterwards, Hoffmann tries to find out what the reason for his school friend's visit to the country is. Loth tells him that he is here because he wants to study the situation of the local miners. Hoffmann steers the conversation in the direction of women, and Loth reveals to Hoffmann which criteria his future wife must meet. This conversation is followed passively by Helene, who confesses her love to Loth after Hoffmann's disappearance.

IV. Act

(on the farm, a quarter of an hour later)

After the argument with Hoffmann, Loth decides to leave, but finally lets himself be persuaded to stay. A conversation follows between Helene and Loth in the gazebo, where the two get closer, kiss and confess their love to each other. Loth learns that Helene - like all the other members of the family - was not raised on the farm, but in the pension and has great difficulty settling in again on the farm. However, he does not find out the specific reasons for this, since Helene does not have the courage to tell him about the alcoholism of her entire family, for fear that Loth might leave her because of it. The conversation between the two of them is interrupted when Helene's sister, Hoffmann's wife Martha, goes into labor. Helene goes to see the doctor, Dr. Schimmelpfennig to get.

V. act

(in the "room" of the house, two o'clock at night until "sunrise")

Loth and his old fellow student Schimmelpfennig meet, start a conversation about old times and exchange ideas about mutual professional intentions, whereby they are interrupted again and again because the doctor has to leave the room several times to take care of Martha, who is giving birth. During these interruptions Helene appears and makes sure every time that Loth is not leaving her alone and going away without her. Schimmelpfennig recently told Loth about the degeneration of the Witzdorfer and the alcoholism of the Krause family, which prompted Loth to end his relationship with Helene, as he believes in the inheritance of alcoholism and endangers the health of potential children he could have with Helene sees. He writes a farewell letter to her and immediately leaves the farm. When Helene Hoffmann wants to tell that his child was stillborn, she discovers Loth's farewell letter, is shaken and in her desperation takes her own life.

Relationships between the characters

Diagram of the relationships between the characters

Individual observation of the figures

Alfred Loth

The economist embodies the principles of naturalism . Following the example of the French writer Zola (1840–1902), as mentioned above, people are determined by heredity, milieu and upbringing . Loth has an extremely narrow-minded image of man ; he leaves Helene, whom he wanted to marry (p. 114f), despite his deeply aroused feelings for her when Dr. Schimmelpfennig informed him about the alcoholism in the family: "I don't think you will be able to marry Helene Krause." (P. 114). Although the doctor admits that there are known cases "where such inherited evils have been suppressed" (p. 119), Loth is immediately determined to do without Helene. Loth's system is combined with his incorruptible adherence to principles. On the one hand, he has ideas of his dream woman that must be adhered to; on the other hand, he strictly refuses to become just as opportunistic as Hoffmann; so he was ready to go to jail for his principles. He himself considers the charge - alleged politicization of his colonial association - to be unjustified (p. 14).

Loth is genuinely trying to improve the situation of the lower classes of the population. It is unbearable for him to live in an unjust world. But he makes the mistake of blindly advocating his beliefs. For a long time he doesn't even notice that the family has become addicted to drinking. He just cannot serve as a role model and remains a dubious figure who ultimately fails in the decision required of him as a person. Loth's conviction that he is committed to objective and irrefutable knowledge (here: the inheritance of alcoholism) serves him as a pretext to justify a deeper heartlessness that manifests itself at the end of the piece in the fact that he leaves without a word as soon as he leaves the Learned alcohol addiction from Helene's father. Helene finally commits suicide because of him.

In terms of function for the drama, Loth has an important role: As a (not quite typical) messenger from abroad, it is he who initiates the action through his appearance, who softens the firmly established relationship grids and thus sets the action in motion. In the end, he is the one who, with his departure, draws the curtain for the audience. Furthermore, his figure serves not only to introduce naturalistic principles and attitudes, but also from the point of view of the conception of the drama as a mirror for his environment. Only because of its otherness does the recipient become aware of the depravity of the Krause family.

Hoffmann

Hoffmann's person has changed in the course of her biography, and there is now a big discrepancy between Loth's principles. Hoffmann is a successful businessman who was not afraid to outdo a rival and ultimately drive him to suicide (p. 17f) and his wife Martha to alcoholism. He has gained wealth through marriage himself and has succumbed to selfish materialism .

Dr. Schimmelpfennig

Dr. Schimmelpfennig has been practicing in Witzdorf for six years. He had to flee to Zurich, did his doctorate there and later again in the German Empire, and is now fully absorbed in his profession. He is very committed to his patients and is therefore extremely popular (Eduard: “This is a man, tell you: jrob like a sackcloth, but - sugar is a stupid boy there.” P. 102).

But it is also important to him to be materially independent and to make as much money as possible in Witzdorf, where he sticks to the degenerate, rich villagers while he treats the poor free of charge.

He is also committed to women, but is pessimistic about marriage: "I - don't think badly of women. ... I only think badly about marriage ... about marriage, and then at most about men I think badly "(p. 109).

Helene Krause

Helene suffers from the depravity of her family, from the immense alcohol consumption and the sexual assaults of her father and brother-in-law. In contrast to the other family members, she is reserved, thoughtful and seeks consolation in reading Goethe's Werther . Helene thinks about Loth's theses and quickly agrees with his opinion: "... I'm so stupid! - I have nothing in me. ... - but you are so good, so big - and have so much in you!" (P. 98). It is based on him and is also adopting his language more and more. Besides Loth, she is the only one who refrains from alcohol at dinner. Outwardly she fits into this peasant family; but because she had a pietistic upbringing at the Moravian pension, she feels a stranger on the estate and is bored. The miners Loth is so interested in seem frightening to her.

