Space law

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Explosion model of the Sputnik 1 satellite , with its launch in 1957 space law acquired great practical importance

Space law is that part of law that is related to national and international activities in space . Sources of law are primarily five international treaties and five resolutions on applicable principles of the United Nations . In addition, space law includes numerous other treaties and conventions of the UN and other international organizations, treaties between two or more states, national laws and regulations, and decisions of international and national courts.

So far, no agreement has been reached on the definition of the term “space”, although most lawyers agree that space begins at the height of the Kármán line , which is also used as a definition by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale , that is 100 kilometers. The NASA and the United States Air Force consider a height of more than 80 kilometers as outer space, and in the absence of legally binding definition of each State can proceed on its territory even the demarcation of its own airspace and majestic alien space.

At first, space law, even after the first flying objects had reached space, was only the subject of abstract academic discussion. With the launch of the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union in October 1957, during the International Geophysical Year , it gained practical importance. Since then, the development of space law has steadily followed technical progress, from the stationing of civil and military satellites to manned space travel and the establishment of permanently manned space stations to questions of liability for damage and the use of resources in space.

Historical development

As early as the 1930s, with the advent of rocket technology, the legal consequences of this development were discussed. The first specialist literature on this subject is a publication by Vladimír Mandl (1899–1941). Mandl was a lawyer and university professor from Pilsen who had worked on aviation law since the 1920s. In his book “Das Weltraum-Recht. A problem of space travel ”from 1932 he drafted a theory of space law, showed the differences to aviation law and discussed questions of international law.

Viking 4 launched on May 11, 1950, the first US flight into space

After the Second World War, there were rapid advances in space travel. The research that has been ongoing since 1945 by the United States Navy and United States Air Force in connection with the launch of Earth satellites and the height records of rockets such as that of the Viking 4 on May 11, 1950, the first American flight of an object at 169 kilometers altitude, should be mentioned into space, and the Viking 11 altitude record on May 24, 1954 with 254 kilometers. With the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite on October 4, 1957, space travel gained great importance over the long term. At the time, these developments were closely followed by the aviation law experts.

Germany

From the German point of view, the lawyer Alex Meyer played a prominent role in the development of air law and in establishing space law as an independent field of law. Meyer was already before the Second World War as international luminary aviation law, in 1911 he was head of the German delegation to the first International Conference on Air Law. He was unable to accept an appointment at New York University in 1938 because the issuance of a visa was delayed. Shortly before the start of the Second World War, he emigrated to Switzerland. On January 1, 1951, he became head of the newly founded "Research Center for Aviation Law" at the law faculty of the University of Cologne. This institution was to succeed the Institute for Aviation Law at the University of Königsberg as the leading academic institution in aviation law. The "Zeitschrift für Luftrecht", published since 1952 and published by the Institute for Aviation Law, was also intended as a continuation of a publication that was discontinued in 1943. In one of the first issues of the magazine, the article "A Space Law Against" by the French lawyer Joseph Kroell appeared, which Meyer had translated himself. In 1953, Alex Meyer was the second reviewer for the dissertation “Air Law and Space” by Welf Heinrich Prinz von Hannover, the world's first dissertation on space law, at the Georg-August University in Göttingen.

In January 1955, Meyer's research department was upgraded to the “Institute for Aviation Law” of the University of Cologne. From December 1959 the institute was named "Institute for Air Law and Space Law Issues", and the magazine's title was changed accordingly. The designation also expressed that space law at that time did not have an independent meaning compared to established aviation law. It was not until 1975 that the names of the institution and the magazine were changed to “Institute for Air and Space Law” and “ Magazine for Air and Space Law ”, which they continue to use today. Alex Meyer remained director of the institute until 1974 and stepped down at the age of 94. From 1975 Karl-Heinz Böckstiegel headed the institute until 2001, his successor is Stephan Hobe .

Moscow nuclear test ban treaty of 1963

The Moscow Nuclear Test Ban Agreement (“Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Space and Under Water” ), which has been in force since In effect October 10, 1963. The nuclear powers France and the People's Republic of China have not acceded, Pakistan has only signed the treaty, not ratified it. Germany, Austria and Switzerland have ratified it.

