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[[Image:TraditionalThanksgiving.jpg|thumb|right|320px|A traditional Thanksgiving dinner]]
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The centerpiece of contemporary [[Thanksgiving|Thanksgiving]] in the [[United States]], and [[Canada]] is a large meal, generally centered around a large roasted [[domesticated turkey|turkey]]. The majority of the dishes in the
The '''Protestant Reformation''' was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517, though its roots lie further back in time. It began with [[Martin Luther]] and may be considered to have ended with the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648.<ref name="Simon-120-121">{{cite book |first=Edith |last=Simon |title=Great Ages of Man: The Reformation |pages=pp. 120-121 |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1966 |isbn=0662278208}}</ref> The movement began as an attempt to reform the [[Catholic Church]]. Many western [[Catholics]] were troubled by what they saw as false doctrines and malpractices within the Church, particularly involving the teaching and sale of [[indulgence]]s. Another major contention was the practice of buying and selling church positions (''[[simony]]'') and what was seen at the time as considerable corruption within the Church's hierarchy. This corruption was seen by many at the time as systemic, even reaching the position of the [[Pope]].
traditional American version of Thanksgiving Dinner are made from [[Native American cuisine|foods native to the New World]], according to tradition the Pilgrims received these foods from the American Indians. However, many of the classic traditions attributed to the first Thanksgiving are actually myths introduced later.<ref>Dickson, J.G. U.S. National Wild Turkey Federation ''The Wild Turkey'' pub. Stackpole Books 1992. p. 10</ref>


A [[Christmas dinner|very similar dinner]] is often served on [[Christmas]] and [[New Year's Day]].
Martin Luther's spiritual predecessors included men such as [[John Wycliffe]] and [[Jan Hus]], who had attempted to reform the church along similar lines, though their efforts had been largely unsuccessful. The Reformation can be said to have begun in earnest on [[October 31]], [[1517]], in [[Wittenberg]], [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]] (in present-day Germany). There, Luther nailed his ''[[Ninety-Five Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]]'' to the door of the [[All Saints' Church, Wittenberg|All Saints' Church]], which served as a notice board for university-related announcements.<ref name="Simon-120-121" /> These were points for debate that criticized the Church and the Pope. The most controversial points centered on the practice of selling indulgences and the Church's policy on [[purgatory]]. Other reformers, such as [[Ulrich Zwingli]], soon followed Luther's lead. Church beliefs and practices under attack by Protestant reformers included [[Purgatory#Protestantism|purgatory]], [[Particular judgment#Reformation_concepts|particular judgment]], devotion to [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]] ([[Mariology (Roman Catholic)|Mariology]]), the intercession of and devotion to the [[saint]]s, most of the [[sacraments]], the mandatory [[celibacy]] requirement of its clergy (including [[monasticism]]), and the authority of the [[Pope]].


==Historical Menus==
The reform movement soon split along certain doctrinal lines. Spiritual disagreements between Luther and Zwingli, and later between Luther and [[John Calvin]], led to the emergence of rival Protestant churches. The most important [[Christian denomination|denomination]]s to emerge directly from the Reformation were the [[Lutheran]]s, and the [[Reformed]]/[[Calvinist]]s/[[Presbyterian]]s. The process of reform had decidedly different causes and effects in other countries. In England, where it gave rise to [[Anglicanism]], the period became known as the [[English Reformation]]. Subsequent Protestant denominations generally trace their roots back to the initial reforming movements. The reformers also accelerated the [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic or Counter Reformation]] within the [[Catholic Church]]. The Protestant Reformation is also referred to as the ''German Reformation'', ''Protestant Revolution'', ''Protestant Revolt'', and, in Germany, as the ''Lutheran Reformation''.
The use of the turkey in the USA for Thanksgiving precedes Lincoln's nationalization of the holiday in 1863. Alexander Hamilton proclaimed that "no Citizen of the United States should refrain from turkey on Thanksgiving Day", but turkey was uncommon as Thanksgiving fare until after 1800. By 1857 turkey had become part of the traditional dinner in New England.<ref>Davis, Karen ''More Than a Meal: The Turkey in History, Myth, Ritual, and Reality'' Lantern Books, 2001. p. 53.</ref>


A Thanksgiving Day dinner served to the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in [[1935]] included: Pickles,
== History and origins ==
green olives,
{{see also|History of Protestantism}}
celery,
All mainstream Protestants generally trace their separation from the Catholic Church to the 16th century. The origin of mainstream Protestantism is sometimes called the ''Magisterial Reformation'' because the movement received support from the magistrates, the ruling authorities (as opposed to the ''[[Radical Reformation]]'', which had no state sponsorship). Older Protestant churches, such as the [[Unitas Fratrum]] ([[Unity of the Brethren]]), [[Moravian Church|Moravian Brethren]] or the Bohemian Brethren trace their origin to the time of [[Jan Hus]] in the early 15th century. As it was led by a majority of Bohemian nobles and recognized for a time by the Basel Compacts, this was the first Magisterial Reformation in Europe. In [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] a hundred years later, the protests erupted in many places at once, during a time of threatened [[Islamic]] [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Ottoman wars in Europe|invasion]] [[#Footnotes|¹]] which distracted German princes in particular. To some degree, the protest can be explained by the events of the previous two centuries in Europe and particularly in Bohemia.
roast turkey,
oyster stew,
cranberry sauce,
giblet gravy,
dressing,
creamed asparagus tips,
snowflake potatoes,
baked carrots,
hot rolls,
fruit salad,
mince meat pie,
fruit cake,
candies,
grapes,
apples,
French drip coffee,
cigars and cigarettes.<ref>Smith, K.M. ''Gold Medal CCC Company 1538: A Documentary'' Turner Publishing Company, 2001. p. 98.</ref>


==Customs==
=== Roots and precursors: 14th century and 15th century ===
Unrest due to the [[Western Schism|Great Schism of Western Christianity]] (1378–1416) excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church. A new [[nationalism]] also challenged the relatively internationalist medieval world.
The first of a series of disruptive and new perspectives came from [[John Wycliffe]] at [[Oxford University]], then from [[Jan Hus]] at the [[University of Prague]]. The Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the [[Council of Constance]] (1414–1417). The conclave condemned [[Jan Hus]], who was executed by burning in spite of a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously burned as a [[heresy|heretic]].


