Veganism

Food without animal products like this salad play a central role in veganism.

Veganism is an attitude, lifestyle and diet that emerged from vegetarianism . Vegan people either avoid all food of animal origin or they generally reject the use of animal products and the exploitation of animals . Ethically motivated vegans usually also ensure that clothing and other goods are free of animal products and that they have not been tested on animals .

Arguments from the areas of animal ethics , animal rights , animal welfare , climate protection , environmental protection , health , distributive justice , world food problems or religion are cited as motives for a vegan lifestyle .

history

Great Britain

Origins in vegetarianism

Interior of the Northwood Villa , where the Vegetarian Society was founded in 1847.

Veganism emerged from vegetarianism. In 1847 the Vegetarian Society was founded in Manchester in the United Kingdom . In their organ of the association, the Vegetarian Messenger and Health Review (TVMHR), a heated discussion broke out between 1909 and 1912 and continued after the First World War about the question of the use of foods of animal origin other than meat.

Some vegetarians saw "cruelty inextricably linked to the manufacture of dairy products" and referred to the separation of calves from their mother. They condemned the killing of male chicks for egg production. Others wanted to accept milk and eggs at least as a temporary solution, while others did not want to continue to treat those "who said they could not live without animal secretions" with benevolence or patience. Some vegetarians wanted to allow exceptions, at least temporarily, because the strict rejection of milk and eggs in everyday life or when traveling could not be implemented.

At first there was no consensus, even if the editors of the Vegetarian Messengers in 1912 saw the stronger arguments on the part of the vegans. In 1923, the editors described vegetarianism as a transition phase to veganism.

Health aspects were also discussed. In 1912, Dugald Semple postulated that eggs should make chickens and not omelets . Cow's milk is “a perfect feed for a calf, but certainly not for an adult”. In 1934 H. Valentine Davis continued: "The custom of using cow's milk for infants and for those who have outgrown infancy is unnatural ... in many ways it is a highly undesirable and dangerous liquid". Others argued in the same direction. Personal experiences were also brought into the discussion. AH Mitchell wrote in 1923 that he had worked “always strenuous and long” and that he felt an improvement in the diet phase with animal products compared to the period without animal products.

The question became more pressing every year, so in 1934 testimonials were asked from readers who “survived” without dairy products.

Foundation of the Vegan Society

In 1942, Donald Watson approached the editors with a request to create a column for members who abstained from eggs and dairy products. When he was still denied this even after lengthy discussions, he founded the Vegan Society in Birmingham in 1944 .

Watson's moral condemnation of animal husbandry was originally based on the cruel experiences he had as a child on his uncle's smallholder farm. After the end of the war, the modern methods of factory farming were added for him . Health reasons also played a role. Watson argued that between 40 and 70 percent of the country's dairy cows were infected with bovine tuberculosis and that at least 40 percent of non-pulmonary tuberculosis in children was due to infected milk. By 1944, WH White and CV Pink had raised children without dairy products. Watson quoted Pink as saying, "On the basis of close observation, we have absolutely no doubt that a diet derived exclusively from the plant kingdom is even better than one that contains dairy products."

In 1951, the Vegan Society published its first definition of veganism as the “guiding principle that humans should live without the exploitation of animals”. Donald Watson was not concerned with establishing a seemingly religious commandment of “purity”, but with a pragmatic approach to suffering Minimize: Veganism is not an end in itself for him and other vegans. This pragmatic attitude is reflected in the definition of the Vegan Society that has been valid since 1988 :

“Veganism is a philosophy and way of life that seeks - as far as possible and practically feasible - to avoid all forms of exploitation and cruelty to animals for food, clothing or other purposes and also to develop animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals, humans and Environment promotes. In terms of nutrition, this means doing without all animal-derived products. "

- The Vegan Society

The “development of animal-free alternatives” can already be found in the first statutes of the Vegan Society as an association purpose. In order to find a substitute for cow's milk , the search for a plant-based milk began in the 1950s . In 1965, Plamil Foods started producing the first soy milk to be used in the western world . However, the designation "soy milk" was officially banned and the product was required to be called a "liquid food of plant origin". Later, an agreement was reached with the authorities on "soy plant milk".

The term 'veganism'

At that time some vegetarians derived the term “vegetarian” from the Latin vegetus (“lively, fresh, powerful”). If vegetarian only means "healthy" or "lively", according to this definition, vegetarians could even eat meat in extreme cases, which is why this derivation caused criticism at an early stage. Watson, on the other hand, derived the term vegetarian from the English vegetable ("vegetable, vegetable"). The consumption of dairy products and eggs, as practiced by many vegetarians, did not correspond to his understanding of vegetarianism. In deriving from the Latin vegetus , Watson saw “a clever way of circumventing critics”.

To denote those vegetarians who also avoided dairy products, Watson first used the term totally vegetarian (roughly: consistent, strict vegetarian). As an abbreviation for this, he coined the word vegan from the beginning and end of veg -etari- an , because "veganism begins with vegetarianism and leads it to its logical end". In 1962 the Oxford English Dictionary first mentioned the term vegan and explained it as a “vegetarian who does not eat butter, eggs, cheese or milk”. In 1995 the 9th edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary expanded this definition significantly. According to this, a vegan is "a person who does not eat or use animal products" (a person who does not eat or use any animal products). As of 2020, the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary explains vegans as both a vegetarian who does not consume food of animal origin and someone who avoids the use of animal products altogether.

Germany

Vegan avant la lettre

Around 1900 only a few vegetarians in Germany were concerned with the question of whether it was ethically justifiable to eat dairy products or eggs. People who still lived vegan called themselves “strict vegetarians”. Their number should have been a few hundred. The German Vegetarian Association made little effort to promote veganism, as it wanted to remain compatible with the majority of society.

One of the earliest vegetarian colonies was the Eden Charitable Fruit Growing Settlement , founded in 1893. Some residents may also have represented the ideal of a vegan life, but the English were also considered to be the authority on questions of veganism and vegetarianism. As early as 1894, non-vegetarians were also allowed in the cooperative. In 1901 vegetarianism disappeared from the statutes and in the 1920s, Eden's guests were also served meat.

Veganism as a life reform

Henri Oedenkoven and Ida Hofmann (1903)

A more vegan-oriented colony emerged on Monte Verità . From autumn 1900, like-minded people around Ida Hofmann and Henri Oedenkoven , who ran a sanatorium in addition to the colony, met here. For Hofmann, “vegetabilism” was not just a form of diet, but a life reform and should help to make the world a better place. In 1903, Joseph Salomonson made the vegetarians there aware of their inconsistency with regard to the consumption of milk, yoghurt, cheese and eggs. While they wanted to do without these from now on, the rule was "leather sandals will be retained in the absence of an equivalent vegetable product". They refused to give up: Ida Hofmann represented an enjoyable veganism that drew its lust from the variety of ingredients and their preparation. The ideal of a healthy life and a healthy body was linked to nutrition: the postcards that were sold on Monte Verità showed “the bodies of the emancipated people of the 20th century radiating efficiency”.