United Nations

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

Since 1957, the possibilities of ensuring the peaceful use of space have been discussed on an international level. Resolution 1148 (XII) of the General Assembly of the United Nations of November 14, 1957, a few weeks after the start of Sputnik 1 , called for a disarmament agreement which, among other things, should provide for an inspection system to guarantee the exclusively peaceful and scientific use of space. With resolution 1348 (XIII), the General Assembly committed itself to the peaceful uses of space on December 13, 1958 and set up an ad hoc committee to discuss issues relating to the peaceful uses of space. This was 1959, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space - COPUOS) as a permanent body produces. In 1962, COPUOS set up the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee as permanent subcommittees. The Legal Subcommittee is an essential body for discussing and preparing international agreements on space.

Consensus principle

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its standing subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (WTUA) and the Legal Subcommittee (RUA) work on the principle of consensus. This means that every detail, be it formulations in contracts or changes to the agenda, must be decided unanimously. This is one reason why the United Nations international treaties on space law often lack precise definitions. In recent years the Legal Subcommittee has tried in vain to reach consensus on the proposal of a few member states to discuss a new comprehensive space treaty. It is unlikely that the Legal Affairs Committee will come to an agreement on additions to the space treaty in the foreseeable future. Many space nations regard the discussion of a new space treaty as time-consuming and futile because the stuck different positions on resource use, property rights and other questions of economic importance make an agreement unlikely.

United Nations space treaties

Ratifications (green) and signatures (yellow) of the space treaty as of January 1, 2013

Five international treaties have so far emerged from the work of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. With the exception of the lunar treaty, which only Austria has ratified, these treaties have been ratified by Germany, Austria and Switzerland:

  • The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 ( Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies ). The space treaty is the fundamental treaty of space law. It was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations with Resolution 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on January 27, 1967 and entered into force on October 10, 1967, and for the Federal Republic of Germany on February 10, 1971. The treaty has been ratified by 102 states; a further 27 states have only signed it to date.
    The space treaty stipulates that the exploration and use of space may only take place for the benefit and in the interests of all states and for peaceful purposes. No state may assert claims to sovereignty or exclude other states from exploring and using the universe. The stationing of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction is prohibited. In addition, the space nations are responsible for damage caused and the duty to avoid harmful pollution of space and celestial bodies. The space treaty requires states parties to ensure that their activities are in compliance with     the United Nations Charter and customary international law .
  • The 1968 Space Rescue Convention ( Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space ). The Convention specifies Articles 5 and 8 of the Space Treaty, which only applies to “astronauts”, with regard to the obligation to rescue all crew members of a spacecraft. In addition, the states should, upon request, provide assistance in the recovery of spacecraft in distress. The Convention was adopted on December 19, 1967 by resolution 2345 (XXII) of the General Assembly of the United Nations, could be signed from April 22, 1968 and entered into force on December 3, 1968. 92 states have ratified the agreement and 24 have signed it. Then there are the European Space Agency ( European Space Agency ) and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ( European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ), which recognize for the rights and obligations under the Convention.
Distribution of space debris , each point marks a potentially damaging object, around 2005
Part of the Payload Assist Module of a Delta II missile that has fallen , Saudi Arabia, around 2000
  • The Space Liability Convention of 1972 (Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects - Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects ). In addition to Article 7 of the Space Treaty, this convention specifies the liability requirements for damage caused by space objects. In connection with the steadily increasing number of objects in space that are potentially dangerous for space vehicles ( space debris ), it regulates, among other things, liability for damage caused by space objects falling to earth. This Convention was adopted by the General Assembly under resolution 2777 (XXVI), opened for signature on March 29, 1972, and entered into force on September 1, 1972. By 2013, 89 states had ratified the convention and 22 had signed it. Apart from the European Space Agency ( European Space Agency ) and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ( European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites - EUMETSAT) also has the company Eutelsat ( European Telecommunications Satellite Organization ), which until July 2001, an intergovernmental organization was who recognized the rights and obligations under the Convention.
  • The Registration Convention of 1975 (Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space Objects - Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space ) was adopted on 12 November 1974 with the Resolution 3235 (XXIX) and entered on September 15, 1976 in force. The Convention obliges the contracting states to register nationally the launch of space objects and to report details of the orbit and the state of the objects to the United Nations. It was ratified by 61 countries by 2013, and the European Space Agency and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) have recognized the agreement as binding.
  • The 1979 lunar treaty ( Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies ). The treaty prohibits the military use of the moon and other celestial bodies and forbids state sovereignty claims or private ownership of celestial bodies. It obliges to protect the celestial bodies from pollution and demands the information of the United Nations about the location and purpose of erected stations. The use of extraterrestrial resources is to take place under international supervision and the moon and other celestial bodies are referred to as the "common heritage of humanity". The treaty was passed with Resolution 34/69, released for signature on December 18, 1979, and entered into force on July 11, 1984 after Austria's accession. Due to controversial regulations that severely restrict the use of the moon and other celestial bodies, this treaty was only ratified by seven states by 2013, eight more have joined and four have signed it. During the deliberations on the lunar treaty, the intention was to replace the space treaty with him with regard to the appropriate use of resources and the prohibition of sovereignty claims in space, or to expand the space treaty accordingly.