Normally a Thanksgiving dinner in the United States bears a good deal of resemblance to another feast served at [[Christmas]]: the centerpiece at both is most often a turkey. However, the spirits of these occasions are usually different: the family and friends present at a Thanksgiving table are not expected to give gifts to each other, for example, plus the point of the meal is to reflect upon/be thankful for the things that have passed over the last year, not the celebration of a religious figure. Guests may be asked to say grace or if not of the same religion as the host to bow his head in respect.
The Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of Church and Empire. It did not address the national tensions, or the theological tensions which had been stirred up during the previous century. The council could not prevent [[Schism (religion)|schism]] and the [[Hussite Wars]] in [[Bohemia]].<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Hussites Hussites]</ref>


==Turkey==
Historical upheaval usually yields much new thinking as to how society should be organized. This was the case leading up to the Protestant Reformation. Following the breakdown of monastic institutions and [[scholasticism]] in late medieval Europe, accentuated by the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Avignon Papacy, the Great Schism, and the failure of the [[Conciliar movement]], the sixteenth century saw the fomenting of a great cultural debate about religious reforms and later fundamental religious values (See [[German mysticism]]). Historians would generally assume that the failure to reform (too many vested interests, lack of coordination in the reforming coalition) would eventually lead to a greater upheaval or even revolution, since the system must eventually be adjusted or disintegrate, and the failure of the Conciliar movement helped lead to the Protestant Reformation in Europe. These frustrated reformist movements ranged from [[nominalism]], [[Devotio Moderna|devotio moderna (modern devotion)]], to [[humanism]] occurring in conjunction with economic, political and demographic forces that contributed to a growing disaffection with the wealth and power of the [[elite]] [[clergy]], sensitizing the population to the financial and moral corruption of the secular [[Renaissance]] church.
Because turkey is the most common main dish of a Thanksgiving dinner, Thanksgiving is sometimes colloquially called ''Turkey Day or poultry day''. The [[USDA]] estimated that 269<ref>[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/001535.html US Census Bureau, Thanksgiving Day, 2003]</ref> million turkeys were raised in the country in 2003, about one-sixth of which were destined for a Thanksgiving dinner plate. The average cost of an entire Thanksgiving feast was approximately $41 in 2007 <ref>[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Business+watercooler+stories-a01610817537 Business watercooler stories - Free Online Library<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.
It has been estimated that 16-20 percent of annual turkey consumption in the US is attributed to Thanksgiving and as much as 30 percent of consumption occurs during the combined Thanksgiving to New Year holiday season <ref>[http://www1.ibisworld.com/pressrelease/pressrelease.aspx?prid=100 IBISWorld<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>.


Most Thanksgiving turkeys are stuffed with a cereal-based [[stuffing]] and roasted. [[Sage]] is the traditional herb added to the stuffing (also called dressing), along with chopped celery, carrots, and onions. [[Turducken]], a turkey stuffed with a duck stuffed with a chicken, is becoming more popular, from its [[Cajun]] base in [[Louisiana]]. [[Deep frying|Deep-fried]] turkey is rising in popularity as well, requiring special [[turkey fryer|fryer]]s to hold the large bird, and reportedly leading to fires and bad burns for those who fail to take care when dealing with a large quantity of very hot oil. In more recent years it is also true that as the wild population of turkeys has rebounded in most of the US, some will hunt and dress their turkey in the woods and then freeze it until meal preparation.
The outcome of the [[Black Death]] encouraged a radical reorganization of the economy, and eventually of European society. In the emerging urban centers, however, the calamities of the fourteenth and early fifteenth century, and the resultant labor shortages, provided a strong impetus for economic diversification and technological innovations. Following the Black Death, the initial loss of life due to famine, plague, and pestilence contributed to an intensification of capital accumulation in the urban areas, and thus a stimulus to trade, industry, and burgeoning urban growth in fields as diverse as banking (the [[Fugger]] banking family in [[Augsburg]] and the [[Medici]] family of [[Florence]] being the most prominent); textiles, [[Weapon|armaments]], especially stimulated by the [[Hundred Years' War]], and mining of iron ore due, in large part, to the booming armaments industry. Accumulation of surplus, competitive [[overproduction]], and heightened competition to maximize economic advantage, contributed to civil war, aggressive [[militarism]], and thus to centralization. As a direct result of the move toward centralization, leaders like [[Louis XI of France]] (1461&ndash;1483), the "spider king", sought to remove all constitutional restrictions on the exercise of their authority. In [[England]], [[France]], and [[Spain]] the move toward centralization begun in the thirteenth century was carried to a successful conclusion.


==Alternatives to turkey==
But as recovery and prosperity progressed, enabling the population to reach its former levels in the late 15th and 16th centuries, the combination of both a newly-abundant labor supply as well as improved productivity, were 'mixed blessings' for many segments of Western European society. Despite tradition, landlords started the move to exclude [[peasant]]s from "[[common land]]s". With trade stimulated, landowners increasingly moved away from the [[Manorialism|manorial]] economy. Woolen manufacturing greatly expanded in [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[Netherlands]] and new textile industries began to develop.
Nontraditional foods other than turkey are sometimes served as the main dish for a Thanksgiving dinner. [[Goose]] and [[duck]], foods which were traditional European centerpieces of [[Christmas]] dinners before being displaced by ham{{Fact|date=November 2007}}, are now sometimes served in place of the Thanksgiving turkey. In a few areas of the [[West Coast of the United States]], [[Dungeness crab]] is common as an alternate main dish, as crab season starts in early November. Sometimes a variant recipe for cooking turkey is used; for example, a [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese recipe]] for [[goose]] could be used on the similarly-sized American bird. [[Vegetarian]]s or [[vegan]]s may try [[tofurkey]], a [[tofu]]-based dish with imitation turkey flavor. In [[Alaska]]n villages, [[whale]] meat is sometimes eaten.[http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/A/ALASKA_THANKSGIVING?SITE=NYPLA&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT] Irish immigrants have been known to have prime rib of beef as their centerpiece as beef was once a rarity back in Ireland.
In the United States, a new globalist approach to Thanksgiving has become popular due to the impact of immigration on the country. Some take the basic Thanksgiving ingredients, and reinvent them using flavors, techniques, and traditions from their own cuisines, while others celebrate the holiday with a large festive meal with or without turkey <ref>''New York'' magazine, November 6,2007 ''The Globalist's Thanksgiving''[http://nymag.com/guides/holidays/thanksgiving/40289/]</ref>.


==Side dishes==
The invention of [[movable type]] would lead to the Protestant zeal for translating the Bible and getting it into the hands of the laity. This would advance the culture of Biblical literacy.
Many other foods are served alongside the main dish—so many that, because of the amount of food, the Thanksgiving meal is sometimes served midday or early afternoon to make time for all the eating, and preparation may begin at dawn or on days prior.


Traditional Thanksgiving foods are sometimes specific to the day, and although some of the foods might be seen at any semi-formal meal in the United States, the meal often has something of a ritual or traditional quality. Many Americans would say it's "incomplete" without [[cranberry sauce]], [[stuffing]] or dressing, and [[gravy]]. Other commonly served dishes include [[sweet potatoes]], [[mashed potatoes]] or rice (in the South), dumplings, [[corn on the cob]] or [[hominy]], deviled eggs, [[green bean]]s or [[green bean casserole]], peas and carrots, wheat flour bread [[rolls]], [[cornbread ]](in the south), or biscuits, rutabagas or turnips, and a [[Waldorf salad]]. For dessert, various [[pie]]s are often served, particularly [[apple pie]], [[mincemeat]] pie, [[sweet potato pie]], [[pumpkin pie]], chocolate meringue pie and [[pecan pie]], with the last three being particularly American.
The "humanism" of the [[Renaissance]] period stimulated unprecedented academic ferment, and a concern for [[academic freedom]]. Ongoing, earnest theoretical debates occurred in the universities about the nature of the church, and the source and extent of the authority of the papacy, of councils, and of princes.