First World War

The First World War inevitably brought a shortage of animal products in Germany. In 1918 the members' newspaper of the German Vegetarian Association predicted that the plant-based diet would be forced to "increase the number of plant-based foods after the war". After all, the war had "provided evidence that meat is not an indispensable, absolutely necessary foodstuff". In fact, at the end of the war, many people, including the bourgeoisie, were eating almost vegan.

Weimar Republic

After the experiences of the First World War, it became more socially acceptable to eat a vegetarian diet. In 1920 the Vegetarian Association stated: “Whoever becomes a vegetarian today becomes a vegetarian, they are neither seen as a death row inmate nor do they believe that they are ready for the madhouse.” In the early 1930s, nutritionists also advocated a reduction for health reasons of meat consumption. However, this meant that vegetarian associations lacked the counter-image of an unhealthy society for their public relations work and a vegetable diet increasingly became a private matter. While veganism hardly played a role among vegetarians anymore, the tone towards meat consumption increased, mainly for reasons of animal welfare. The consumption of milk and eggs, on the other hand, was hardly discussed any longer. The German Vegetarian Association lost more and more members and in 1933 its newspaper “Vegetarian Warte” was completely discontinued.

Veganism had an "aggressive" and "angry" voice at that time with Walter Sommer , who was part of the nationalist direction of life reform. He proceeded from a "primordial law of natural nutrition". Since 1925 he has been sending out his "Lichtheilgrüße" regularly. He saw milk as intended only for young mammals and assumed that it had to be sucked off immediately, as it spoils immediately in the air. He saw in her the origin of measles , chickenpox , scarlet fever , diphtheria and other diseases. For eggs, “there was really only one thing left to add that we find all the symptoms of illness that we have to attribute to meat consumption to a greater extent when eating eggs,” according to Sommer, they made children “simply precocious” and evoked “unbridled desires” in adults.

Third Reich

At the beginning of the 1930s, the German Vegetarian Association was still euphoric that “a real leader at the top of our state” could simply abolish the entire animal economy. After the seizure of power , however, one had to realize that the international orientation of vegetarianism and its pacifist tendencies were not compatible with Nazi ideology. In the years up to 1935, the number of members of the vegetarian associations also decreased, so that the German Vegetarian Association no longer played a role in the synchronization . The correspondence between the other vegetarian associations shows that they only defined vegetarianism as avoiding meat, and consequently veganism no longer played a role for them.

The official “Guidelines for Nutrition” of the Reich Working Group for People's Nutrition at this time read: “The purely vegetarian diet (...) is not propagated. If individual people want to eat a vegetarian diet for special reasons, there are no reservations about this. ”From 1933 onwards, veganism in Germany remained silent for a quarter of a century.

Post-war to 1960s

After the war ended, wealth was generally associated with regular meat and butter consumption . In the consumption of historians as feeding shaft designated time vegetarianism hardly played a role, nor it was in the GDR the case.

In the mid-1960s, the number of vegetarians was estimated to be 100,000, with very few vegans. Veganism was represented at this time, for example, by the theologian Carl Anders Skriver as part of his pacifist worldview. From him the sentence often quoted by vegans has been passed down: "Because red blood sticks to the white milk". Käthe Schüder, who later became Skriver's wife, published the first German-language cookbook “ Vegan Nutrition ” in 1962 . Both were the first to use the word veganism consistently. However, the theological ideas of Skriver no longer play a role in current veganism.

Political parties

The animal protection party has existed in Germany since 1993 . In her program, she advocates turning to veganism. The V-Party³ - the party for change, vegetarians and vegans , which has existed since 2016 - tries to anchor veganism politically by calling for organic vegan agriculture, animal rights and other social aspects.

United States

In the US in the 19th century, the preacher Sylvester Graham (1794-1851) used his rhetorical skills to promote vegetarianism as a health measure. Graham's tireless activism drew a following called "grahamites" and influenced health reformers such as physician William A. Alcott (1798-1859) and naturopath Herbert M. Shelton (1895-1985). In contrast to Graham, Alcott was already promoting a diet free of animal products. Shelton became the leading representative of the natural hygiene movement and promoted “superior nutrition” through purely plant-based and ideally raw foods.

The United States' first smaller vegan society was founded in California in 1948 . The British Vegan Society gave advice and read Donald Watson's Vegan News . The American Vegan Society ( AVS ) was founded independently in 1960 , after its founder attended a slaughterhouse tour in 1957 and lived vegan from then on.

In the 1970s, the AVS wanted to bring the World Vegetarian Congress to North America. However, it was concluded that the mainstream was not yet ready for veganism. Therefore the North American Vegetarian Society was founded as an umbrella organization , which was supposed to prepare the congress together with the AVS . At the same time, the establishment of local vegetarian organizations was promoted, which then also promoted the congress.

In 1975 the 23rd World Vegetarian Congress was held in Orono, Maine . Over 13 days, 1,500 guests attended the event, including personalities who would later become leading figures in the animal rights movement such as Tom Regan . The publicity measures were successful and so the largest and most prestigious newspapers in America report on the event, which is now considered a milestone in the vegetarian movement.

International

Development up to the turn of the millennium

In 1971, Frances Moore Lappé's book Diet for a Small Planet was published , which proclaimed a plant-based diet to combat world hunger . In 1972 the report The Limits to Growth of the Club of Rome was published . Vegetable nutrition was then discussed as "a means of peaceful agitation against a political system" and the "waste of resources in meat production" as an environmental debacle and exploitation of the third world.

Up until the mid-1990s, around half of the published scientific articles on vegan nutrition dealt with the question of sufficient or inadequate nutrient intake, but from the end of the 1990s the therapeutic and preventive aspects of plant-based diets became the focus of scientific interest.

Scientists and physicians such as Dean Ornish , Caldwell Esselstyn , John A. McDougall , Michael Greger and T. Colin Campbell , who consider the average modern diet to be unhealthy, are campaigning for a purely plant-based whole-food diet. Organizations like the PCRM of the physician Neal D. Barnard not only proclaim the health aspects of a vegan diet according to their assessment, but also advocate animal welfare by promoting the abolition of animal testing and vivisection .

At the other end of the spectrum were radical animal rights activists and anti- speciesists , who were exactly the other way round: “As a consequence of their socio-political message, they were also vegans, at least vegetarians, but the focus was not on avoiding animal products, but on fighting against factory farming and the killing of animals ”, for the purpose of which the promotion of a vegan diet was an important means.

Melanie Joy 2015

As part of youth culture, veganism appeared in the straight-edge , hardcore , and anarcho-punk scene , among others . For supporters of the straight edge, resistance against the social establishment can only be achieved through a clear mind and thus the renunciation of drugs, tobacco and alcohol. Alongside this mindset, the applied nonviolence of veganism became a central component of the straight edge in the late 1990s . Veganism expressed the positive attitude of one's own life plan, which is also reflected in the self-description as vegan straight edge .

In 2001 the social psychologist Melanie Joy coined the concept of carnism , which is influential in circles of vegan activism and which tries to conceptually understand the consumption of meat, milk and eggs as an unquestioned belief system. Carnicism as an ideology regards the consumption of animal products as natural , normal and necessary , points that Joy in turn denies.