With more than 100 member states, the space treaty has the greatest acceptance in the international community. The three conventions on space rescue, space liability and space registration were merely further developments of the space treaty that were based on existing assurances of the space treaty. The lunar contract is often viewed as a failure because of its low acceptance. India is the only state interested in a moon landing that has signed the lunar treaty. Ratification by India is still pending as the state is examining the possible constitutional consequences.

UN resolutions on legal principles

The five conventions and treaties of the United Nations concern the non-appropriation of space by states, arms control, the freedom to explore space, liability for damages, the safety of spacecraft and their crews, the prevention of environmental damage, the registration and registration of activities in Space, scientific research, the exploitation of natural resources in space and the resolution of conflicts.

The General Assembly of the United Nations also passed five resolutions on legal principles that are intended to encourage the application of the conventions and treaties and communication between states.

  • Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space , Resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 1963:
    In its Declaration on Legal Principles for the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, the General Assembly demands that all exploration of space be for the benefit and is carried out in the interest of all humanity. It is available to all states equally and in accordance with international law. No state may in any way assert sovereignty claims in space or on a celestial body. States that conduct activities in space must accept responsibility for the actions of the governmental or non-governmental entities involved. Devices launched into space belong to their country of origin, including their crews. Devices and parts thereof that are discovered outside of their country of origin will be returned after their identification. When a country launches a device into space it is liable for damage in other countries.
  • Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting , Resolution 37/92 of 1982:
    The principles governing the use of satellites for international television broadcasts state that the operation of such satellites must be in accordance with the law of the sovereign states . The company aims to promote the free dissemination and mutual exchange of information and knowledge in cultural and scientific areas and to support education and social and economic development, especially in developing countries. It should increase the quality of life of all peoples and take place with respect for the political and cultural identity of the states. States that intend to launch an artificial satellite for direct television transmission must inform the Secretary-General of the United Nations in detail of this intention.
    This resolution came about against the backdrop of the Cold War . Since the 1950s, terrestrial broadcasting stations had been broadcasting broadcasts across the borders of the power blocs, examples being the service offered by Deutsche Welle , but even more so the broadcasts by Radio Free Europe . The states of the Eastern Bloc feared the misuse of satellite technology for propaganda purposes, whereas the western states emphasized the right of all people to free access to information. In addition to the possible targeted broadcasting to foreign national territories, it was particularly important for the countries in Central Europe that satellite signals can naturally also be received beyond the national borders of the target country. Consideration for the “Iron Curtain” could not be implemented at all, the ban on using the new technology was a matter for Germany and Austria, among others.
  • Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space , Resolution 41/65 of 1986:
    The "Remote Sensing" (German: " Fernerkundung ") describes the scanning of the earth's surface from space with the help of electromagnetic waves that are reflected by the scanned objects or be scattered. It is intended to improve the use of natural resources, land use and protect the environment. The principles apply not only to the operation of the corresponding devices in space, but also to the collection and storage of data and their further processing and dissemination.
    The formulation of these principles was determined by the North-South debate of the 1970s. The possibility of exploring and assessing natural treasure deposits from space has been viewed with concern by many developing countries because newly discovered resources outside their national territory would have worsened their market position. On the other hand, they saw the practical benefit for themselves if such technologies could also be used by them. The United States was the main proponent of the free use of technology at the time, due to its very large demand for raw materials and the fact that, as the leading space nation, it had the means to use it. A key point of the debate was the question of how to use the data obtained. Some states claimed that they wanted to retain control of the data collected from their territory.
  • Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space , Resolution 47/68 of 1992:
    States that launch space objects with nuclear energy sources should strive to protect individuals, the population and the environment from radioactive hazards. The construction and use of space objects with nuclear energy sources should ensure with great certainty that the hazards during operation and in the event of accidents remain within acceptable limits.
  • Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries , Resolution 51/122 of 1996:
    The Participation of States in International Cooperation in the The exploration and use of space is free and regulated in a just and generally accepted manner. All states, especially the space nations, should contribute to promoting international cooperation. In this context, particular attention should be paid to the benefits and interests of developing countries resulting from international cooperation. International cooperation shall be carried out as deemed appropriate by the participating States, including cooperation between governmental and non-governmental organizations, commercial and charitable organizations, global, multilateral or bilateral, and between States at every stage of economic development.