[[Image:New England Thanksgiving Dinner.jpg|right|300px|Traditional Thanksgiving meal in New England]]
=== 16th century ===
[[Image:95Thesen.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Luther's 95 Theses]]
The protests against Rome began in earnest when [[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] monk and professor at the university of [[Wittenberg]], called in 1517 for a reopening of the debate on the sale of [[indulgence]]s. Luther's dissent marked a sudden outbreak of a new and irresistible force of discontent which had been pushed underground but not resolved. The quick spread of discontent occurred to a large degree because of the [[printing press]] and the resulting swift movement of both ideas and documents, including the ''[[95 Theses]]''. Information was also widely disseminated in manuscript form, as well as by cheap prints and woodcuts amongst the poorer sections of society.


There are also nontraditional regional differences as to the stuffing or dressing traditionally served with the turkey. Southerners generally make their dressing from [[cornbread]], while those in other parts of the country make stuffing from white or wheat [[bread]] as the base. One or several of the following may be added to the dressing/stuffing: [[oyster]]s, [[apple]]s, [[chestnut]]s, [[raisin]]s, [[celery]] and/or other vegetables, [[sausage]]s or the turkey's [[giblets]]. The traditional Canadian version has bread cubes, sage, onion and celery. Rice is also sometimes used instead of bread in Canada.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of [[Ulrich Zwingli]]. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced [[printing press]] spread ideas rapidly from place to place, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day [[Anabaptist]]s. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism ([[cf.]] [[Erasmus]]), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.
[[Image:Ulrich Zwingli.jpg|thumb|[[Ulrich Zwingli]]]]


Other nontraditional dishes reflect the region or cultural background of those who have come together for the meal. For example, many [[African Americans]] and [[Southerners]] serve baked [[macaroni and cheese]] and [[collard greens]], while [[Italian-American]]s often have [[lasagna]] on the table and [[Ashkenazi]] [[Jew]]s may serve noodle [[kugel]], a sweet dessert [[pudding]]. It is not unheard of for [[Mexican Americans]] to serve their turkey with [[mole (sauce)|mole]] and [[roasted corn]]. Vegetarians or vegans have been known to serve alternative entree centerpieces such as a large vegetable pie or a stuffed and baked [[pumpkin]] or [[tofurkey]]. Many Midwesterners (such as [[Minnesota|Minnesotans]]) of [[Norway|Norwegian]] or [[Scandanavia|Scandanavian]] descent set the table with [[lefse]] and [[green bean]] [[hotdish]].
After this first stage of the Reformation, following the [[excommunication]] of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of [[John Calvin]] were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, [[Scotland]], Hungary, Germany and elsewhere.


==Beverages==
The Reformation foundations engaged with [[Augustinians|Augustinianism]]. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of [[Augustine of Hippo]]. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against [[Pelagianism]], a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic church of their day. In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[Peasants' War]] of 1524&ndash;1525 swept through the [[Bavaria]]n, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities, leaving scores of Catholics slaughtered at the hands of Protestant bands, including the [[Black Company]] of [[Florian Geier]],a knight from [[Giebelstadt]] who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy.


The beverages served at Thanksgiving can vary as much as the side dishes, often depending on who is present at the table and their tastes. [[liquor|Spirits]] or [[cocktails]] occasionally may be served before the main meal. On the dinner table, unfermented [[Apple cider]] (still or sparkling) and/or [[wine]] are often served. [[Beaujolais nouveau]] is sometimes served, as "Beaujolais day" falls one week before Thanksgiving{{Fact|date=November 2007}}. For children non-alcoholic beverages are served at the table as it is generally frowned upon for those below the age of 18 to consume alcohol, and in the US it is illegal in many places, though in some states it is legal for those under 21 to consume alcohol when their parents are present. Pitchers of sweetened iced tea are common throughout the South.
Even though Luther and Calvin had very similar theological teachings, the relationship between their followers turned quickly to conflict. Frenchman [[Michel de Montaigne]] told a story of a Lutheran pastor who once claimed that he would rather celebrate the mass of Rome than participate in a Calvinist service.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}


==References==
The political separation of the [[Church of England]] from Rome under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad Reformed movement. However, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for centuries, between sympathies for Catholic traditions and Protestantism, progressively forging a stable compromise between adherence to ancient tradition and Protestantism, which is now sometimes called the [[via media]].<ref>[http://www.umbc.edu/history/CHE/techerpages/Eppard/teachernotes.html The Sacking of Rome & The English Reformation]</ref>
*[http://nymag.com/guides/holidays/thanksgiving/40289/ ''The Globalist's Thanksgiving'' New York Magazine]
[[Image:Life of Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Life of [[Martin Luther]] and the heroes of the [[Reformation]]]]
{{reflist}}
Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli are considered Magisterial Reformers because their reform movements were supported by ruling authorities or "magistrates". Frederick the Wise not only supported Luther, who was a professor at the university he founded, but also protected him by hiding Luther in Wartburg Castle in Eisenach. Zwingli and Calvin were supported by the city councils in [[Zurich]] and [[Geneva]]. Since the term "magister" also means "teacher", the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by [[Radical Reformation|Radical Reformers]] as being too much like the Roman Popes. For example, Radical Reformer Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt referred to the Wittenberg theologians as the "new papists".<ref name="Gstohl">{{cite web
|last=Gstohl
|first=Mark
|date=2004
|url=http://www.reformationhappens.com/movements/magisterial/
|title="The Magisterial Reformation"
|work=Theological Perspectives of the Reformation
|accessdate=2007-06-27
}}</ref>


{{Thanksgiving}}
=== Humanism to Protestantism ===
The frustrated reformism of the humanists, ushered in by the [[Renaissance]], contributed to a growing impatience among reformers. [[Erasmus]] and later figures like Martin Luther and Zwingli would emerge from this debate and eventually contribute to another major schism of Christendom. The crisis of theology beginning with [[William of Ockham]] in the fourteenth century was occurring in conjunction with the new [[Bourgeoisie|burgher]] discontent. Since the breakdown of the [[philosophy|philosophical]] foundations of [[scholasticism]], the new [[nominalism]] did not bode well for an institutional church legitimized as an intermediary between man and God. New thinking favored the notion that no religious [[doctrine]] can be supported by philosophical arguments, eroding the old alliance between [[reason]] and [[faith]] of the medieval period laid out by [[Thomas Aquinas]].
[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 047.jpg|thumb|left|[[Erasmus]]]]


[[Category:Thanksgiving]]
The major individualistic reform movements that revolted against medieval scholasticism and the institutions that underpinned it were: [[humanism]], [[devotionalism]], (see for example, the [[Brothers of the Common Life]] and [[Jan Standonck]]) and the observatine tradition. In [[Germany]], "the modern way" or devotionalism caught on in the universities, requiring a redefinition of God, who was no longer a rational governing principle but an arbitrary, unknowable will that cannot be limited. God was now a ruler, and religion would be more fervent and emotional. Thus, the ensuing revival of Augustinian theology, stating that man cannot be saved by his own efforts but only by the grace of God, would erode the legitimacy of the rigid institutions of the church meant to provide a channel for man to do good works and get into [[heaven]]. Humanism, however, was more of an educational reform movement with origins in the [[Renaissance]]'s revival of [[classical education|classical learning]] and thought. A revolt against [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] logic, it placed great emphasis on reforming individuals through eloquence as opposed to reason. The European Renaissance laid the foundation for the Northern humanists in its reinforcement of the traditional use of [[Latin]] as the great unifying [[cultural language]].