As a character in the play, too, Helene complies with the guidelines of naturalism: Her attempt to break out fails . Some parallels can be found in Friedrich Hebbel'sMaria Magdalena ”: a naive little girl who is unable to make anything of her life.

Farmer Krause

Farmer Krause became rich by selling his coal-bearing fields. Since he has nothing more to do, he sits in the tavern every day until dawn, then stumbles home and hugs his daughter Helene "with the clumsiness of a gorilla and makes some lewd grips" (p. 43). His life essence is so limited to the consumption of alcoholic beverages that he can neither grasp the suffering of the family nor the death of Helene ("Dohie hä? Hoa iich nee a poar hibsche Tächter?", P. 124, last sentence of the drama).

Miss Krause

Mrs. Krause is the second wife of the farmer Krause. When she first meets Loth, she wants to throw him out because she thinks he is a supplicant. Despite her wealth, she shows no practical charity, but brags about expensive champagne and oysters. She is an egocentric woman who is not afraid of constantly reprimanding her stepdaughter, even slapping her on the face (p. 59), and who cheats on her husband with her own nephew, Wilhelm Kahl.

Wilhelm Kahl

Wilhelm Kahl is the stuttering neighbor of Krause and Frau Krause's nephew. He is engaged to Helene, but this displeases him a lot. At dinner with the Krause family, Kahl tries to win Helene's favor, but without success. This is due to the family's interesting guest, Alfred Loth, but also to Kahl's life-filling martial interest in hunting, which she does not like at all ("It's too ridiculous; he shoots everything dead, tame and wild.", P. 29). It turns out that he has a relationship with Mrs. Krause and tries to hide this incest by bribing the worker Beibst. He finally forgets it with Helene when he makes fun of her childbearing sister.

Figure configuration

Intellectual sphere

Peasant sphere

  • Farmer Krause: Got rich through the sale of arable land containing raw materials, alcoholic in the most severe form
  • Mrs. Krause: nouveau riche, striving upscale, nobility-oriented demeanor; cannot hide their low level of education; Relationship with her nephew, Wilhelm Kahl; also an alcoholic
  • Martha Krause: Alcoholic in the most severe form; takes no responsibility towards their children; first son dies of alcoholism at the age of three (p. 117)
  • Mrs. Spiller: partner of Mrs. Krause; you speak by your mouth
  • Wilhelm Kahl: heavy drinker; violent hunter (nobility as a model)

This sphere represents the core of the social problems: The Krause family shows the consequences of alcoholism, incest, poverty and wealth. Together with Hoffmann, the peasant sphere is characterized by real degeneration and thus forms the contrast to the ideal utopia of Loth and Schimmelpfennig.

Minor characters

This sphere serves to identify problems which, in their totality, make up the subject pool: poverty, dependency, arbitrariness. The relationship of a maid with a foreman and Mrs. Krause's reaction to this show a clear contrast: Mrs. Krause herself has an affair with Kahl and still reacts punishingly.

Special case of Helene

Despite her family origins, Helene cannot be assigned to the peasant sphere, as she had a different upbringing in Herrnhut, i.e. in a non-peasant environment. However, it does not belong to the intellectual sphere either, because it is not educated enough for that. This position between the spheres serves to highlight conflicts.

Because Loth falls in love with her, but leaves her behind and Helene kills herself, Loth's idealism must be questioned or at least viewed in a more differentiated manner. (Discrediting of his statement: "If I should be happy, it would have to be all other people around me first".)

Character characteristics

Peasant sphere

Farmer Krause

Farmer Krause, who surprisingly became prosperous through coal deposits. Because he cannot cope with wealth, he has become an alcoholic. He is now in his second marriage, but his two daughters are (both) from his first marriage.

Appearance
  • about 50 years old,
  • gray, sparse hair that is unkempt and shaggy
  • dirty shirt, which is not buttoned on the arms and on the chest
  • formerly yellow, now dirty, shiny leather pants tied at the ankles; just a suspender
  • bare feet in a pair of knitted sleeping shoes
Behaviors
  • always drunk, he is always the last to leave the inn where he has spent the whole day
  • presents his wallet to his daughter; Conclusion: reification of the most intimate human relationships (here: the family)
  • sexually molests his daughter Helene
in summary
  • in appearance the optical / theatrical realization of his depraved state;
  • striking illustration of the familial degeneration process

Miss Krause

Mrs. Krause is the second wife of farmer Krause. She has no children and only became wealthy through marriage. She, too, cannot cope with prosperity and therefore reaches for a glass more often.

Appearance
  • bit ugly
versucht sich mit Seide und kostbarem Schmuck hübsch zu machen, insbesondere als Neureiche eine Zugehörigkeit zu der traditionellen gesellschaftlichen Führungsschicht demonstrativ zu dokumentieren; Maßstäbe vermittelt durch die Gesellschafterin Spiller; Namenssymbolik bei dieser
  • outwardly she tries to adapt to the nobility so that one no longer recognizes her origin. However, this only seems ridiculous
Behaviors
  • through her Silesian dialect one recognizes her low level of education (here, too, she tries to adapt to the appearance of people from the intellectual sphere so that one does not recognize her origin immediately)
  • gets angry and loud quickly
  • does not get along with the daughter Helene

Wilhelm Kahl

Appearance
  • 24 years old
  • rough facial features
  • Facial expression: stupid, smart
  • stutters
  • Clothing: gray jacket, colorful velvet vest, dark trousers, glossy sheepskin boots, green hunter's hat with feathers
Behaviors
  • drinks a lot of alcohol, like the other family members
  • brutal character (joy in hunting - for the hunt - unusual animals)
  • Helene is promised
  • sexual relationship with his aunt, Mrs. Krause (incest motive)
in summary
  • plump, brutal peasant lad with aristocratic airs
  • a particularly clear example of the degeneration resulting from sudden wealth

Helene Krause

Helene is the daughter of farmer Krause from his first marriage. Due to the early loss of her mother, she grew up - still at the request of her mother - in a Herrnhut boarding school, away from her sister, her father, his new wife and the harsh conditions that came with it. Helene stands out from her family through her education, her behavior and her pure standard German.