International Telecommunication Union

Theoretically, geostationary satellites are always 35,768 kilometers above a certain point on the equator. In practice, the gravitation of the sun and moon, fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field and the radiation pressure of the sun lead to deviations in flight altitude and the course of the orbit. Therefore, the area used is not a circular orbit, but a volume area, the geostationary ring , within which the satellites move. Individual satellites are assigned a position and the frequencies to be used by the International Telecommunication Union , a specialized agency of the United Nations , in order to rule out accidents and mutual interference. These positions are defined areas in which the operators have to position their satellites to ± 0.14 °, which allows a deviation of less than 100 kilometers along the orbit. The circulation height must not deviate by more than 75 kilometers.

The increasing need for space for geostationary satellites initially led to the areas being reduced in size. Today the assigned positions are about 1,400 kilometers apart and each position can be occupied by up to eight satellites. However, the number of places available is limited; The lack of space is particularly evident in the longitudes that run through Europe and North America.

In addition, in the 1970s, several equatorial states under the leadership of Colombia vainly claimed sovereignty over space above their national territory. They argued that flying through this area was not objectionable, but the constant “parking” of geostationary satellites at a certain point requires the approval of the underlying state, which may also levy a “parking fee”. In this context, the question of the definition of “space”, which has not yet been decided, was given importance.

International treaties outside the United Nations

Members of Expedition 21 on board the ISS , two Americans, two Russians, a Canadian and a Belgian

1998 Space Station Convention

In addition to the international treaties in the area of ​​the United Nations, a number of other multilateral and bilateral agreements have been made in the past. The states participating in the International Space Station ISS signed an agreement in 1998, the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement , with which the governments of Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United States and 11 member states of the European Space Agency set the framework for the operation of the International Space Station fixed. This contract was supplemented by numerous memoranda of understanding exchanged between the contracting parties .

Under the contract, NASA was given the lead role in coordinating individual states' contributions to the International Space Station and the use of the station. In addition, each nation was given legal jurisdiction over the modules it operated. Further agreements concern the protection of intellectual property and regulations on criminal prosecution. The Space Station Agreement is viewed as a model for possible future collaboration in facilities on the Moon or Mars.

International Charter on Space and Natural Disasters

The Treaty of the International Charter for Outer Space and Natural Disasters and the work of the organization of the same name, which is not a specialized agency of the United Nations, but a special agency of the United Nations, is based on the principles formulated by the United Nations in the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space A merger of ESA , EUMETSAT and 13 national space agencies. In the event of a disaster, the organization makes the satellite data recorded by its member states available to the authorities and aid organizations on site, regardless of existing membership. Between 2007 and 2012, support was granted in an average of 40 cases per year.

National Legislation

Numerous states have introduced national space laws. The space treaty requires states parties to authorize and supervise national activities in space, including the activities of non-governmental organizations such as corporations and associations. The obligation of states to monitor and register space travel also requires national legal bases.

Germany passed the "Law on the Transfer of Administrative Tasks in the Field of Space Travel" (Raumfahrtgabeträgerungsgesetz - RAÜG) of June 8, 1990, which provides the German Aerospace Center with the preparation of German space planning , the implementation of the German space programs and the implementation assigns German space interests in the international field. A national space law has not yet come about, despite legal political demands. In Austria, a space law was passed in 2011 because Austria became a space nation with the launch of the research satellite TUGSAT-1 developed at the Technical University of Graz in 2013 and falls under the space registration convention .