[[es:Cena de Acción de Gracias]]
The polarization of the scholarly community in Germany over the [[Johannes Reuchlin|Reuchlin]] (1455&ndash;1522) affair, attacked by the elite clergy for his study of [[Biblical Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and Jewish texts, brought Luther fully in line with the humanist educational reforms who favored [[academic freedom]]. At the same time, the impact of the Renaissance would soon backfire against traditional Catholicism, ushering in an age of reform and a repudiation of much of medieval Latin tradition. Led by Erasmus, the humanists condemned various forms of corruption within the Church, forms of corruption that might not have been any more prevalent than during the medieval zenith of the church. [[Erasmus]] held that true religion was a matter of inward devotion rather than outward symbols of ceremony and ritual. Going back to ancient texts, scriptures, from this viewpoint the greatest culmination of the ancient tradition, are the guides to life. Favoring [[morality|moral]] reforms and de-emphasizing [[didactic literature|didactic]] ritual, Erasmus laid the groundwork for Luther.
[[id:Makan malam Thanksgiving]]

maddi
Humanism's intellectual [[anti-clericalism]] would profoundly influence Luther. The increasingly well-educated [[middle class|middle]] sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers would turn to Luther's rethinking of religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burghers, the desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices, contributed to the appeal of humanist [[individualism]]. To many, [[pope|papal]] institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and [[usury]]. In the North, burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any [[tax]]es to the nation, but collecting taxes from [[Citizenship|subjects]] and sending the revenues disproportionately to the Pope in [[Italy]].
== Headline text ==

#REDIRECT [[Insert tex<!-- Comment -->t]]'''Bold text'''
These trends heightened demands for significant reform and revitalization along with anticlericalism. New thinkers began noticing the divide between the priests and the flock. The clergy, for instance, were not always well-educated. Parish priests often did not know [[Latin]] and rural parishes often did not have great opportunities for theological education for many at the time. Due to its large landholdings and institutional rigidity, a rigidity to which the excessively large ranks of the clergy contributed, many [[bishop]]s studied [[law]], not theology, being relegated to the role of property managers trained in administration. While priests emphasized works of religiosity, the respectability of the church began diminishing, especially among well educated [[urbanite]]s, and especially considering the recent strings of political humiliation, such as the apprehension of [[Pope Boniface VIII]] by [[Philip IV of France]], the "Babylonian Captivity", the Great Schism, and the failure of Conciliar reformism. In a sense, the campaign by [[Pope Leo X]] to raise funds to rebuild [[Saint Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's Basilica]] was too much of an excess by the secular [[Renaissance]] church, prompting high-pressure indulgences that rendered the clergy establishments even more disliked in the cities.

Luther borrowed from the humanists the sense of individualism, that each man can be his own priest (an attitude likely to find popular support considering the rapid rise of an educated urban middle class in the North), and that the only true authority is the [[Bible]], echoing the reformist zeal of the [[Conciliar movement]] and opening up the debate once again on limiting the authority of the Pope. While his ideas called for the sharp redefinition of the dividing lines between the [[laity]] and the clergy, his ideas were still, by this point, reformist in nature. Luther's contention that the human will was incapable of following good, however, resulted in his rift with Erasmus finally distinguishing Lutheran reformism from [[humanism]].

=== Religious influences for the Reformation ===
[[Image:ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Reformation Wall]] in Geneva. From left: [[William Farel]], [[John Calvin]], [[Theodore Beza]], and [[John Knox]]]]
While there were some parallels between certain movements within humanism and teachings later common among the Reformers, the Reformation's principal arguments were based on "direct" Biblical interpretation. The Catholic Church had for several centuries been the main purveyor in [[Europe]] of non-secular humanism: the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[scholastics]] and the neo-Aristotelianism of [[Thomas Aquinas]] and his followers had made humanism a part of Church [[dogma]]. This was of course due to the Catholic Church's use of historic, religious tradition (including the [[Canonization]] of [[Saint]]s) in the forming of its [[liturgy]]. Thus, when Luther and the other reformers adopted the standard of ''[[sola scriptura]]'', making the Bible the sole measure of theology, they made the Reformation a reaction against the humanism of that time. Previously, the Scriptures had been seen by some as the pinnacle of a hierarchy of sacred texts, and on par with the [[oral tradition]]s of the Church.

The Protestants emphasized such concepts as justification by "faith alone" (not faith and good works or infused righteousness), "Scripture alone" (the Bible as the sole ''inspired'' rule of faith, rather than the Bible plus tradition), "the priesthood of all believers" (eschewing the special authority and power of the Catholic sacramental priesthood), that all people are individually responsible for their status before God such that talk of mediation through any but Christ alone is unbiblical. Because they saw these teachings as stemming from the Bible, they encouraged publication of the Bible in the common language and universal [[education]].

Part of the revolt was an [[Iconoclasm#Reformation Iconoclasm|iconoclasm]], seen in Huldrych Zwingli, but particularly amongst the radical reformers. Iconoclastic riots took place in Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), and Scotland (1559). John Calvin took a more moderate stance to Zwingli and the Anabaptists, but preferred a more simple aesthetic, to the excesses of the Middle Ages.

{{Calvinism}}The Reformation did not happen in a vacuum, as there were movements for centuries calling for a return to Biblical teachings, the most famous being from Wycliffe, Jan Hus, and the [[Waldensians]]. It is no surprise that their teachings were later found in the Reformation, as they imbibed from the same source.

While it is true that there were calls for religious, doctrinal, and moral reformation within and without the institutional church for centuries, apparently it was the invention of the [[printing press]] which allowed quick broadcasting of ideas, the rise in nationalistic fervor, the increasing availability of the Bible to the public, and popular discontent at the moral corruption in the church to coalesce in support for a reformation as never before.

{{Main|Radical Reformation}}
Many unskilled laborers had been squeezed from the countryside into the cities and suffered from the over-crowding and high prices that can follow such a quick and voluminous influx of new citizens. Discontented and morally righteous, the lower classes embraced the most radical theological options opened up by the religious revolution and were ready to follow leaders rising within their ranks, who urged them to band together against immorality and decadence. The [[Drummer of Niklashausen]] and later the [[Anabaptist]] preachers railed against landowners who took control of increasing areas, kings centralizing control, and princes looking for increased tax revenues to fund their growing states.