Development since the turn of the millennium

Until about 1990, “veganism” was not part of the active vocabulary in Germany: the archive of the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung does not show any hits. From 1990 to 2000 there are 55 articles, from 2001 to 2009 136 articles can be counted, from 2010 to July 2016 there are 748 entries, 515 of them between 2014 and 2016 alone, so that it can be stated: “Veganism happens every few days a role in some part of the newspaper. ”There are also numerous vegan magazines and internet portals. Every year around 15,000 and 20,000 visitors come to vegan food festivals such as VegFest in Great Britain or Veggie World . Grocery chains like Edeka now have vegan own brands in their range. "The beginning of the hype about veganism is determined by observers in 2010".

Attila Hildmann cooks on Veggie Street Day in Dortmund 2010

The German Vegetarian Association has largely veganized itself over the years. It first changed its name to VEBU and in 2017 to ProVeg Germany , and with the spin-off of ProVeg Internation , it positioned itself globally in order to better network. The aim is to reduce the consumption of animal products by 50% worldwide by 2040. For this purpose, projects in China to make vegan substitute foods more attractive are also being promoted. The managing director Sebastian Joy summarizes this pragmatic development direction as: "Vegan is our goal, we leave supervegan to others."

A plant-based diet is attracting increased interest in Western societies. This is reflected on the one hand in the research on the topic, and on the other hand in the increased economic importance. The bachelor's degree in Vegan Food Management teaches the basics of nutritional science and food chain management relevant to vegan nutrition . Celebrities in the media advocate a vegan diet. Athletes who follow a vegan diet arouse media interest. Vegan chefs like Attila Hildmann have sold over a million vegan cookbooks .

Although the number of vegans is still low at around 1% in Germany and other western countries, "far more people are interested in veganism - for health, ecological and ethical reasons".

distribution

A vegan butcher shop in the USA that sells vegan meat and cheese-like products.

Germany: In 2019, there were around 1 million people over the age of 14 in Germany who largely avoided animal products or described themselves as vegans.

Austria: In 2018, around 80,000 people over the age of 16 lived vegan in Austria.

Switzerland: According to a representative survey by the market research company DemoSCOPE on behalf of Swissveg in 2017, 1.5% of the Swiss population are vegans.

Israel

United Kingdom: According to a Gallup survey , around 170,000 people in the UK were vegan in 1995 , and at least 542,000 according to the latest statements by the Vegan Society (as of 2016).

United States: According to a Gallup phone survey of 1,033 adults aged 18 and over, 3% of Americans were vegan in 2018. At the same time, sales of herbal products rose 8.1% to $ 3.1 billion in 2017. The authors of the survey therefore note an increased overall interest in vegan products.

Motivations

Ethics and animal rights

Peter Singer 2017

Animal ethical considerations are now an integral part of the philosophical debate on veganism. Classically, Peter Singer's book Animal Liberation. The animal liberation from 1975 was seen as a turning point after which the discussion about veganism took on a new quality. Singer argues there that there is no moral justification not to take into account the suffering of a being, whatever its nature. Excluding special "non-human animals" from this principle of equality is as arbitrary as excluding people of different skin color, culture, religion or gender.

In the meantime, there are various other arguments that sometimes take a completely different approach from Singer. The publications and disputes on animal rights and animal ethics are still highly controversial.

Some vegans point to the mental abilities of some animal species, which are endowed with not inconsiderable intelligence and the ability to suffer and show complex social behavior.

A pathocentric approach, according to which all sentient beings deserve ethical consideration, is mainly advocated by animal rights activists. Another ethical motive is the endeavor to avoid avoidable suffering associated with animal husbandry by avoiding their products.

The philosopher Tom Regan attributes an inherent value to certain animals as subjects of a life because of their consciousness .

Martin Balluch argues for a scientific continuity of consciousness. Based on a criticism of Singer's approach, he calls for certain basic rights, the underlying interests of which are a prerequisite for all further interests.

What most arguments have in common is a naturalistic element that demands that certain homologous (i.e., evolutionarily continuous) properties that are considered relevant for a legal concept be reflected in the moral or legal understanding. Animal rights arguments often constitute a moral-philosophical derivation for human rights . Due to the alleged scientific vagueness of the concept of species on the subject level, a subjective right cannot be ascribed or denied to anyone solely on the basis of belonging to a species . The term speciesism tries to put this conclusion in an analogy to other forms of discrimination and to criticize it. This is countered by the philosophical tradition going back to Aristotle that man stands above animals.

Environmental sustainability

In 2019, a large-scale scientific study showed that a vegan diet reduces greenhouse gases caused by food by an average of 50 to 73%, agricultural land consumption by 76%, soil acidification by 50% and eutrophication by 50%. If all people were to forego meat and dairy products and the land currently used for animal products would become free, that would correspond to the combined area of the USA, the EU, China and Australia. Renaturing this area could store 8 billion tons of CO₂ from the atmosphere every year.

Greenhouse gas emissions of various diets in tons per person and year (based on a daily diet of 2000 kcal) according to, VMÄ = whole milk equivalents

Greenhouse gas emissions from production for different diet types in England
group	Emissions per day [kg CO ₂ equivalents]
High meat consumption (≥ 100 g / d)	7.19
Medium meat consumption (50–99 g / d)	5.63
Low meat consumption (<50 g / d)	4.67
Fish consumption	3.91
Vegetarian	3.81
Vegan	2.89

According to a 2010 report by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) on the environmental impact of consumption and production, food production has the greatest impact on land use. The agricultural production of biomass , especially that of animal products, is an inefficient transformation process compared to most industrial processes. Animal products such as meat and milk generally require more resources and generate higher emissions than plant-based alternatives. The UNEP report expects that the impact of agriculture on the environment will increase in the future because of population growth and the associated increase in the consumption of animal products. A substantial reduction in the consequences of environmental damage is only possible with a global change in diet, away from animal products.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the FAO , animal husbandry contributes around 18% to the human-caused greenhouse effect , which is primarily due to digestive products ( excrement and methane in ruminants ). Here, the extensive livestock farming cause of around 12% of global deforestation .

Vegan and vegan organizations point out that with a vegan diet the environment is less polluted with pollutants and fewer resources (water, land, air, energy, natural area) are required than with a diet with meat and dairy products. Compared to the standard diet in Germany (based on the National Consumption Study II by the Max Rubner Institute ), a vegan diet can save an average of around 1.1 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions per person and year. Extrapolated to the entire population, a vegan diet could save 77 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions per year. Here, however, the greatest changes would have to come from men (minus 46 million tons). Women would save 31 million tons on average by eating a less meat-based diet.

To solve the dilemma of overfishing the world's oceans, vegan organizations recommend eating without consuming fish or fish products in this country.

World food

Vegans and vegan organizations in particular assume that a vegan diet has positive consequences for world nutrition. Due to the low feed conversion rates in animal production, it is assumed that a vegan or vegetarian diet in industrialized countries could significantly improve the nutritional situation in developing countries. According to Edward O. Wilson , the currently agriculturally usable area with an exclusively vegetarian diet results in a food supply capacity for around 10 billion people. According to forecasts, the global demand for animal products, especially in developing and emerging countries , will continue to increase in the future.