Appearance
  • she is "tall, a little too strong"
  • blond, voluminous hair (symbol of erotic attractiveness)
  • dressed in modern style
  • looks a little careworn (to Loth)
  • doesn't exactly appear to be a "fresh peasant girl"
Behaviors / social relationships
  • persistent tearfulness, which results from the sharp contrast between the sensitive, sheltered life in the pietistic boarding school in Herrnhut and the harsh reality of her family, which has meanwhile been brutalized
  • lives in an advanced stage of "internalization"
  • naive (related to the perception of social processes / classes and Loth's character traits)
  • Loth appears to Helene as a savior, who should free her from her perspective-free environment.
  • Downright stupendous lack of social open-mindedness and sensitivity: Helene calls the battered miners a “too raw pack”
  • persists in the awareness of female inferiority, which denies her the idea of ​​her own development ("I should just be a man", p. 21)
  • limited in their freedom of action
  • further decisive character traits can be seen in the consideration of the topic of "Werther" reading (see below)
in summary
  • a victim of terminally corrupted social conditions
  • Example of determination by the milieu

Intellectual sphere

Alfred Loth

As a staunch socialist, Alfred Loth contrasts with the capitalist Hoffmann. In Loth's life - but maybe only in his self-image - the realization of his ideals plays the decisive role, which is clearly evident in dealing with others, but also in dealing with himself. In his ongoing “fight for everyone's happiness”, Loth appears affirmative, energetic and committed. Although he always maintains his friendliness and objectivity in conversation with others, his loyalty to conviction prevents him from recognizing the real circumstances. In this way he prevents himself from recognizing the true situation of the alcoholism-influenced Krause family in conversation with them (especially in Act I). A separation from Helene Krause out of a sense of responsibility towards himself is therefore inevitable for Loth after the discovery of Helene's family relationships. With this, Loth deprives himself of the (for him new) experience of a lived love relationship. After this separation, a life will follow for Loth which, as before, will be characterized by idealism and self-assertion. However, it includes the abandonment of Helene: She finds herself in a hopeless situation and decides to commit suicide. With this she finally lets Loth lose his "fight for everyone's happiness".

Dr. Schimmelpfennig

Dr. Schimmelpfennig is the doctor from Witzdorf. Through this job he got a comprehensive insight into the social conditions and got to know all the characters in the village. Regarding his appearance, we learn that he is short, stocky, has black woolly hair and a strong mustache. The clothes appear solid and his movements are natural. Thus it seems to reproduce the typical image of a village doctor. Schimmelpfennig does not exude elegance, whereas Hoffmann is explicitly described as elegant. The contrast between these characters becomes clear through their outward appearance. Schimmelpfennig used to be politically active in Jena together with Alfred Loth, which resulted in a friendship between the two. It is reasonable to assume that something serious must have happened so that Schimmelpfennig distanced himself from the local circle of friends and became politically inactive. This idea is supported by the fact that there is talk of a “stupid story” and a “boyish prank”. Detached from this phase of his life, Schimmelpfennig began studying medicine in Zurich and repeated his state examination in Germany so that he could work in his home country. He opens a doctor's practice in Witzdorf, specializing in gynecological diseases, where the most important thing for him is to earn money quickly in order to become materially independent and thus have the opportunity to - as he puts it - "completely solve this question [the To dedicate women] ”. At this point it should be mentioned that a friend of Hauptmann's named Ferdinand Simon may have served as a model for the figure of the doctor Schimmelpfennig, since both the external appearance and the ideological position and the course of study in Jena match (see the article by Bellmann). Hauptmann may have created his work for very different groups of recipients, as his circle of friends was very important to him and “Before Sunrise” was therefore probably addressed to them, among others. Schimmelpfennig is recognized as a doctor in the village and is respected and praised by everyone. He dutifully does his job and behaves like a business. His judgment of the village population is derogatory and he marks the life of the people there with “Suff! Gluttony, inbreeding, and as a result - degenerations across the board ”. This prompts Schimmelpfennig to inform Loth about the prevailing conditions in the village and thus also specifically in the Hoffmann-Krause family in order to prevent Loth from bonding with Helene. Another reason for the doctor's behavior could also be his generally pessimistic attitudes about women and marriage. Furthermore, the first dialogue phase between Schimmelpfennig and Loth is worth mentioning, in which Schimmelpfennig's accidentally used polite address to his old friend Loth is very noticeable. This can be explained on the one hand by the lack of personal ties of Schimmelpfennig, on the other hand by the long consciously distant relationship with Loth. In summary, it can be said that Schimmelpfennig is a hardworking, determined man who has his own principles and, due to his clear demarcation from the rural village community, must be counted among the intellectuals.

Hoffmann

Hoffmann is the main economic figure in a milieu of luxury, gluttony and sexual debauchery. In his ruthlessness he is the embodiment of capitalism. In our classification, he is the only figure in his sphere who is not attached to ideals. He is a great egoist, and his own advantages are more important than anything else. As a result, Loth's principle of being able to “sit down last at the table” would not be an option for him. It was enough for him to be the only one at the table. The differences within the sphere, however, are not as great as those that separate it from the other social classes. What makes Hoffmann an intellectual:

  • He has outstanding practical skills.
  • He has a solid education as an engineer.
  • On the basis of his statements it becomes clear that he at least knows about principles and values ​​- although he does not adhere to them - which puts him one step ahead of the characters of the other groups. "I have my hands free: I could just start doing something for the ideals."