The Anabaptists and other radical leaders were condemned by the Lutherans and nationalistic Germans. Nearly every country in Europe saw a flare-up of failed peasant revolts motivated by religious concerns and executed according to religious doctrine. The Hungarian Peasants' War (1514), the revolt against [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in [[Spain]] (1520), the discontent of the lower classes in [[France]] with the excessive taxes levied by [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]], and the secret associations which prepared the way for the great [[Peasants' War]] of the lower classes in Germany (1524), show that discontent was not confined to any one country in Europe.

=== Lutheranism adopted by the German princes ===
Luther, like Erasmus, in the beginning favoured maintaining the bishops as an elite class for administrative purposes, though he denied that their succession from the Apostles gave their consecration any special sacramental value. And while Luther rejected many of the Catholic [[sacrament]]s, as well as salvation by grace alone through both faith and good works (as opposed to the Protestant "faith alone") and indulgences, he firmly upheld the sacraments of [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]]. Transubstantiation was most fully spelled out by the medieval scholastics, who agreed that the elements, once consecrated, remained the body and blood of Christ and could be adored as such. Traditionally, the consecrated bread and wine were held to become, substantially, the body and blood of Christ ([[transubstantiation]]).
Luther affirmed a theology of the [[Eucharist]] called [[Real Presence]], a doctrine of the presence of Christ in the Eucharist which affirms the real presence yet upholding that the bread and wine are not "changed" into the body and blood; rather the divine elements adhere "in, with, and under" the earthly elements. He took this understanding of Christ's presence in the Eucharist to be more harmonious with the Church's teaching on the Incarnation. Just as Christ is the union of the fully human and the fully divine (cf. Council of Chalcedon) so to the Eucharist is a union of Bread and Body, Wine and Blood. According to the doctrine of real presence, the substances of the body and the blood of Christ and of the bread and the wine were held to coexist together in the consecrated Host during the communion service. While Luther seemed to maintain the perpetual consecration of the elements, other Lutherans argued that any consecrated bread or wine left over would revert to its former state the moment the service ended. Most Lutherans accept the latter.

[[Image:PhilippMelanchthon.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of [[Philipp Melanchthon]], by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel.]]A Lutheran understanding of the Eucharist is distinct from the Reformed doctrine of the Eucharist in that Lutherans affirm a real, physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist (as opposed to either a "spiritual presence" or a "memorial") and Lutherans affirm that the presence of Christ does not depend on the faith of the recipient; the repentant receive Christ in the Eucharist worthily, the unrepentant who receive the Eucharist risk the wrath of Christ.

Luther, along with his colleague [[Philipp Melanchthon]], emphasized this point in his plea for the Reformation at the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' in 1529 amid charges of [[heresy]]. But the changes he proposed were of such a fundamental nature that by their own logic they would automatically overthrow the old order; neither the Emperor nor the Church could possibly accept them, as Luther well knew. As was only to be expected, the edict by the [[Diet of Worms]] (1521) prohibited all innovations. Meanwhile, in these efforts to retain the guise of a Catholic reformer as opposed to a heretical revolutionary, and to appeal to German princes with his religious condemnation of the peasant revolts backed up by the [[Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms]], Luther's growing conservatism would provoke more radical reformers.

At a religious conference with the Zwinglians in 1529, Melanchthon joined with Luther in opposing a union with [[Zwingli]]. There would finally be a schism in the reform movement due to Luther's belief in [[real presence]]—the real (as opposed to symbolic) presence of Christ at the Eucharist. His original intention was not schism, but with the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' of Augsburg (1530) and its rejection of the Lutheran "Augsburg Confession", a separate Lutheran church finally emerged. In a sense, Luther would take theology further in its deviation from established Catholic dogma, forcing a rift between the humanist Erasmus and Luther. Similarly, Zwingli would further repudiate ritualism, and break with the increasingly conservative Luther.

[[Image:reformation.gif|thumb|Reformation and Counter Reformation in Europe. Protestant lands in blue, [[Catholic]] in olive]]
Aside from the enclosing of the lower classes, the middle sectors of Northern Germany, namely the educated community and city dwellers, would turn to religion to conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era. The great rise of the burghers, the desire to run their new businesses free of institutional barriers or outmoded cultural practices contributed to the appeal of individualism. To many, papal institutions were rigid, especially regarding their views on just price and [[usury]]. In the North, burghers and monarchs were united in their frustration for not paying any taxes to the nation, but collecting taxes from subjects and sending the revenues disproportionately to Italy. In Northern Europe Luther appealed to the growing national consciousness of the German states because he denounced the Pope for involvement in politics as well as religion. Moreover, he backed the nobility, which was now justified to crush the Great Peasant Revolt of 1525 and to confiscate church property by Luther's [[Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms]]. This explains the attraction of some territorial princes to Lutheranism, especially its Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms. However, the Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim I, blamed Lutheranism for the revolt and so did others. In Brandenburg, it was only under his successor Joachim II that Lutheranism was established, and the old religion was not formally extinct in Brandenburg until the death of the last Catholic bishop there, [[von Blumenthal#Georg I|Georg von Blumenthal]], who was [[Bishop of Lebus]] and sovereign [[Prince-Bishop of Ratzeburg]].

With the church subordinate to and the agent of civil authority and peasant rebellions condemned on strict religious terms, Lutheranism and German nationalist sentiment were ideally suited to coincide.

Though [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] fought the Reformation, it is no coincidence either that the reign of his nationalistic predecessor [[Maximilian I]] saw the beginning of the Reformation. While the centralized states of western Europe had reached accords with the Vatican permitting them to draw on the rich property of the church for government expenditures, enabling them to form state churches that were greatly autonomous of Rome, similar moves on behalf of the Reich were unsuccessful so long as princes and prince bishops fought reforms to drop the pretension of the secular universal empire.

== The Reformation outside Germany ==
=== Switzerland ===
{{main|Reformation in Switzerland}}
{{Expand-section|date=February 2008}}

=== Scandinavia ===
{{see also|Reformation in Denmark}}
All of [[Scandinavia]] ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the sixteenth century, as the monarchs of [[Denmark]] (who also ruled [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]]) and [[Sweden]] (who also ruled [[Finland]]) converted to that faith.

In Sweden the Reformation was spearheaded by [[Gustav Vasa]], elected king in 1523. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy from 1523.<ref name="Gilbert-12">[http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/gilbert/12.html Chapter 12 The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia], Renaissance and Reformation by William Gilbert.</ref> Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools&mdash;effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas.<ref name="Gilbert-12"/>

Under the reign of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] (1523&ndash;33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. But though Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was [[Hans Tausen]].<ref name="Gilbert-12"/> During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and began a reformation of the official state church.