Antibiotic resistance

To minimize the risk in connection with antibiotic resistance , which is also caused by use in animal fattening, pro-vegan organizations recommend a vegan-oriented lifestyle. In an article in the journal Science, a research group recommends, among other things, dietary guidelines that lead to reduced meat consumption for the same purpose.

Personal decisions

Many vegans were vegetarians first. In the case of ethically motivated vegans, for example, media reports about animal transport or experiences with factory farming or slaughtering were important factors in the decision to become vegetarian. As vegans, they not only reject meat consumption, but also the consumption of dairy products, honey and eggs. They give various reasons for this, such as the early separation of the calves from their mothers, the slaughter of dairy cows and laying hens when their performance is declining, the killing of male chicks, the use of male calves for meat fattening, the keeping conditions for dairy cows and laying hens or the concern that to make the meat industry more profitable with your own milk and egg consumption.

Out of compassion for the animals, ethically motivated vegans refrain from animal food, sometimes also from other products such as leather , fur , animal bristles , down jackets and pillows or cosmetics that contain animal substances or have been tested with animal experiments . Wool products are seen as the cause of early death and suffering for animals when sheared. The killing of silkworm caterpillars and pearl mussels and the keeping of honey bees are also often rejected. In addition, certain animal sports , zoos , vivariums , especially dolphinariums , and circuses are the subject of criticism. A popular ideal is a world without human exploitation of animals.

Special forms of vegan nutrition

Organic vegan nutrition is also limited to foods that have been produced under ecological aspects. Organic vegan agriculture excludes animal husbandry, so that, for example, manure is not used.
Frugan nutrition is limited to the fruits of food crops, as their consumption does not destroy the plant. This includes fruits , nuts and seeds .
Vegan raw food is limited to the vegan parts of a raw food diet (while raw food can generally also contain raw meat, fish, eggs, raw milk, etc.).
The high-carb diet is primarily based on carbohydrates , such as whole grains, legumes and starchy roots and tubers, and then vegetables of all kinds. Nuts and seeds are added to a lesser extent. It does not contain any added fats.
Pudding vegans follow a consistently vegan diet, but predominantly on highly processed plant-based foods. For them, ethical reasons are mainly decisive. Health aspects are rather subordinate, so they pay less attention to a nutritionally balanced composition of the diet.

Health aspects

Nutrient supply

The following description of nutrient supply is for healthy adults. Phases of life that differ from this, such as pregnancy, childhood or competitive sports, have their own specific nutritional requirements.

Non-critical nutrients

Dietary fiber : The dietary fiber intake of vegans is significantly higher than the sometimes insufficient intake of the average population. The intake of dietary fiber clearly exceeds the minimum intake.
Cholesterol : The body produces sufficient amounts of cholesterol itself and is therefore not dependent on external supplies. Cholesterol only occurs in animal food, so the vegan diet has negligible cholesterol intake and consistently favorable values in this range. In comparison, mixed dieters take in a multiple amount of cholesterol and in some cases are above the maximum amount recommended by the DGE.
Fatty acids : When it comes to the intake of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, studies have shown that vegans most often correspond to the recommendations of the DGE, whereas mixed foodists, in contrast, sometimes have too high a proportion of saturated fats and too little intake of polyunsaturated fats. The total intake of saturated fatty acids, which are nutritionally undesirable, is usually only half as high in a vegan diet than in the average population.
Magnesium : The intake of magnesium in vegans is significantly higher than the sometimes insufficient intake of the average population.
Phytonutrients / antioxidants : The Carotinoidaufnahme correlated in studies with increased fruit and vegetable consumption. The high intake of carotenoids in a vegan diet led to correspondingly high carotenoid concentrations in the blood plasma of the study participants in the German Vegan Study. In the EPIC study, vegans had isoflavones in theirblood levels that were 5 to 50 times higherthan those of mixed dieters. In prostate cancer patients, a low-fat vegan diet led to a significantly higher intake of protective phytochemicals, especially lycopene.
Vitamin E : In studies, vegans consumed significantly more vitamin E than mixed dieters. The study participants who followed a vegan diet exceeded the minimum intake of vitamin E, whereas the mixed dieters were below this on average.

Potentially critical nutrients

Calcium : Disadvantages of not using animal food sources such as milk and cheese can occur with an unbalanced vegan diet with regard to calcium intake. In studies, the average calcium intake of the examined vegans fell well below the recommended guide values. In addition to the calcium content of food plants, its bioavailability must also be taken into account. Oxalates (rhubarb) and phytates (grain, legumes, peanuts), which are also used as components of food plants, canhindercalcium absorption . On the other hand - depending on the protein and salt content of the vegan diet - the calciuretic (promotingcalcium excretion via the kidneys ) does not have to differ significantly from that of an omnivorous diet . In order to rule out deficiency symptoms, the consumption of calcium-rich mineral water, kale (approx. 220 mg calcium per 100 g), broccoli (approx. 110 mg per 100 g), sesame seeds (approx. 1540 mg per 100 g), hazelnuts, soybeans and tofu or calcium supplementation is recommended.

Iron : The average iron intake of both female and male vegans is regularly higher than that of mixed dieters in studies. Male vegans on average clearly exceed the DGE minimum intake, whereas female vegans are slightly below the recommended minimum intake of the DGE. However, the iron requirement with a purely vegan diet is about 1.8 times higher due to the lower bioavailability of plant iron, which means that a correspondingly higher reference value for plant-based foods is not achieved on average by female vegans in particular according to these studies. Vitamin C improves iron absorption from a plant-based diet.

Long-chain n-3 fatty acids : The intake of these fatty acids can be very low in an unbalanced vegan diet. Vegans in particular tend to have lower eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid blood levels compared to non-vegetarians. However, a study (1994) comes to the conclusion that adietrich in α-linolenic acid (ALA) and low in linoleic acid (LA) (e.g. with linseed oil ) increases the eicosapentaenoic acid levels in the tissue in a manner comparable to that of supplementation with Fish oil. Furthermore, the body can produce sufficient docosahexaenoic acid if enough α-linolenic acid (> 1200 mg) is consumed per day. The body needs the enzymes delta-6-desaturase and delta-5-desaturase to convert the vegetable α-linolenic acid. At the same time, they process the omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid into DGLA and arachidonic acid . Vitamin and mineral deficiencies, stress and age can slow down the formation. In contrast, vitamins B and C, magnesium and zinc can activate these enzymes.

Proteins : While the average population is protected from an undersupply of protein with a balanced diet, the protein intake of vegans can be significantly lower depending on the choice of food. The daily protein balance of around 0.8–1 grams per kilogram of body weight (g / kg body weight) required for an adult person can also be taken in through plant-based products without food supplements. These include above all rice, quinoa , lentils, beans, various nuts and nut butter as well as various soy products.