There are also national space laws in the USA , Russia , Ukraine , Australia , Brazil , Hong Kong , Japan , South Africa and the Republic of Korea . In Europe z. B. Norway (1969), Spain (1974), Sweden (1982), United Kingdom (1986), Belgium (2006), Netherlands (2008) and France (2008) enacted laws regulating space activities and liability issues.

The increase in commercial activity in space beyond satellite communications, such as the establishment of commercial space stations and planned space tourism , has led states to consider legal regulation of space travel. The challenge is, on the one hand, to regulate investments in such a way that investments are not prevented or restricted too much and, on the other hand, to ensure that they comply with international law.

Future developments

Space law is a young area of ​​law and an area that is changing rapidly with technological progress. It is expected that the costs of activities in space will decrease in the future and that the number of states with a direct participation in space travel will increase. This could make it easier to reach consensus on space law issues to promote commercial projects.

The non-space states are concerned that space resources may be monopolized. In this context, a proposed solution is seen to transfer the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to space. Space resources are often viewed as too precious to be endangered by inappropriate economic exploitation. Space law is intended to create a framework for the protection of space as a “common heritage of humanity”.

In contrast, it is also considered to give up space as an area free of state or private ownership and to allow private property. The United States has not signed the Lunar Treaty, which severely restricts the commercial use of the heavenly bodies' mineral resources . In the United Nations Space Committee, however, they have taken the view that the treaty allows the exploitation of resources. The state that finds mineral resources is also allowed to use them, the contract merely excludes land ownership. NASA's plans to "capture" an asteroid sparked recent discussions about the practical application of space law, in direct violation of the US unsigned lunar treaty. However, in this context it was also argued that this "capture" was a permissible use of mineral resources.

The realization that human traces are permanently preserved on the moon and on other celestial bodies has also entered the debates of the last decades about the possibilities of economic use of celestial bodies. It is expected that the first human footprint on the moon will only be removed by micrometeorite impacts after a million years. Stronger interventions, such as the extraction of mineral resources, would bring a celestial body out of its natural state forever. A solution to the problem is currently not in sight. The unwillingness of the states to sign the lunar treaty indicates that priority is given to even a hypothetical economic use.

The United States have with the SPACE Act of 2015 passed a law that US citizens the commercial exploitation of natural resources of celestial bodies permitted. The subsidized substances would become the property of the applicants.

Academic institutions

Several universities in the United States offer degrees in space law. Examples include the National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi Law School and the Space & Telecommunications Law Masters program at the University of Nebraska College of Law . In Canada, there is also McGill University in Montreal with the Institute of Air and Space Law.

The International Institute of Air and Space Law and a chair for space law have existed at the University of Leiden since 1986. The University of Paris-South has been offering a master’s degree at the Institute for Space and Telecommunications Law for more than ten years, and the university is supported by numerous companies in the space and telecommunications industry. The University of Sunderland was the first UK university to offer a degree in space law in 2010. In Germany the Institute for Air and Space Law at the University of Cologne is the most important academic institution dealing with space law, in Austria the Institute for European Law, International Law and Comparative Law of the University of Vienna.

The International Institute of Space Law (IISL) was founded in 1960 by the International Astronautical Federation and had existed as the permanent committee for space law within the IAF since 1958. The IISL has had the status of an international non-governmental organization since 2007. Her main focus is on the scientific field and the organization is closely linked to the University of Leiden.

The European Center for Space Law (ECSL) is an association founded in 1989 in Paris for people and organizations interested in space law. Membership can be acquired by citizens or organizations of a member state of the European Space Agency or states associated with it. Most of the members come from the academic field, and hosting scientific conferences is the main role of the organization.