Hoffmann embodies a new type of intellectual who can no longer necessarily be interpreted positively. Rather, this emerging character image is shaped by unscrupulousness. In Hoffmann's case, it is combined with hypocrisy. In the end there is an egocentric winner.

Hoffmann especially distances himself from the people of the peasant sphere. For him they are only a means to an end. He takes advantage of them; even his wife, whose marriage gave him the necessary start-up capital for his business, does not escape his ostentatious indifference. So he puts himself above other people and makes no distinction between those "under" him. He is not interested in Helene's particularity.

For Hoffmann, it is more difficult to clarify with a first reading than with any other character whether what he says is also what he thinks:

  • He vehemently offers Loth to stay. Does this happen out of sheer hypocrisy and he would like Loth to disappear as quickly as possible, or is this to take advantage of the control options of a political opponent?
  • Hoffmann tries to defuse the bad rumors about him in front of Loth; you can still tell that he is aware of the immorality of his actions: "HOFFMANN, visibly embarrassed, stands up"
  • When Loth and Schimmelpfennig talk about the Krause family, they characterize Hoffmann as a "sad hermaphrodite". But Schimmelpfennig even takes this concession back: "Actually, not even that."

The fact that Hoffmann's world-improving side is completely inferior to his tough business instinct is emphasized.

Fips

Fips does not appear as a character in the drama, but is the topic of conversation between Loth and Hoffmann in Act I. It is significant because it represents another intellectual attitude. Friedrich Hildebrandt, known as Schnurz or Fips, was a schoolmate of Loth and Hoffmann who shared political ideals with young people. As a plasterer , he completed a proper technical training before he - starving himself - worked as an artist. Loth doesn't like Fips' modern art, but accepts it; Hoffmann demands that art should "cheer you up" and flatly rejects Fip's works. Loth reports that Fips killed himself after winning a monument competition for a Duodec prince because he saw this success as a betrayal of his artistic principles. Loth rejects the decision to kill himself because this is incompatible with his militant political stance; Hoffmann is irritated by the suicide issue because it reminds him of his Witzdorf economic and private rival Müller. He had killed himself after Hoffmann had taken his fiancée Martha Krause from him. With the figure of Fips, Hauptmann depicts and problematizes another life model.

The sphere of the servants, maidservants and servants

Weight of the sphere

Hauptmann was a naturalist and always tried to portray reality. This intention can also be found in Before Sunrise , in which he allows socially declassified marginalized groups to appear and also ascribes positive attributes to them in contrast to their employers. When comparing the spheres of peasants and intellectuals, the sphere of maidservants and farmhands has less weight in the piece “Before Sunrise”. While the peasant sphere is described as degenerate and the intellectual sphere almost as a failure, it seems to the reader that the lower sphere is less marked by the vices than the two upper ones.

Relationships within the sphere

Due to the spatial separation, certain groups form among the workers on the Krause estate. Eduard and Miele, both of whom act exclusively as servants to various members of the Krause family, only work in the house. This creates a closer bond with the family, as a result of which they occupy a higher position among the maids and servants. However, the two do not understand each other. Eduard disregards Miele in contrast to the maids who support each other and stick together. They do this, for example, by lying to one another, but not to one another. In spite of everything, they are not free from errors either. Relationships with their employers are not characterized by respect. This is shown on the one hand by Miele's unfriendly attitude towards Ms. Krause, on the other hand by the gossip of the entire workforce about the Krause family. The maid Marie breaks the ban on sleeping with a servant, which results in her being released. Another disregard for the law is stealing milk from the cowshed, protecting one another with lies. The stealing of milk shows the poor economic situation of the maidservants and servants, which makes them susceptible to accepting money that is used for bribery.

Eduard

Eduard, who is Hoffmann's (personal) servant, belongs formally to the sphere of the maidservants, but in a certain way has an exposed position among them. At each of his appearances, he takes orders from Hoffmann, carries them out or does something else. Information that allows conclusions to be drawn about his character is only given once, in a short conversation with Loth. He does not take orders from other workers on the farm, only those that come directly from the Krause family and their relatives. In this way he distances himself from the maids and servants, rises above them with a certain arrogance. However, due to his Silesian dialect (in conversation with Loth, pp. 101f.) Hauptmann puts him on a par with the rest of the workforce on the Krause estate. He is very polite, humble and courteous towards his employers, but talks badly about them behind their backs, especially about Hoffmann. This shows that he does not want to belong entirely to this second group on the Krause-Hof, even if he has nothing against financial security. Eduard is a loner on the estate, who only briefly opens up to Loth and basically looks unhappy.

Miele

Miele, who appears as the first figure on stage, is described as a “robust farmer's girl with a red, somewhat dull face”. She lives up to this representation in the course of her sparse appearances within the piece. Due to her strong Silesian pronunciation, she seems uneducated and is nowhere near as polite to her employers as Eduard. On the contrary, one of her answers was given the adjective “batzig” by Hauptmann. She also complies with the request to ask Frau Krause to sit at the table in her own way by shouting up to her from the hallway, which also does not seem very submissive, but is only acknowledged by Helene and Hoffmann with an amused glance. Miele serves as an example of an uneducated farmer's maid and fully fulfills the clichés expected by the reader.