Vitamin D : Vitamin D can be completely formed by the skin with sufficient exposure to the sun. If the sun exposure is insufficient, then food intake is necessary. Apart from avocado (3.43 µg vitamin D / 100 g), chanterelles (2.1 µg vitamin D / 100 g) and mushrooms (1.9 µg / 100 g), vitamin D is contained almost exclusively in animal foods. In a study by the Freiburg University Clinic , it was demonstrated that mushrooms that were cultivated with UV-B radiation produced significant amounts of vitamin D₂ (491 μg or 19,640 IU per 100 g of mushrooms). The administration of the so-enriched pine mushrooms were vitamin D₂ - supplements equal. Similar results can also be achieved with shiitake , maitake , shimeji or other mushrooms. In the case of shiitake, values of up to 267,000 IU per 100 g of shiitake mushrooms could be achieved after exposure to sunlight for 14 hours. A study on the effects of a low-fat, vegan diet showed that the intake of vitamin D was too low. In studies on the amount of vitamin D consumed exclusively via food, vegans are again significantly below the already significantly too low vitamin D intake of mixed foodists. The actual vitamin D status in the blood plasma of investigated northern European vegans is on average still above the recommended reference values of the DGE, but significantly below the status of the mixed dieters.

Zinc : Studies have shown that the zinc intake of investigated vegans is below that of mixed foodists. The measured zinc intake for the women was on average still above the DGE reference values. In the case of men, one study found that zinc intake was on average sufficient according to the DGE reference values, while in another study the zinc intake of men was on average too low. However, the bioavailability of zinc in plant foods is still below the bioavailability of non-plant foods.

Critical nutrients

Iodine : In various studies, vegans often have insufficient iodine intake. The iodine intake is even lower here than the iodine intake of the mixed dieters, which is often too low, without supplementation. There is a risk of cretinism as a result of severe iodine deficiency.

Vitamin B ₁₂ is necessary in the body for cell division, blood formation and the functioning of the nervous system. According to established expert opinion, no vegetable food for human needs contains sufficient quantities of the usable form of the vitamin. Therefore, the major nutritional organizations recommend that all vegans take a B₁₂ supplement. This should be in the form of fortified foods or supplements. Depending on the level of the B₁₂ store in the liver and the individual requirements, it can take several years for adult vegans without vitamin intake before symptoms of vitamin B ₁₂ deficiency appear . Cases of severe vitamin B₁₂ deficiency are documented. Overall, vegans have low B₁₂ values. This underscores the need for B₁₂ supplementation. Scientists therefore warn against false reports claiming that vegans do not need to take in additional vitamin B₁₂ . Vegans canregularly checktheir vitamin B₁₂ status inorder to identify a deficiency in supply at an early stage.

Study situation

Obesity: Newby u. a. found in 2005 that vegans have a lower risk of obesity compared to mixed dieters. A cross-sectional study with 37,875 adults found the lowest average body mass index for vegans. The lower energy density of the food consumed is discussed as a possible cause for this.
High blood pressure: Studies showed the lowest rates of hypertension among vegans compared to any other group studied. The effects of various beneficial components in plant-based food are seen as possible causes, including the high proportion of potassium, magnesium, fiber and a favorable fatty acid profile.
Diabetes mellitus: In 2006, Neal D. Barnard et al. Found that under the low-fat vegan diet designed by them for the purpose of the study, the administration of medication could be reduced in 43% of the 50 test subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus . In the almost equally large comparison group, which ate individually according to the recommendations of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), this was possible in 23% of the test subjects. The study ran for 22 weeks. In updating its guidelines in 2012, with reference to these and other studies, the ADA came to the conclusion that a large number of diets are likely to be effective in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, including the Mediterranean , the plant-based (vegan or vegetarian), the low-fat and low-carb diets. The guideline authors consider it unlikely that the one optimal combination of macronutrients for all diabetics exists.
Heart disease: In a meta-analysis that evaluates data from 76,172 participants from 5 studies have shown with regard to the risk of death due to coronary heart disease compared to regular meat-eaters for vegans a 26%, for ovo-lacto-vegetarian a 34%, for Pescetarier a 34 % and for the occasional meat eater (<once a week) a 20% reduced risk. One possible reason for the disadvantage compared to the other vegetarian forms of diet and compared to the meatless fish eaters is the frequently observed inadequate vitamin B ₁₂ and n-3 supply.
Cancer : The meta-analysis published in 2017 by Dinu et al. determined from the data of three epidemiological cohort studies ( Adventist Health Study 2 , Oxford Vegetarian Study and EPIC Oxford Study ) a significant 15% reduction in the risk of the study vegans of developing cancer compared to the participating non-vegetarians. The cancer incidence rate of the participating vegetarians in this meta-analysis was reduced by 8% compared to that of non-vegetarians.
Osteoporosis : In the EPIC study, vegans had a 30% higher risk of fractures. However, this increased risk disappeared from a minimum intake of at least 525 mg calcium per day (corresponds to 53% of the intake recommended by the DGE for adults). According to available studies, the calculated average calcium intake with a vegan diet is usually slightly above 525 mg, but a considerable number of vegans still consume less than 525 mg calcium: in the EPIC study, 44.5% of vegans had one Calcium intake of less than 525 mg. The vitamin D, which is largely formed through exposure to the sun, plays an essential role in regulating the calcium level in the blood and in building bones, here vegans have a significantly lower food intake than mixed dieters. In studies of the actual vitamin D status in the blood plasma, northern European vegans in the EPIC-Oxford study had on average the lowest, but still sufficient values (55.9 nmol / l).
Thrombosis and arteriosclerosis: The Chinese nutritionist Duo Li sees the low levels of omega-3 fatty acids found in the phospholipids of the tissue membranes of vegetarians and vegans in particular as the cause of a possible increased risk of thrombosis and arteriosclerosis . His conclusion is that vegans could further reduce their risk of thrombosis and arteriosclerosis, which is already generally lower than a meat-based diet, by taking more vitamin B ₁₂ and n-3 fatty acids.

Nutritional evaluation

Coffee with milk, muffin and sausages in a vegan version.

German-speaking area

In 2018, the Federal Nutrition Commission (EEK) came to the conclusion that a “well-planned and supplemented vegan diet” could theoretically cover the nutritional needs. However, the results show that in reality deficiencies in certain nutrients are common. If “highly motivated people” switch to a vegan diet or want to continue with it, they should be made aware of “the nutritional guidelines, the necessary supplementation and any monitoring measures”.

According to the EEK, the current scientific evidence is too little to conclude that a vegan diet is generally a healthy diet.

The EEK finds vegan diets acceptable for nutritionally competent, healthy adults as well as nutritionally competent patients with type 2 diabetes and / or cardiovascular diseases. A vegan diet is not recommended for pregnant and breastfeeding women, children, adolescents and special groups of the adult population. If a vegan diet is chosen for ethical reasons in these phases of life, the EEK advises medical advice and regular monitoring.