Web links

  • Overview of space law , Federal Foreign Office
  • Space Law Treaties and Principles , United Nations Office on Outer Space Affairs; Texts of the five major contracts on space law and the five declarations and principles, website in English, documents in several languages ​​(not German)
  • Space Law , United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs; other UN documents on space law

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Piotr Manikowski: Examples of space damages in the light of international space law , p. 56.
  2. ↑ Vladimír Mandl: The space law. A problem of space travel , J. Bensheimer Verlag, Mannheim, Berlin, Leipzig 1932, 48 pages, digital version of an English translationhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fntrs.nasa.gov%2Farchive%2Fnasa%2Fcasi.ntrs.nasa.gov%2F19850008388_1985008388.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 20einer% 20englischen% 20% C3% 9Ctranslation ~ PUR% 3D , accessed on February 2, 2014.
  3. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , pp. 18-19.
  4. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 1.
  5. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 13.
  6. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 14.
  7. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 15.
  8. ^ A b Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 19.
  9. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 16.
  10. ↑ Vladimír Kopal , Marulena Hofmann: Vladimír Mandl (March 20, 1899 - January 8, 1941) . In: Stephan Hobe (Ed.): Pioneers of Space Law. A Publication of the International Institute of Space Law , Brill, Leiden 2013, ISBN 978-90-0424027-8 , pp. 57-70, here p. 67.
  11. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 24.
  12. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 21.
  13. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 22, p. 30.
  14. ^ Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 32.
  15. ^ US Department of State: Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water , online , accessed February 2, 2014.
  16. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 1148 (XII). Regulation, limitation and balanced reduction of all armed forces and all armaments; conclusion of an international convention (treaty) on the reduction of armaments and the prohibition of atomic, hydrogen and other weapons of mass destruction , adopted on November 14, 1958, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fga%2Fsearch%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F1148%28XII%29%26Lang%3DE%26Area% 3DRESOLUTION ~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  17. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 1348 (XIII). Question of the peaceful use of outer space , adopted on December 13, 1958. In Mandates of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ; Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fgares%2FARES_13_1348E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  18. ↑ Without author: United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: History and Overview of Activities , accessed on February 2, 2014.
  19. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 1472 (XIV). International co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space , adopted on December 12, 1959. In Mandate of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ; Digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fgares%2FARES_14_1472E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  20. ↑ Treaty on the principles for regulating the activities of states in the exploration and use of space including the moon and other celestial bodies, Federal Law Gazette, Part II, Number 71, October 8, 1969, pp. 1967ff, online , digitized, Englishhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fpublications%2Fst_space_61E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 2C% 20englisch ~ PUR% 3D
  21. ↑ Convention on the Rescue and Repatriation of Space Travelers and the Return of Objects Launched into Space, Federal Law Gazette, Part II, Number 23, May 19, 1971, p. 237ff, online , digitized, Englishhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fpublications%2Fst_space_61E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 2C% 20englisch ~ PUR% 3D
  22. ^ Piotr Manikowski: Examples of space damages in the light of international space law , pp. 56-57.
  23. ↑ Convention on Liability under International Law for Damage Caused by Objects in Space, Federal Law Gazette, Part II, Number 54, September 3, 1975, pp. 1210ff, online , digitized, Englishhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fpublications%2Fst_space_61E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 2C% 20englisch ~ PUR% 3D
  24. ^ A b Piotr Manikowski: Examples of space damages in the light of international space law , p. 57.
  25. ↑ Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Space, Federal Law Gazette, Part II, Number 26, June 9, 1979, p. 650ff, online , digitized, Englishhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fpublications%2Fst_space_61E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 2C% 20englisch ~ PUR% 3D
  26. ↑ a b Volker Knoerich: Direct TV - Remote Sensing - Moon Treaty. Tasks and work of the United Nations Space Committee , p. 177.
  27. ↑ Convention on the Regulation of the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, online , digital, Englishhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fpublications%2Fst_space_61E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3DDigitalisat% 2C% 20englisch ~ PUR% 3D