=== England ===
{{main|English Reformation}}

==== Political reformation ====
[[Image:Darnley stage 3.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], Queen of England and Ireland.]]
In England, the Reformation followed a different course than elsewhere in Europe. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism, and England had already given rise to the [[Lollard]] movement of [[John Wycliffe]], which played an important part in inspiring the [[Hussite]]s in [[Bohemia]]. By the 1520s, however, the Lollards were not an active force, or, at least, certainly not a mass movement. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticizing Luther, but he later found it expedient and profitable to break with the Papacy. His wife, [[Catherine of Aragon]], bore him only a single child, [[Mary I of England|Mary]]. As England had recently gone through a lengthy dynastic conflict (''see [[Wars of the Roses]]''), Henry feared that his lack of a male heir might jeopardize his descendants' claim to the throne. However, Pope Clement VII, concentrating more on Charles V's "sack of Rome", denied his request for an annulment. Had Clement granted the annullment and therefore admitted that his predessecor, Julius II, had erred, Clement would have given support to the Lutheran assertion that Popes replaced their own judgement for the will of God. King Henry decided to remove the [[Church of England]] from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the [[Act of Supremacy]] made Henry the [[Supreme Head]] of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under [[Thomas Cromwell]], the policy known as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] was put into effect. The veneration of some [[saint]]s, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolutions.

There were some notable opponents to the [[Henrician Reformation]], such as [[Thomas More]] and Bishop [[John Fisher]], who were executed for their opposition. There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines now current on the Continent. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son [[Edward VI]], who, through his empowered councilors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and not yet sixteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the [[chantry|chantries]]. Under Edward VI the reform of the [[Church of England]] was established unequivocally in doctrinal terms. Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of [[Mary I of England|Mary]] 1553&ndash;1558, a loose consensus developed during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. Yet it is the so-called "[[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]" to which the origins of [[Anglicanism]] are traditionally ascribed. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme [[Calvinism]] on the one hand and Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or [[English Civil War]] in the seventeenth century.

The success of the [[Counter-Reformation]] on the Continent and the growth of a [[Puritan]] party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the [[Elizabethan Age]], although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before.

==== Early Puritan movement ====
{{main|Puritan|English Civil War}}

The early ''Puritan movement'' (late 16th century-17th century) was [[Reformed]] or [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] and was a movement for reform in the [[Church of England]]. Its origins lay in the discontent with the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially [[Geneva]]. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as [[idolatry|idolatrous]] (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), which they castigated as "[[popish]] pomp and rags". (See [[Vestments controversy]].) They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. They refused to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]''; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.

The later Puritan movement were often referred to as [[Dissenters]] and [[Nonconformist]]s and eventually led to the formation of various [[Reformed]] [[Christian denomination|denominations]].

=== Scotland ===
{{main|Scottish Reformation}}
The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along [[Reformed theology|Reformed]] lines, and politically in the triumph of [[England|English]] influence over that of [[France]]. [[John Knox]] is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation

The [[Scottish Reformation Parliament|Reformation Parliament]] of 1560, which repudiated the pope's authority, forbade the celebration of the [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] and approved a [[Protestant]] [[Confession of Faith]], was made possible by a revolution against [[France|French]] hegemony under the regime of the [[regent]] [[Mary of Guise]], who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]] (then also [[Queen consort|Queen]] of France).

The Scottish Reformation decisively shaped the [[Church of Scotland]]<ref>Article 1, of the [[Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland]] 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.</ref> and, through it, all other [[Presbyterian]] churches worldwide.

=== Netherlands ===
{{main|History of religion in the Netherlands}}
The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the [[Seventeen Provinces]], but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the [[Anabaptist]] movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]], became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward.

Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of [[Phillip II of Spain|Phillip II]] contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the [[Eighty Years' War]] and eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant [[Dutch Republic]] from the Catholic-dominated [[Southern Netherlands]], the present-day [[Belgium]].

=== Hungary ===
{{Expand-section|date=April 2008}}
Much of the population of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Kingdom of Hungary]] adopted Protestantism during the sixteenth century. After the [[1526]] [[Battle of Mohács]] the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the ability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith which would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the invader.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} They found this in the teaching of the Protestant Reformers such as Luther. The spread of Protestantism in the country was aided by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of [[Martin Luther]]. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German-speaking population, [[Calvinism]] became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians.<ref>Revesz, Imre, History of the Hungarian Reformed Church, Knight, George A.F. ed., [[Hungarian Reformed Federation of America]] (Washington, D.C.: 1956).</ref>

In the more independent northwest the rulers and priests, protected now by the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. They dragged the Protestants to prison and the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Leaders of the Protestants included Matthias Biro Devai, Michael Sztarai, and Stephen Kis Szegedi.

Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the sixteenth century, but [[Counter-Reformation]] efforts in the [[seventeenth century]] reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Catholicism<ref>[http://www.eldrbarry.net/heidel/eeurorsc.htm The Forgotten Reformations in Eastern Europe - Resources<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith.

=== France ===
{{main|Huguenot|French Wars of Religion}}
[[Image:Massacre saint barthelemy.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Bartholomew]]'s Day massacre, Painting by [[François Dubois]] (born about 1529, Amiens, Picardy)]]
Though he was not personally interested in religious reform, [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (1515&ndash;47) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, arising from his interest in the [[humanist]] movement. This changed in 1534 with the [[Affair of the Placards]]. In this act, Protestants denounced the mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. The issue of religious faith having been thrown into the arena of politics, Francis was prompted to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. This led to the first major phase of anti-Protestant persecution in France, in which the ''[[Chambre Ardente]]'' ("Burning Chamber") was established within the [[Parlement of Paris]] to handle with the rise in prosecutions for heresy. Several thousand French Protestants fled the country during this time, most notably [[John Calvin]], who settled in [[Geneva]].

Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land and, from his base in Geneva, beyond the reach of the French king, regularly trained pastors to lead congregations in France. Despite heavy persecution by [[Henry II of France|Henry II]], the [[Reformed Church of France]], largely [[Calvinist]] in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban [[bourgeoisie]] and parts of the [[aristocracy]], appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment.

French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the noble conversions of the 1550s. This had the effect of creating the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the [[French Wars of Religion|Wars of Religion]]. The civil wars were helped along by the sudden death of [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] in 1559, which saw the beginning of a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown. [[Wiktionary:atrocity|Atrocity]] and outrage became the defining characteristic of the time, illustrated at its most intense in the [[St. Bartholomew's Day massacre]] of August 1572, when between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots were killed across France.<ref>[http://home.eckerd.edu/~oberhot/paris-siege-stbarth.htm Paris and the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre: August 24, 1572]</ref> The wars only concluded when [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]], himself a former Huguenot, issued the [[Edict of Nantes]], promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's [[Edict of Fontainebleau]]&mdash;which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, [[Frederick William]] of [[Brandenburg]] declared the [[Edict of Potsdam]], giving free passage to French Huguenot refugees, and tax-free status to them for 10 years.

== Conclusion and legacy ==
[[Image:Cardinal Richelieu (Champaigne).jpg|thumb|250px|Although a Catholic clergyman himself, [[Cardinal Richelieu]] allied France with the Protestants.]]
The Reformation led to a [[European wars of religion|series of religious wars]] that culminated in the [[Thirty Years War]]. From 1618 to 1648 the Catholic [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]] and their allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported by [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]. The Habsburgs, who ruled [[Spain]], [[Austria]], [[Netherlands|the Spanish Netherlands]] and most of [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], were the staunchest defenders of the Catholic Church.
The Reformation Era came to a close when Catholic [[France]] allied herself, first in secret and later on the battlefields, with the Protestants against the Habsburgs.<ref name="Simon-120-121"/> For the first time since the days of Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe. Following the [[Peace of Westphalia]], the major denominations now lived in relative peace on the continent.