With a purely plant-based diet, according to the German Nutrition Society (DGE), an adequate supply of certain nutrients is difficult or impossible. The most critical nutrient is vitamin B ₁₂ . The potentially critical nutrients in a vegan diet also included protein or essential amino acids and long-chain n3 fatty acids as well as the vitamins riboflavin and D and the minerals calcium , iron , iodine , zinc and selenium . The DGE expressly does not recommend a vegan diet for pregnant women, breastfeeding women, infants, children and young people. These particular populations would be at greater risk of nutrient deficiencies. If you still want to follow a vegan diet, you should take a vitamin B ₁₂supplement on a long-term basis , ensure that there is sufficient intake of critical nutrients and, if necessary, use fortified foods and supplements . For this purpose, advice should be given by a qualified nutritionist and the supply of critical nutrients should be checked regularly by a doctor. The DGE points out that foods that are consumed with a vegan diet are not necessarily nutritionally beneficial and health-promoting. The DGE rates vegetables , pulses , fruit , nuts , seeds , valuable vegetable oils and whole grain products as beneficial. Vegan dishes or foods to which high amounts of sugar , fats and table salt have been added are, however, "not nutritionally beneficial".

The nutrition commission of the German Society for Child and Adolescent Medicine rejects vegan infant nutrition without nutrient supplementation , as it leads to serious nutrient deficits. Careful monitoring of growth and prosperity is necessary, possibly supplemented by laboratory diagnostics.

The Austrian Society for Nutrition According to (ÖGE), to health benefits can only arise if these pay attention to a variety of possible food choices and varied food assortment for vegan malnourished people. Due to the severe restriction on food, you need good meal planning. The diet should not be one-sided if possible, otherwise there is a risk of insufficient supply. In addition, nutrients from plant-based foods are usually less bioavailable and are therefore available to the body in “lesser form”. The critical nutrients include protein, n3 fatty acids, vitamin B ₁₂ , vitamin D, calcium, iodine and iron.

English speaking area

The British Dietetic Association (BDA) estimates that "well-planned plant-based diets (...) can support a healthy life at any age and at any stage of life". However, one should consume "a large selection of healthy whole foods " to ensure that one's diet is balanced and sustainable. Most of the nutrients are abundant in plant-based diets. However, if you want to avoid the consumption of animal foods altogether or keep them to a minimum, you have to consider some nutrients. These include the BDA calcium, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, iodine, vitamin B ₁₂ , iron, zinc, selenium and protein.

The Academy of Nutrition and Diets (AND) believes that “properly planned” vegetarian, including vegan, diets are healthy, nutritionally appropriate, and potentially have health benefits for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. These diets would be suitable for all stages of the life cycle including pregnancy, breastfeeding, infancy, childhood, adolescence, older adulthood, and for athletes. Plant-based diets are more environmentally friendly than diets that are rich in animal products, as they use few natural resources and cause much less damage to the environment. Vegetarians and vegans would be at lower risk of certain health disorders, including coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, certain cancers, and obesity. Characteristics of a vegetarian and vegan diet are a low intake of saturated fatty acids and a high intake of vegetables, fruits, whole grain products, legumes, soy products, nuts and seeds. These are rich in fiber and phytochemicals and lead to lower total and LDL cholesterol levels as well as better control of blood sugar. These factors help reduce chronic diseases. Vegans needed reliable sources of vitamin B ₁₂ such as fortified foods or dietary supplements.

The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council refers to the AND assessment and, like this, regards balanced vegetarian, including vegan diets as healthy and nutritionally adequate. Those who follow a strictly vegetarian or vegan diet could meet the nutritional requirements as long as the energetic needs are met and a suitable variety of plant-based foods are consumed throughout the day. When choosing food, vegans should ensure an adequate supply of iron and zinc and the optimized absorption and bioavailability of iron, zinc and calcium. In addition, vitamin B ₁₂ supplementation may be necessary for vegans .

Vegan foods

Definition and demarcation

The terms “vegan” and “vegetarian” have not yet been defined in a legally binding manner by either national or European legislators . Alternatively, on April 22nd, 2016, the German federal states' conference of consumer protection ministers adopted a legally binding definition. According to this, “vegan” are foods “that are not products of animal origin and in which no ingredients (including additives, carriers, flavors and enzymes) or processing aids or non-food additives are used in the same way and for the same purpose at all stages of production and processing how processing aids are used that are of animal origin, have been added or used in processed or unprocessed form. "

A strict distinction between non-vegan products and purely vegan products is therefore time-consuming due to the diverse uses of substances of animal origin and must include the entire processing chain. So it is for the end user z. For example, it is difficult to see because there is no need to declare whether gelatine is used to filter wines and fruit juices or whether bakeries use animal fats. Food additives can also be of animal origin. Therefore databases and lists of products with non-vegan ingredients are published.

At the European level, the European Parliament defines in a draft: "The term 'vegan' does not apply to foods that are animals or animal products or that are obtained from or with the aid of animals or animal products (including products from live animals) (Draft for an amendment to the “Consumer information on food”, June 16, 2010). In November 2011, Parliament asked the Commission to regulate by regulation which requirements must apply if manufacturers voluntarily state that their product is suitable for vegans. In 2017, the EU Commission announced that it would start implementation in 2019.

Marking and seal

In order to make it clear whether finished products and processed foods are suitable for the vegan diet, non-governmental organizations award seals. Food manufacturers can have products certified for a fee and license these seals. The criteria for awarding the seal are published. In addition, manufacturers themselves advertise products as vegan. There are no state controls for the seals or for the manufacturer-specific labeling.

The V-Label awarded by the European Vegetarian Union excludes:

Meat, fish, seafood or products made from it.
Bones or animal fats, neither as an ingredient nor as an aid.
Ingredients or additives whose animal origin cannot be identified.
Animal substances for clarifying fruit juices, vinegar, wine.
Genetically modified organisms.

In addition, it is required that all ingredients and additives are checked for their properties so that any contact with animal components in the manufacturing process can be excluded.

The V-Label with the addition vegan is an internationally protected brand for labeling vegan products and services.
Registered trademark of the Vegan Society for labeling vegan products. There are also seals from other institutions and manufacturers.
Vegan.org logo for the certification of vegan foods. Mainly used in the United States.

Alternative foods

The global market for vegan foods was around 18 billion dollars in 2018. It is expected to double to $ 31 billion by 2024. One of the main drivers is the higher standard of living of the Chinese middle class and their demand for plant milk. According to analysts, the meat substitute market will grow by 7.9% annually to $ 8 billion in 2026.

soy milk
Almond milk
vegan burger

In the United States, the herbal substitute market grew 29% to $ 5 billion between 2017 and 2020. Plant milk makes up the largest share with $ 2 billion, followed by other milk substitutes with $ 1.4 billion and meat substitutes with $ 939 billion. The market grew most strongly in the egg substitute segment with a plus of 192%.

In the UK, the market for vegan take-away products grew by 388% between 2016 and 2018.

In 2017, the Institute for Alternative and Sustainable Nutrition examined the meat alternatives available on the market and wrote: “In summary, meat alternatives represent a nutritionally favorable alternative to meat and sausage products. They mainly provide high-quality vegetable protein, less fat and saturated fatty acids than original meat products and are practical free of cholesterol. ”However, the salt content is still very high. In 2019, Ökotest tested vegan burger patties and found that many contain genetic engineering and that every second patty is contaminated with mineral oil residues. Promoters of a vegan lifestyle also advise against excessive consumption of highly processed substitute products.

literature

Wilfried Breyvogel (Ed.): An introduction to youth cultures. Veganism and tattoos . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, ISBN 3-8100-3540-8 .

Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 .

Angela Grube: Vegan Lifestyles. Discussed as part of a qualitative / quantitative study . ibidem, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-89821-538-1 .

Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans . ibidem, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-89821-988-4 .

Alexander Nabben : Vegane Schikane, All Respect for Humans, Animals and Plants , Publisher: Packpapier , 2003, ISBN 3-931504-35-2 .

Bernd-Udo Rinas: Veganism. Postmodern anarchism among young people? Archive of Youth Cultures, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-940213-71-6 (Dissertation University of Gießen [2012], 311 pages).

Beate Schmitt: Without milk and without eggs - allergies and lactose intolerance. Recipes and practical tips for everyday family life . 5th edition. Pala, Darmstadt 2007, ISBN 978-3-89566-179-2 .

Thomas Schwarz: Vegan . In: Ronald Hitzler , Arne Niederbacher (Hrsg.): Life in Scenes - Forms of juvenile Vergemeinschaftung today 3rd edition, completely revised . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-531-15743-6 .

Annika Waldmann, Jochen W. Koschizke, Claus Leitzmann, Andreas Hahn: German vegan study: Diet, life-style factors, and cardiovascular risk profile. In: Annals of nutrition & metabolism. Volume 49, Issue 6, Nov. – Dec. 2005, pp. 366-372.

D. Rogerson: Vegan diets: practical advice for athletes and exercisers. In: Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. Volume 14, 2017, p. 36, doi: 10.1186 / s12970-017-0192-9 . PMID 28924423 , PMC 5598028 (free full text) (review).

Emilia Quinn, Benjamin Westwood (Eds.): Thinking Veganism in Literature and Culture. Towards a Vegan Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, London 2018, ISBN 978-3-319-73379-1 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-319-73380-7

Web links

Commons : Vegan Food - Collection of Images

Commons : Veganism - Collection of Images

Wiktionary: Veganism - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Remarks

↑ There was practically no animal liberation movement at the time the book was published. According to Singer, the demand for the liberation of animals is to be understood as a metaphor. He calls for strict non-violence (cf. foreword to the 1990 edition, P. Singer: Democracy and Disobiedence. 1974, Oxford University Press)

↑ Singer does not understand equality as descriptive equality of states, but as a prescriptive norm for mutual treatment. It is formulated for him as an ethical "duty to take comparable account of comparable interests".

↑ Central to Regan's philosophy is the subject-of-a-life criterion (7.5), according to which all animals with preferences, desires, perception, memory, feelings of at least pain and joy , the ability to take actions based on preferences, a psychophysical identity (Chap. 2) and a sense of well-being (Chap. 3) independent of outside interests. According to Regan, this subject quality qualifies for an albeit relative, subjective right (i.e. a legitimate claim in the sense of John Stuart Mill ). Because the subject property is presumed to be discrete , this right can be granted categorically and equally valid for all subjects. Even though Regan allows these rights to be weighed up under certain circumstances, meat consumption (9.1) and other exploitation of animal life (9.5) are generally morally unjustifiable.

↑ Based on and following a characterization of consciousness through sufficient criteria, he formulates a deontological argument that works through the allegedly implicit interests qua consciousness. Regardless of the weighting of interests, in his opinion certain basic requirements (at least the right to life, freedom and integrity within the meaning of Art. 3 UDHR) must be met for the fulfillment of (secondary) interests. By demanding these prerequisites for someone, one has to demand them as a universality principle for everyone who fulfills the same prerequisites, and the formulated “fundamental rights” would become categorical principles.

Individual evidence

↑ Veganism. In: WAHRIG.digital. Wissen Media Verlag, Gütersloh / Munich 2005.

↑ Veganism. In: Duden - German Universal Dictionary. 6th edition. Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2007.

^ Gary Francione in Gary Francione , Robert Garner : The Animal Rights Debate. Abolition Or Regulation? Columbia University Press, 2010, p. 62: “Although veganism may represent a matter of diet or lifestyle for some, ethical veganism is a profound moral and political commitment to abolition on the individual level and extends not only to matters of food but also to the wearing or using of animal products. Ethical veganism is the personal rejection of the commodity status of nonhuman animals, of the notion that animals have only external value, and of the notion that animals have less moral value than do humans. " (Preview on Google Books)

↑ Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz: Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism . ABC-Clio, 2010, p. 242: “Vegans are divided into two subcategories: lifestyle vegans and dietary vegans. Lifestyle vegans eschew all animal products in their diet and life […] Dietary vegans exclude animal products only from their diet. " (Preview on Google Books)

↑ Veganism : "Webster's dictionary provides a most dry and limiting definition of the word vegan: 'one that consumes no animal food or dairy products.' This description explains dietary veganism, but so-called ethical vegans — and they are the majority — carry the philosophy further. ” In: Vegetarian Times. January 1989. (Preview on Google Books)

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 219 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 222 f .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 225 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 226 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 224 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 and 227 .

↑ “One of my earliest memories is a vacation on my uncle Georg's farm, where I was surrounded by many interesting animals. They all "gave" something: the big horse pulled the plow, the little horse pulled the single horse, the cows "gave" milk, the chickens "gave" eggs and the rooster was a useful alarm clock - at that time [as a child] I did not realize that he has another function. The sheep "gave" wool. I couldn't figure out what the pigs “gave”, but they were obviously very friendly creatures - always happy to see me. Then the day came when one of the pigs was killed: I still have vivid memories of the whole process - including the screams, of course. What really shocked me was that my uncle George, who I thought only the best of, was part of the gang. ”In the original:" One of my earliest recollections is of holidays on my Uncle George's farm where I was surrounded by interesting animals They all "gave" something: the farm horse pulled the plow, the lighter horse pulled the trap, the cows "gave" milk, the hens "gave" eggs and the cockerel was a useful "alarm clock" - I didn't realize at that time that he had another function too. The sheep "gave" wool. I could never understand what the pigs "gave", but they seemed such friendly creatures - always glad to see me. Then the day came when one of the pigs was killed: I still have vivid recollections of the whole process - including the screams, of course. One thing that shocked me was that my Uncle George, of whom I thought very highly, was part of the crew. " See George D. Rodger: Interview with Donald Watson - Vegan Founder. December 15, 2012, accessed March 19, 2020 .

^ Colleen Patrick-Goudreau: On Being Vegan: Reflections on a Compassionate Life . Montali Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-615-78721-3 , Chapter 2: Defining Vegan .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 227 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 223-224 .

↑ Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 223 ff .

↑ Leslie Cross: Veganism Defined . In: The Vegetarian World Forum . tape 5 , no. 1 , Spring, 1951, pp. 6-7 ( ivu.org [accessed April 4, 2020]).

^ Colleen Patrick-Goudreau: On Being Vegan: Reflections on a Compassionate Life . Montali Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-615-78721-3 , Chapter 2: Defining Vegan .

^ The Vegan Society: Definition of veganism. 1988, accessed March 19, 2020 .

↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 4th f .

↑ The original name "Plantmilk Ltd" was later changed to "Plamil Foods". See Arthur Ling interviewed by Harry Mather: The Milk of Human Kindness. In: Vegan Views. 1986, accessed March 23, 2020 (Fall 1986). , Archive version

↑ Plamil Foods: C Arthur Ling, 1919-2005. Retrieved March 19, 2020 .