  28. ↑ Stephen Gorove: Property Rights in Outer Space: Focus on the Proposed Moon Treaty . In: Journal of Space Law , Volume 2, 1974, ISSN  0095-7577 , pp. 27-82, digitized version , full volumehttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fairandspacelaw.olemiss.edu%2Fpdfs%2Fjsl-2.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten% 3D ~ LT% 3D digitized% 2C% 20 whole% 20 tape ~ PUR% 3D , accessed February 2, 2014.
  29. ^ Unauthorized : United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law , online , accessed February 2, 2014.
  30. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 1962 (XVIII). Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space , adopted on December 13, 1963, online , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.unoosa.org%2Fpdf%2Fgares%2FARES_18_1962E.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  31. ↑ United Nations General Assembly: A / RES / 18/1962 - Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements. Retrieved January 28, 2017 .
  32. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 37/92. Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting , adopted December 10, 1982, online , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fga%2Fsearch%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F37%2F92%26Lang%3DE%26Area%3DRESOLUTION~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  33. ↑ Volker Knoerich: Direct TV - Remote Sensing - Moon Contract . Tasks and work of the United Nations Space Committee , pp. 175–176, pp. 178–179.
  34. ↑ a b General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 51/122. Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries , adopted on December 13, 1996, online , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fga%2Fsearch%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F51%2F122%26Lang%3DE~GB%3D~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  35. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 41/65. Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space , adopted on December 3, 1986, online , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fga%2Fsearch%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F41%2F65%26Lang%3DE%26Area%3DRESOLUTION~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  36. ↑ a b Wulf von Kries: Remote sensing of the earth from space. A new source of information for the benefit of the international community . In: United Nations , Volume 25, Number 4, pp. 111-117, ISSN  0042-384X , online .
  37. ↑ Volker Knoerich: Direct TV - Remote Sensing - Moon Contract . Tasks and work of the United Nations Space Committee , pp. 176–177, p. 179.
  38. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations: Resolution 47/68. Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources In Outer Space , adopted on December 14, 1992, online , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fga%2Fsearch%2Fview_doc.asp%3Fsymbol%3DA%2FRES%2F47%2F68%26Lang%3DE%26Area%3DRESOLUTION~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D
  39. ↑ Volker Knoerich: Direct TV - Remote Sensing - Moon Contract . Tasks and work of the United Nations Space Committee , p. 178.
  40. ^ Jannat C. Thompson: Space For Rent. The International Telecommunications Union, Space Law, and Orbit / Spectrum Leasing . In: Journal of Air Law and Commerce , Volume 62, 1996, ISSN  0021-8642 , pp. 279-311
  41. ^ Nathan C. Goldman: Space Law and Space Resources , p. 149.
  42. ↑ BGBl. I p. 2510
  43. ↑ Space Act: Germany does not reach for the stars ( memento of July 8, 2018 in the Internet Archive ). ZDF , July 8, 2018
  44. ↑ Dirk Lorenzen : Plans for the Space Act and Space Weather Center: The Grand Coalition and Space Deutschlandfunk , March 1, 2018
  45. ↑ Draft law with explanations website of the Austrian Parliament , accessed on July 28, 2018
  46. ^ Kristina Wong: Rumsfeld still opposes Law of Sea Treaty . In: The Washington Times , June 14, 2012, accessed February 2, 2014.
  47. ↑ a b Linda Billings: To the Moon, Mars, and Beyond: Culture, Law, and Ethics in Space-Faring Societies . In: Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society , Volume 26, Number 5, pp. 430–437, doi : 10.1177 / 0270467606292504 , Online PDF ( Memento from March 6, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) 115 kB, accessed on February 2, 2014 .
  48. ↑ Keekok Lee: Awe and Humility: Intrinsic Value in Nature. Beyond an Earthbound Environmental Ethics . In: Robin Attfield, Andrew Belsey (eds.): Philosophy and the Natural Environment , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1994, ISBN 978-0-521-46903-6 , pp. 89-101, doi : 10.1017 / CBO9780511524097.009 .
  49. ↑ Lynn M. Fountain: Creating the momentum in Space: ending the paralysis produced by the “Common a Heritage of Man” doctrine . In: Connecticut Law Review , Volume 35, Number 4, 2003, pp. 1753-1787, ISSN  0010-6151 .
  50. ↑ Virgiliu Pop: Who Owns the Moon ?: Extraterrestrial Aspects of Land and Mineral Resources Ownership , Space Regulations Library Volume 4, Springer Science + Business Media, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4020-9134-6 .
  51. ^ Nathan C. Goldman: Space Law and Space Resources , pp. 150-151.
  52. ^ Nathan C. Goldman: Space Law and Space Resources , p. 152.
  53. ↑ Frank Patalong: Space and Law: Who Owns Space? In Spiegel Online , December 1, 2015, accessed on December 13, 2015
  54. ^ A b Horst Bittlinger, Marietta Benkö: Institute of Air and Space Law. University of Cologne. 1925-2005 , p. 42.