The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
* All parties would now recognize the [[Peace of Augsburg]] of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism (the principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'')<ref name="westphal">[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/westphal.htm The Avalon Project : Treaty of Westphalia]</ref>
* Christians living in principalities where their denomination was ''not'' the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will.<ref name="westphal"/>
The treaty also effectively ended the Pope's pan-European political power. Fully aware of the loss, [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times." European Sovereigns, Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<ref name="Simon-120-121"/>

== See also ==
* [[Catholicism and the wars of religion]]
* [[Exsurge Domine]]
* [[Johann Tetzel]]
* [[Matthias Flacius]]
* [[Menno Simons]]
* [[Nicolaus Von Amsdorf]]
* [[Pierre Viret]]
* [[Primož Trubar]]
* [[Propaganda during the Reformation]]
* [[Protestantism]]
* [[Reformation in Denmark]]
* [[Schmalkaldic League]]
* [[Theologia Germanica]]
* [[Thomas Muentzer|Thomas Müntzer]]

== Notes and references ==
{{reflist|2}}
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== Resources ==
=== Print resources ===
==== Scholarly secondary resources ====
<small>Chronological order of publication (oldest first)</small>
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=62407231 ''The Cambridge Modern History''. Vol 2: The Reformation (1903)].
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12700b.htm Kirsch, J.P. "The Reformation", ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1911)]. (Catholic view)
* Smith, Preserved. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC00403814&id=0WoUJEOzHXAC&pg=PR1&dq=%22 ''The Age of Reformation'']. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1920.
* {{cite book |authorlink=Hilaire Belloc |last=Belloc |first=Hilaire |year=1928 |title=How the Reformation Happened |publisher=Tan Books & Publishing |isbn=0-89555-465-8}} (a Catholic perspective)
* {{cite book |last=Bainton |first=Roland |authorlink=Roland Bainton |title=The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century |year=1952 |publisher=The Beacon Press |location=Boston |isbn=0-8070-1301-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Durant |first=William |authorlink=Will Durant |title=The Reformation |year=1957 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |isbn=1-56731-017-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |authorlink=Jaroslav Pelikan |title=Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300-1700)|year=1984|publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-65377-3 }} (focuses on religious teachings)
* Gonzales, Justo. ''The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day''. San Francisco: Harper, 1985. ISBN 0-06-063316-6.
* Estep, William R. ''Renaissance & Reformaton''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. ISBN 0-8028-0050-5.
* Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume I, The Renaissance''. Revised Edition. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987. ISBN 0-570-03818-9.
* Kolb, Robert. ''Confessing the Faith: Reformers Define the Church, 1530-1580''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1991. ISBN 0-570-04556-8.
* Cameron, Euan. ''The European Reformation''. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1991. (a standard textbook)
* [[Carl Braaten|Braaten, Carl E.]] and Robert W. Jenson. ''The Catholicity of the Reformation''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996. ISBN 0-8028-4220-8.
* [[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]]. ''[[The Reformation: A History]]''. New York: Penguin 2003. Most important recent synthesis
* Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Renaissance and Reformation Movements: Volume II, The Reformation''. Revised Edition. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1987. ISBN 0-570-03819-7.
*{{cite book |last=Naphy |first=William G. |title=The Protestant Revolution: From Martin Luther to Martin Luther King Jr |year=2007 |publisher=BBC Books |isbn=978-0-56-353920-9}}

==== Primary sources in translation ====
* Spitz, Lewis W. ''The Protestant Reformation: Major Documents''. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0-570-04993-8
* [[Martin Luther|Luther, Martin]] ''Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters,'' 2 vols., tr.and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02338418&id=m4r3cwHjnvUC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=%22Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22 vol.I (1507-1521)] and [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC02338418&id=oEy_3aDT61sC&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22 vol.2 (1521-1530)] from [[Google Books]]. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ISBN 1-59752-601-0.
* [[George Cornelius Gorham|Gorham, George Cornelius]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0bbTMcT6wXFWRHGP&id=esICAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22george+cornelius+gorham%22 ''Gleanings of a few scattered ears, during the period of Reformation in England and of the times immediately succeeding : A.D. 1533 to A.D. 1588'':], London, Bell and Daldy, 1857.

=== Online resources ===
==== Historical materials ====
* Timelines
** [[Detailed Christian timeline#Renaissance and Reformation|Renaissance & Reformation]]
** [[Timeline of the English Reformation|English Reformation]]
* [[History of Protestantism]]
* [[Middle Ages in history]]
* [[List of Protestant Reformers]]
* Wikipedia article on [[Protestant Reformers]]

==== Primary materials ====
* [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/ninetyfive.html Luther's Ninety-five Theses]
* [http://www.orlutheran.com/html/mlserms.html Sermons of Martin Luther] Over a hundred available
* [[Book of Common Prayer|The Book of Common Prayer]]
* [[The Book of Concord]]
* [[Institutes of the Christian Religion]] by [[John Calvin]]
* The [[Corpus Reformatorum]]. Primary sources in African French and Buddhists

== External links ==
* [http://history.hanover.edu/early/prot.html Internet Archive of Related Texts and Documents]
* [http://www.lepg.org/religion.htm A summary of the Reformation]
* [http://www.infocheese.com/thereformation.html The Reformation] as found at www.infocheese.com
* [http://homepage.mac.com/shanerosenthal/reformationink Reformation Ink] pdfrimary source
documents from the Reformation (Protestant perspective)

{{Christian History}}

[[Category:Lutheran history|Reformation]]
[[Category:Protestant Reformation| ]]
[[Category:Schisms in Christianity]]
[[Category:Christianity-related controversies]]

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[[gl:Reforma Protestante]]
[[hak:Chûng-kau Kói-kiet]]
[[ko:종교개혁]]
[[hi:धर्मसुधार]]
[[hr:Reformacija]]
[[id:Reformasi Protestan]]
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[[he:הרפורמציה הפרוטסטנטית]]
[[lad:Reforma protestante]]
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[[mk:Протестантска реформација]]
[[ms:Reformasi Protestan]]
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[[ja:宗教改革]]
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[[ro:Reforma Protestantă]]
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[[ru:Реформация]]
[[simple:Protestant Reformation]]
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[[th:การปฏิรูปศาสนาของนิกายโปรเตสแตนต์]]
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[[zh-yue:宗教改革]]
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Revision as of 19:32, 13 October 2008

A traditional Thanksgiving dinner

The centerpiece of contemporary Thanksgiving in the United States, and Canada is a large meal, generally centered around a large roasted turkey. The majority of the dishes in the traditional American version of Thanksgiving Dinner are made from foods native to the New World, according to tradition the Pilgrims received these foods from the American Indians. However, many of the classic traditions attributed to the first Thanksgiving are actually myths introduced later.[1]

A very similar dinner is often served on Christmas and New Year's Day.