Quit

Another worker on Krause's estate is Beibst, who is around 60 years old. He is present in both court scenes - the second and fourth acts. His lower position due to his work is already evident from the fact that he sits “under the doorway, on the ground” and is busy with his scythe. This also lets him assume that he belongs to the morning idyll. However, Beibst stands out from the sphere of maids and servants. He seems to be the only one who has an overview of all events and actions on the estate. These include the “illegal” actions of the maids, the relationship between Kahl and Ms. Krause, as well as the alcohol addiction that shapes the gloomy background of the estate. The figure of Beibst is pathetic: he is limping. This is the result of a high-spirited outrage by Wilhelm Kahl's father, who shot Beibst in the leg while under the influence of alcohol. Beibst is very helpful, for example when Helene wants to bring her drunken father into the house. Here it becomes clear that Beibst cares little about the circumstances of the estate, and his intention is to continue to earn his money with these rich farmers. However, he also benefits from his knowledge. So he accepts money from Kahl after his nightly visit to Frau Krause, so as not to betray her, which indicates that he was being bribed. Money plays a very important role for Beibst anyway. On the one hand, this becomes clear through the corruption with Kahl and on the other hand, when Loth tries to start a conversation with Beibst. After initially ignoring and rather unfriendly and suspiciously terse comments, Beibst thaws when Loth gives him some money. He is “transformed” and freely tells “with genuine good-naturedness”. Beibst makes the reader feel sorry for his past. Loth is told by Helene that two of Beibst's sons died in the mine and that the third has been working there since Easter. The character who stands out within the servant and maid sphere due to his attitude is also lost. Unlike the maid Marie, for example, he does not fight for advancement in society and does not defend himself against his employers. On the contrary, he accepts everything as it is happening. This is most likely the result of his bitter past that shaped him for his life.

The maids

The maids at the Krause-Gut work in the fields, in the cowshed and on the farm itself. There is a close bond of solidarity between them. This is where they differ from all other groups of characters in the drama. Economically, they are all in similarly bad situations and know what it is like to only have to get by with the bare essentials. They also help the carriage woman, who steals milk from the cowshed out of need in order to be able to look after her children. The maids “stand up” in front of the cowshed to warn the carriage woman in good time if there is any danger. When comparing the maids with one another, the maid Marie stands out in particular. She had a relationship with the foreman and is therefore dismissed by Mrs. Krause. Marie reacts angrily and defiantly to her expulsion. So she throws the milk stool and the milk at Ms. Krause's feet and is immediately ready to leave the yard. Helene prevents the dismissal by blackmailing her stepmother with the knowledge of her relationship with Kahl. So Marie is allowed to stay. Marie leaves the estate anyway. She does not see her alleged "mistake" and is too proud to continue exposing herself to Frau Krause's whims. She is thus a contrast to Helene: While she - despite sufficient financial resources - cannot resolve herself or only through the suicide of the degenerate and loathed Hoffmann-Krause family, Marie cannot even be bribed by a wage increase. Overall, the maids appear to the reader to be more human than the owners of the estate. They feel sorry for their peers or those who have less than them and are ready to help and support them.

Bear

One character who appears only very briefly in Gerhart Hauptmann's drama “Before Sunrise” is Baer. Baer is between 20 and 30 years old. Its appearance suggests that it comes from a poor farming family. So he only wears broken, poor clothes on his body (“The trousers are enough, heavily frayed at the bottom, to a little below the knees” p. 86, lines 2f.) And looks neglected (“The existing brown, dusty and sticky hair reaches over his shoulder ”p. 86, lines 3f.). This rather sad impression of Baer is reinforced by the work he does. His occupation consists in selling sand, and so he walks with a small stroller in which he transports it from farm to farm. Other characters in the drama either pity Baer or ridicule him. While the housemaid buys a little sand from Miele Baer and in this way gives him money for his survival, although she already owns little, Kahl, Mrs. Krause's nephew, makes fun of Baer and lets him in like a dog on command jump the air. He calls him "Hopslabaer", which supports the assumption that he neither looks nor respects Baer. These events create compassion for this mentally retarded farmer's son in the reader too.

Golisch

Golisch only appears on stage once, so he is a marginal figure in the drama. With his Silesian dialect he leaves an uneducated impression on the reader. He is employed as a cow boy on Krause's farm. He also takes on physically difficult tasks and helps the dismissed maid Marie to take care of her property. It seems as if Marie and Golisch are friends, in any case he is very helpful to her and drives the wheelbarrow for her when she leaves the yard. Marie is willing to give Golisch part of her money when she says goodbye, which Golisch initially refuses. At Marie's urging, however, Golisch changed his mind shortly afterwards and accepted the money. This makes it clear that Golisch is aware of the importance of money and that it also plays a major role for him personally.

Summary presentation of important recent research literature

Dieter Martin: "A book for the weak"

“Werther” allusions in dramas of naturalism. In: Journal for German Philology 122, 2003, pp. 237–265.

Martin's basic idea is suicide as a leitmotif. Before sunrise addresses four suicides: the ideologically motivated suicide of a former school friend of Hoffmann and Loth (Friedrich Hildebrandt, called Fips, p. 10f.), The suicide of the building contractor Müller, the suicide of an eight-fold mother - all three narrative integrated - and finally that Helene's suicide.

The allusions (allusions) to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's epistolary novel The Sorrows of Young Werther serve, on the one hand, to characterize the milieu and the protagonists, especially Helene, and, on the other hand, to illustrate bourgeois moral concepts; For example, Lotte's fiancé Albert im Werther criticizes suicide as an immoral weakness, while Werther regards it as an illness leading to death. The characters in Hauptmann's drama convey these controversial opinions: Frau Krause sees her stepdaughter's reading as the cause of her opposition and unrealistic views and would like to forbid her from such books. The stepdaughter, on the other hand, finds a comforting immersion and an opportunity to escape in the Werther (Helene: “It is so calming to read in it”, p. 51). Like Werther, she would like to escape in the second part of the letter novel, but fails just like her literary idol. Alfred cannot understand Helene's enthusiasm and identification; he advocates books such as Ein Kampf um Rom by Felix Dahn , which show a high idealism of the main character. All in all, the different literary tastes of Loth and Helene is a significant example of an irreconcilable contradiction, even if both otherwise often agree in their views.

The allusions are also a protest against the bourgeois admiration for Goethe of the time and the dominance of the traditional view of art, as in part also represented by Loth himself: Ibsen and other naturalists are only necessary evils, but not poets, because they are medicine, not drink perform.

In addition to the view, which discredits Hoffmann, that literature should only amuse, three possible functions of literature (from the perspective of Helene and Loth) are presented:

  1. It can calm the sick person; This is what Goethe's Werther and Helene's reception of this work stands for; consequently it has a stabilizing but not a diagnostic awareness.
  2. It can strengthen the healthy by acting in an exemplary manner and binding him to the ideal of the future man; this is what Loth's reception of A Battle for Rome stands for .
  3. Such, in Loth's sense, progressive, idealistic literature can hardly cure the patient (see Helene's interest in Zola and Ibsen ). It is about the analytical-therapeutic function of naturalistic literature: It conducts social analysis "even if it demonstrates how the 'sickness to death' of the irreversibly degenerated limbs is accelerated in a crisis."

Werner Bellmann: "Gerhart Hauptmann: Before Sunrise"

Naturalism - social drama - trend poetry. In: Dramen des Naturalismus, Stuttgart 1988, pp. 7–46.

At the beginning of his essay, Werner Bellmann addresses the new character of the work, which brings about the decisive breakthrough of naturalism in the theater. The social reformer Alfred Loth in particular sparked criticism and vehement rejection from the start. The audience at the time saw him as a stiff phrase-throb, deluded doctrinal and petty-bourgeois ideologue. Often he was reduced to his decision - albeit a rational one in the system of thought - to leave Helene. According to Bellmann, the majority of contemporary critics see Loth as a failed figure who is implausible in his actions. However, this narrowing of the way of looking at things hides Loth's reasons for his decision - hence the issue of determinism. Such a consideration does not only do justice to the character, but also to the overall conception of the drama. New interpretations see Alfred Loth as a socialist reformer in his weaknesses and his human failures.

While Loth has only temporary contact with the treated milieu, Helene is completely caught up in it. She suffers from the depravity of her surroundings. So she tries desperately to hold Loth and connect with him. In view of his departure, she is so desperate that death appears to be the only way out. Bellmann is of the opinion that the strong feelings between Loth and Helene can only develop if the family evil remains hidden from Loth. In order to understand the relationship between the two, it is also important to note that Helene's feelings arise from a family situation in which she sees contact with Loth as a kind of lifeline. Their love only reaches a very infantile, almost naive figure - for example, she gives her boyfriend sentences that she should repeat and tell that he will never leave her. Both forms of love are subject to concrete conditions and build on the respective initial situation, which is why the discussion of the problem of determinism should not be missing in the assessments.

In a further approach, Werner Bellmann tries to examine “Before Sunrise” against the background of its historical conditions and draws on Gustav Bunge's current publication at the time as well as Hauptmann's personal experience and experience background. Gustav Bunge's ideas and views on the alcohol question, which were disseminated in 1887, play a central role in Hauptmann's work and are reflected in the figure Loth in his statistical information on deaths and the like. Ä. Reproduced in detail. Hauptmann himself was made aware of this text by his friends Alfred Ploetz and Ferdinand Simon. The friends mentioned are medical professionals and served as models for the figures Alfred Loth and Dr. Schimmelpfennig - this hypothesis can be proven on the basis of many similarities in terms of external appearance, the past and political and ideological positions. Bellmann also introduces a quote from Simon, which refers to Hauptmann's "Der Säemann" - the original title of the drama - and to alcoholism.

In previous research, Helene has mostly been characterized positively (“naturally pure being”, figure of light, creature of enchanting innocence, actual “heroine” of the play) and portrayed as a victim of Loth, whereas Loth experiences a negative characterization (“blind fanatic”, “pathetic Coward ", acting on unproven assumptions [alcoholism issue]) and was found guilty of Helene's death.

Bellmann dares a new characterization of the character Helene. Helene is not the victim of an "inherited evil", the drinking addiction, because she was brought up outside of the Krause milieu, namely in a pietistic Herrnhut milieu. However, she was decisively shaped by this educational milieu, and not for the better. Helene's demeanor, which is pervaded by a lack of independence, strength and determination and the resulting physical manifestations (such as careworn appearance, sobbing, constant crying) as well as Helene's self-perception as sick and in need of medicine, the interpreter sees as the result of this education. He underpins this with published autobiographical reflections by Hauptmann on this upbringing, which he experienced twice, once personally and at another time mediated by his wife. Hauptmann accuses this milieu of causing "soul distress, apocalyptic fears, quiet weakness, selfish inaction, head-hungry, religious crickets, melancholy brooding" and ascribes an atmosphere of "pressure, mustache, smoke" to it. (S, 25). Bellmann recognizes a superficial development in the character Helene. She begins to change her behavior after she has met Loth: She now refuses alcoholic beverages, tries to prevent the dismissal of a maid and gives Loth her confession of love - a woman who actively confronts a man. However, all of this does not arise from growing independence or even from the self-image of a woman who fights for the freedom of all women. Rather, she has changed her role model: after the fictional character Werther now Loth, who fights for something, has a fixed position, and seems to be steadfast and strong. Bellmann also sees her death not as an act of independence, but as an act of despair, as a perfect escape from the world. Helene is neither an autonomous heroine nor the victim of a fanatic, but rather the victim of many determining factors (milieu, heredity, upbringing), the highest category of which is society.