Historical Menus

The use of the turkey in the USA for Thanksgiving precedes Lincoln's nationalization of the holiday in 1863. Alexander Hamilton proclaimed that "no Citizen of the United States should refrain from turkey on Thanksgiving Day", but turkey was uncommon as Thanksgiving fare until after 1800. By 1857 turkey had become part of the traditional dinner in New England.[2]

A Thanksgiving Day dinner served to the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1935 included: Pickles, green olives, celery, roast turkey, oyster stew, cranberry sauce, giblet gravy, dressing, creamed asparagus tips, snowflake potatoes, baked carrots, hot rolls, fruit salad, mince meat pie, fruit cake, candies, grapes, apples, French drip coffee, cigars and cigarettes.[3]

Customs

Normally a Thanksgiving dinner in the United States bears a good deal of resemblance to another feast served at Christmas: the centerpiece at both is most often a turkey. However, the spirits of these occasions are usually different: the family and friends present at a Thanksgiving table are not expected to give gifts to each other, for example, plus the point of the meal is to reflect upon/be thankful for the things that have passed over the last year, not the celebration of a religious figure. Guests may be asked to say grace or if not of the same religion as the host to bow his head in respect.

Turkey

Because turkey is the most common main dish of a Thanksgiving dinner, Thanksgiving is sometimes colloquially called Turkey Day or poultry day. The USDA estimated that 269[4] million turkeys were raised in the country in 2003, about one-sixth of which were destined for a Thanksgiving dinner plate. The average cost of an entire Thanksgiving feast was approximately $41 in 2007 [5]. It has been estimated that 16-20 percent of annual turkey consumption in the US is attributed to Thanksgiving and as much as 30 percent of consumption occurs during the combined Thanksgiving to New Year holiday season [6].

Most Thanksgiving turkeys are stuffed with a cereal-based stuffing and roasted. Sage is the traditional herb added to the stuffing (also called dressing), along with chopped celery, carrots, and onions. Turducken, a turkey stuffed with a duck stuffed with a chicken, is becoming more popular, from its Cajun base in Louisiana. Deep-fried turkey is rising in popularity as well, requiring special fryers to hold the large bird, and reportedly leading to fires and bad burns for those who fail to take care when dealing with a large quantity of very hot oil. In more recent years it is also true that as the wild population of turkeys has rebounded in most of the US, some will hunt and dress their turkey in the woods and then freeze it until meal preparation.

Alternatives to turkey

Nontraditional foods other than turkey are sometimes served as the main dish for a Thanksgiving dinner. Goose and duck, foods which were traditional European centerpieces of Christmas dinners before being displaced by ham[citation needed], are now sometimes served in place of the Thanksgiving turkey. In a few areas of the West Coast of the United States, Dungeness crab is common as an alternate main dish, as crab season starts in early November. Sometimes a variant recipe for cooking turkey is used; for example, a Chinese recipe for goose could be used on the similarly-sized American bird. Vegetarians or vegans may try tofurkey, a tofu-based dish with imitation turkey flavor. In Alaskan villages, whale meat is sometimes eaten.[2] Irish immigrants have been known to have prime rib of beef as their centerpiece as beef was once a rarity back in Ireland. In the United States, a new globalist approach to Thanksgiving has become popular due to the impact of immigration on the country. Some take the basic Thanksgiving ingredients, and reinvent them using flavors, techniques, and traditions from their own cuisines, while others celebrate the holiday with a large festive meal with or without turkey [7].

Side dishes

Many other foods are served alongside the main dish—so many that, because of the amount of food, the Thanksgiving meal is sometimes served midday or early afternoon to make time for all the eating, and preparation may begin at dawn or on days prior.

Traditional Thanksgiving foods are sometimes specific to the day, and although some of the foods might be seen at any semi-formal meal in the United States, the meal often has something of a ritual or traditional quality. Many Americans would say it's "incomplete" without cranberry sauce, stuffing or dressing, and gravy. Other commonly served dishes include sweet potatoes, mashed potatoes or rice (in the South), dumplings, corn on the cob or hominy, deviled eggs, green beans or green bean casserole, peas and carrots, wheat flour bread rolls, cornbread (in the south), or biscuits, rutabagas or turnips, and a Waldorf salad. For dessert, various pies are often served, particularly apple pie, mincemeat pie, sweet potato pie, pumpkin pie, chocolate meringue pie and pecan pie, with the last three being particularly American.

Traditional Thanksgiving meal in New England
Traditional Thanksgiving meal in New England

There are also nontraditional regional differences as to the stuffing or dressing traditionally served with the turkey. Southerners generally make their dressing from cornbread, while those in other parts of the country make stuffing from white or wheat bread as the base. One or several of the following may be added to the dressing/stuffing: oysters, apples, chestnuts, raisins, celery and/or other vegetables, sausages or the turkey's giblets. The traditional Canadian version has bread cubes, sage, onion and celery. Rice is also sometimes used instead of bread in Canada.

Other nontraditional dishes reflect the region or cultural background of those who have come together for the meal. For example, many African Americans and Southerners serve baked macaroni and cheese and collard greens, while Italian-Americans often have lasagna on the table and Ashkenazi Jews may serve noodle kugel, a sweet dessert pudding. It is not unheard of for Mexican Americans to serve their turkey with mole and roasted corn. Vegetarians or vegans have been known to serve alternative entree centerpieces such as a large vegetable pie or a stuffed and baked pumpkin or tofurkey. Many Midwesterners (such as Minnesotans) of Norwegian or Scandanavian descent set the table with lefse and green bean hotdish.

Beverages

The beverages served at Thanksgiving can vary as much as the side dishes, often depending on who is present at the table and their tastes. Spirits or cocktails occasionally may be served before the main meal. On the dinner table, unfermented Apple cider (still or sparkling) and/or wine are often served. Beaujolais nouveau is sometimes served, as "Beaujolais day" falls one week before Thanksgiving[citation needed]. For children non-alcoholic beverages are served at the table as it is generally frowned upon for those below the age of 18 to consume alcohol, and in the US it is illegal in many places, though in some states it is legal for those under 21 to consume alcohol when their parents are present. Pitchers of sweetened iced tea are common throughout the South.

References

  1. ^ Dickson, J.G. U.S. National Wild Turkey Federation The Wild Turkey pub. Stackpole Books 1992. p. 10
  2. ^ Davis, Karen More Than a Meal: The Turkey in History, Myth, Ritual, and Reality Lantern Books, 2001. p. 53.
  3. ^ Smith, K.M. Gold Medal CCC Company 1538: A Documentary Turner Publishing Company, 2001. p. 98.
  4. ^ US Census Bureau, Thanksgiving Day, 2003
  5. ^ Business watercooler stories - Free Online Library
  6. ^ IBISWorld
  7. ^ New York magazine, November 6,2007 The Globalist's Thanksgiving[1]

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