The Loth figure could be understood more appropriately by Goethe's Werther through his assessment. Loth feels that his suicide is not justified, which shows a clear contrast to Goethe. Loth's energetic and combative demeanor, recognizable by his preferred literature, explains his negative assessment of the final Werther plot. The assertion that Loth would give up his life's task by leaving the Krause house is refuted by the following course of the drama chosen by Hauptmann and its effect and importance for the audience. The critic claims that Loth does not leave Helene and the Krause family giving up his attitude to life, but out of a sense of responsibility. It should not be overlooked that the relationship also has an existential meaning for Loth. Loth's solution from Helene, that his “renunciation” does not arise from egoism, weakness or cowardice, but from his loyalty to conviction and is moreover an act of self-assertion. Bellmann also quotes a statement by Henrik Ibsen in this context about his drama “ Ghosts ”: It takes revenge on the descendants to marry for unjustified reasons, including religious and moral reasons.

Hansgerd Delbrück: "Gerhart Hauptmanns Before Sunrise"

Social drama as an educational disaster. In: Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 69, 1995, pp. 512–545.

Since the origin of the Oedipus myth, this topic has been constantly taken up in the following literature. The reason for this lies in its generality. A conception of fate is articulated that sees human action as dependent on higher powers. In antiquity the myth was developed by authors such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Seneca; in the course of time also by Robert Garnier (1580), Racine (1664), Voltaire (1718) and Cocteau (1934).

The current understanding of the world has been adapted and the theme of the myth has been adapted accordingly, which means that the thought of fate was still present, but, in contrast to antiquity, was no longer explained by the deities. Rather, there were changes in the Greek thought of fate towards a variant closely related to Christian original sin, based on Augustine, as was the case with Racine's work “La Thébaíde ou les fréres ennimes” (1664). In Cocteau's “La machine infernale” (1934), instead of the religiously conceived notion of fate, there was the view that human passions determined human actions.

Parallels to the Oedipus myth can also be seen in Gerhart Hauptmann's “Before Sunrise”. However, the author has deviated greatly from the original design of the myth.

Central themes of naturalism are exemplified in Hauptmann's drama: On the one hand, the industrial development in the 19th century (narrative taken up in "Before Sunrise" in Act I: railway construction, industrial coal mining), on the other hand, social criticism: the development of an unscrupulous capitalist society (nobility still always leader of the social pyramid, coal finds in Silesia give rise to a new social class (e.g. the Krauses = peasant family that has become rich; Hoffmann), which tries to adapt to the nobility and exploits and deceives its former class in the process.) Furthermore, the milieu study: view that the environment has a direct impact on people; Representation of different social classes, marked u. a. through the use of dialect (servants and Frau Krause in dialect, Hoffmann in high-level language with colloquial sprinkles, Loth and Helene in pure high German). The breakdown of the family by alcoholism: the possibility of alcohol-induced, biologically determined degeneration of entire families was a widespread opinion in the 1880s. “Inheritance of acquired traits” has been supported by scientists (e.g. Henri Auguste Forel and Ernst Haeckel). Social democracy as a solution to grievances: Loth as an SPD functionary.

What defines the connection to Oedipus is, among other things, the thought of fate, the determinism, which emerges in the form of sub-themes such as alcoholism or Loth's abstinence, which he adheres to for fear of degeneration in his offspring. The religious or divine element is therefore missing. This is shaped by scientific knowledge like Darwinism here. The thought of fate can also be found in Loth's project: his intention to investigate the situation of the miners in the region and to find out the reasons for their dissatisfaction. Hoffmann's exploitative materialism is in stark contrast to Loth's idealism. Loth's attitude that he can only be happy when everyone is in the world is to be seen in the context that he seeks the reasons for the injustice in society, as well as the reasons for degeneration, seeks to ward off it through abstinence and made him leave Helene.

In summary, one can say that Hauptmann does not answer the question of fate, but only raises the problem. The formally decisive aspect can be seen in the figure constellation. The function of the figures is based on the ancient work.

Summary of the essay by Delbrück

In his essay "Gerhart Hauptmanns Before Sunrise: Social Drama as Educational Disaster", Hansgerd Delbrück assumes that Hauptmann was influenced by Nietzsche. “Before sunrise” is a response to Nietzsche's “anti-aristotelian verdict of an educational theater that has been active since the Greeks through“ intoxication ”and“ narcotica ””. In response to this, Hauptmann turned to ancient drama theory and accordingly structured his work in episodes. Above all, they serve to stretch the actually short plot through the representation of secondary characters.

reception

Because of the unusual naturalistic representation, the theater audience fought fierce words. A doctor sitting on the ground floor threw his forceps onto the stage in protest. Gerhart Hauptmann became well known through the scandal.

  • Arno Holz in a letter to Hauptmann dated June 7, 1889 (also in the name of Johannes Schlaf ) about Before Sunrise : “The impression it made on us was even greater than we expected. We think it is the best drama that has ever been written in German. Tolstoy included! Hopefully you are somewhat satisfied with it? "
  • Johannes Schlaf in a letter to Hauptmann dated August 21, 1889: “What seems to me to give your drama a very special value is the fact that in your Loth you have created a whole person in every respect . [...] They take us for once a very healthy , fixed on his feet man in a thoroughly healthy Conflikt ago, he survived in a healthy and natural way. "
  • In a letter to Hauptmann dated August 26, 1889, Karl Henckell judged that in this play "existing mankind is represented true from the height to the most terrible depth".
  • In 1889, Karl Bleibtreu called the play in the magazine Die Gesellschaft "the first real 'social drama' of our day".
  • Wilhelm Bölsche : “Whether the author wants it or not: from every word that Loth speaks, we hear the sound of such a noble, so important voice that it would mean wanting to disregard the poet by force if one does not use his own Heroes identified. "( The Present , No. 41, October 12, 1889)
  • Theodor Fontane saw Loth as a “decent guy” and praised “the composition” of the piece, the “consistency in carrying out the thought” and the “clarity” in a review that has become famous. Fontane appeared to the sunrise poet as "the fulfillment of Ibsen", he praised him as "completely unphrased Ibsen".
  • Conrad Alberti : “In order to draw the audience's attention to this fricassée of nonsense, childishness and madness, Herr Hauptmann interspersed it with a mixture of roughness, brutality, meanness and filth that had previously been unheard of in Germany. The excrement was carried onto the stage in buckets, the theater was turned into a dung pit […]. ”( Die Gesellschaft , August 1890)
  • the Norwegian poet Henrik Ibsen , whose ghosts (an analytical drama about inheritance) Hauptmann had received with enthusiasm, praised Before Sunrise to his author in February 1891 as "brave and courageous".
  • In November 1901, the Russian poet Maxim Gorky named Before Sunrise the best of all Hauptmann's dramas. He put himself completely behind Loth and considered pity for the "hereditary", "weak-willed", "tearful" Helene Krause as inappropriate.

Film adaptations

literature

Text output

  • Gerhart Hauptmann: Before sunrise. Social drama. CF Conrads Buchhandlung, Berlin 1889. ( digitized and full text in the German text archive )
  • Gerhart Hauptmann. Before sunrise. Social drama . Paperback edition from Ullstein.
  • Gerhart Hauptmann: Before sunrise. Social drama . Annotated edition. Edited by Peter Langemeyer. Reclam, Stuttgart 2017 (UB 19017).

Research literature

  • Hartmut Baseler: Gerhart Hauptmann's social drama “Before Sunrise” in the mirror of contemporary criticism. A historical model analysis: Karl Frenzel, Theodor Fontane, Karl Bleibtreu, Wilhelm Bölsche . Dissertation. Kiel 1993.
  • Werner Bellmann: Gerhart Hauptmann: "Before sunrise". Naturalism - social drama - trend poetry . In: Dramas of Naturalism. Interpretations . Reclam, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-15-008412-1 , pp. 7-46.
  • Hansgerd Delbrück: Gerhart Hauptmann's “Before Sunrise”: Social drama as an educational catastrophe . In: German quarterly for literary studies and intellectual history . 69, 1995, pp. 512-545.
  • Theo Elm : Gerhart Hauptmann: “Before sunrise” . In: Theo Elm: The social drama. From Lenz to Kroetz . Reclam, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-15-017645-X , pp. 155-169.
  • Michaela Giesing: "Ibsen's Nora and the true emancipation of women". On the image of women in the Wilhelmine theater . Frankfurt am Main, Bern, New York 1984. (On “Before Sunrise” pp. 166–174.)
  • Dieter Martin: "A book for the weak". “Werther” allusions in dramas of naturalism . In: Journal for German Philology . 122, H. 2, 2003, pp. 237-265.
  • Heinz-Peter Niewerth: The Silesian coal and the naturalistic drama: G. Hauptmann's “Before Sunrise”. - Ideology, configuration and ideology criticism . In: Karl-K. Polheim (ed.): The dramatic configuration . Schöningh, Paderborn 1997, ISBN 3-8252-1996-8 , pp. 211-244.
  • Bernhard Tempel: Alcohol and Eugenics. An attempt on Gerhart Hauptmann's artistic self-image. web Universitätsverlag, Dresden 2010. (On "Before Sunrise" pp. 26–58.)
  • Raleigh Whitinger: Gerhart Hauptmann's “Before Sunrise”. On Alcohol and Poetry in German Naturalist Drama . In: The German Quarterly . 63, no. 1, 1990, pp. 83-91.
  • Beutin, Wolfgang / Klaus Ehlert a. a .: German literary history. From the beginning to the present. Metzler: Stuttgart / Weimar. Pp. 347-349.

Individual evidence

  1. See Metzler's German History of Literature. P. 348
  2. p. 53; Line 1f.
  3. p. 41, p. 122f.
  4. p. 42
  5. p. 42/43, p. 63
  6. p. 27, p. 58
  7. p. 27; P. 58
  8. p. 27
  9. p. 36; P. 58f.
  10. p. 59
  11. p. 9, line 13
  12. p. 24
  13. p. 53
  14. cf. P. 60
  15. cf. P. 8 and p. 60
  16. p. 104 and p. 105
  17. p. 109
  18. cf. P. 48
  19. cf. P. 61f.
  20. p. 109
  21. p. 53
  22. p. 15
  23. p. 16
  24. p. 18
  25. p. 113
  26. p. 113
  27. p. 11
  28. p. 101f.
  29. p. 21f.
  30. p. 101f.
  31. p. 102, line 2
  32. p. 7, lines 5f.
  33. p. 21, line 5
  34. p. 41
  35. cf. P. 57
  36. p. 47
  37. p. 56
  38. p. 89
  39. p. 58f.
  40. p. 85
  41. p. 17f.
  42. p. 56
  43. p. 123
  44. p. 11
  45. p. 264
  46. p. 22.
  47. p. 33ff.