↑ Arthur Ling interviewed by Harry Mather: The Milk of Human Kindness. In: Vegan Views. 1986, accessed March 23, 2020 (Fall 1986). , Archive version

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 26 .

↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 2-3 .

↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 3 .

↑ vegan. In: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Incorporated. Retrieved April 11, 2020 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 32 f .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 12 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 17 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 38 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 66-67 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 74 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 65 f .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 56 ff .

↑ Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 300 ff .

↑ Quoted from: Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 115 ff .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 60-61 .

↑ Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 115 ff .

↑ Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 80 .

↑ Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

↑ Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 82 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 83 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 ff .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 85 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen comes to the verdict “aggressive” and “angry”: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 147 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 147 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 148 .

↑ Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 148-149 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 91 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 94 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 95 .

↑ Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 96 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 98 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 113 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 142 f .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 111 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 116 ff .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 123 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 120 .

↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 123 f .

^ Basic program of the Animal Welfare Party. Animal Welfare Party, accessed June 29, 2018 .

↑ Federal Agency for Civic Education: V-Party³ - Party for Change, Vegetarians and Vegans | bpb. Retrieved September 2, 2017 .
↑ Jerold D. Friedman: Activism and Protest . In: Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz (Ed.): Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism . ABC-CLIO, 2010, ISBN 978-0-313-37556-9 , pp. 2 .
↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 6-7 .
^ American Vegan Society: About AVS. Retrieved March 27, 2020 .
^ American Vegan Society: History. Retrieved March 27, 2020 .
^ American Vegan Society: History. Retrieved March 27, 2020 .
↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 10 .
↑ International Vegetarian Union: 23rd IVU World Vegetarian Congress 1975. Retrieved on March 27, 2020 .
↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 12-13 .
↑ Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 12-14 .
↑ Frances Moore Lappé: The organic diet: how to eat well with little meat and how to protect nature . Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1993.
↑ Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , chapter "From 1933 to the end of the 20th century" .
↑ Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , chapter "From risk to benefit assessment" .
↑ About us. PCRM, accessed April 9, 2020 .
^ Animals in Medical Research. Transitioning From Animals to Human-Relevant Methods. PCRM, accessed April 9, 2020 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 154 .
↑ "Their [PETA] outrageous but effective propaganda was (and still is) disparaged by many, including many vegetarians themselves. (...) Animal rights activism and vegetarian, even vegan, promotion were now seen as one and the same." Rod Preece: Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought . UBC Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-7748-5849-6 , pp. 327 .
↑ Wilfried Breyvogel (Ed.): An introduction to youth cultures. Veganism and tattoos . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2005, p. 131 .
^ Marc Calmbach: More than Music. Insights into the youth culture Hardcore . transcrip, 2007, ISBN 978-3-89942-704-2 , pp. 243 f .
↑ Chris P. Kale, Len Tilbürger: 'Nailing Descartes to the Wall': animal rights, veganism and punk culture. Active Distribution, 2014, accessed March 24, 2020 .
↑ "Veganism had become such a significant part of sXe by the late 1990s that many sXe gave it equal importance to living drug and alcohol free." See Ross Haenfler: Straight Edge: Clean-living Youth, Hardcore Punk, and Social Change . Rutgers University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8135-3852-1 , pp. 53 f .
↑ Ross Haenfler: Straight Edge: Clean-living Youth, Hardcore Punk, and Social Change . Rutgers University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8135-3852-1 , pp. 53 .
↑ Melanie Joy: Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs and Raise Cows: Karnismus - An Introduction . 7th edition. Compassion Media, 2013, ISBN 978-3-9814621-7-3 , pp. 97 ff .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 131 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 131 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 131 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 159 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 162 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 163. On the hype, see also p. 167 ff .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 163 ff .
↑ ProVeg: About us. Retrieved March 26, 2020 .
↑ ProVeg: ProVeg China introduces itself. Retrieved March 26, 2020 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 167 .
↑ "Western societies notice an increasing interest in plant-based eating patterns such as avoiding meat or fish or fully excluding animal products (vegetarian or vegan) (...) Likewise, the number of scientific publications on PubMed (...) and the public popularity as depicted by Google Trends (...) underscore the increased interest in plant-based diets. " Evelyn Medawar, Sebastian Huhn, Arno Villringer, A. Veronica Witte: The effects of plant-based diets on the body and the brain: a systematic review . In: Translational Psychiatry . tape 9 , no. 226 , September 12, 2019, Abstract , doi : 10.1038 / s41398-019-0552-0 . Online "More and more people in Switzerland are eating an exclusively plant-based vegan diet." See p. 6 in: Philipp Schütz: 2018 Vegan diets: review of nutritional benefits and risks. (PDF) Federal Nutrition Commission EEK, 2018, accessed on April 2, 2020 . "Increasing awareness about the environmental consequences of consuming animal products together with recognition of animal rights and health benefits, has played a significant role in the rising interest in veganism." Nick Pendergrast: Environmental Concerns and the Mainstreaming of Veganism . In: Impact of Meat Consumption on Health and Environmental Sustainability . 2016, Abstract , doi : 10.4018 / 978-1-4666-9553-5.ch006 . "Traditionally located on the margins of western culture, veganism has now been propelled into the mainstream". Jodey Castricano, Rasmus R. Simonsen: Critical Perspectives on Veganism . Springer, 2016, ISBN 978-3-319-33419-6 , pp. 1 ff . "Today, vegetarian nutrition has a growing international following. The increase in the number of vegetarians and vegans is attributable to health concerns and is also attributable to ethical, environmental, and social concerns." Claus Leitzmann: Vegetarian nutrition: past, present, future . In: The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition . tape 100 , suppl_1, July 2014, abstract , doi : 10.3945 / ajcn.113.071365 . "To date, vegan diet, ie, the total exclusion of any animal-derived substance is a pattern that is attracting a relevant interest among the general population" Monica Dinu, Rosanna Abbate, Gian Franco Gensini, Alessandro Casini, Francesco Sofi: Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies . In: Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition . tape 57 , no. 17 , 2017, p. 3640 , doi : 10.1080 / 10408398.2016.1138447 . Online Matthew Ruby, Tani Khara: The vegans are coming! What's filling the interest in plant-based eating? The Conversation, October 3, 2019, accessed April 4, 2020 . "The vegan diet ... is ... practiced more and more frequently in the population of the western world." Margit Richter, Heiner Boeing, Dorle Grünewald-Funk, Helmut Heseker, Anja Kroke, Eva Leschik-Bonnet, Helmut Oberritter, Daniela Strohm, Bernhard Watzl: Vegan nutrition. Position of the German Society for Nutrition e. V. (DGE) . In: Nutritional review . tape 63 , no. 04 , 2016, p. 92 , doi : 10.4455 / eu.2016.021 ( ernaehrungs-umschau.de [PDF]). "There was increasing scientific interest in this diet, which is unusual in Western countries." Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , chapter "Introduction" . "Since around the year 2000, the consumption of plant-based foods has become noticeably more popular." Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , chapter "Present" .

↑ Lora Jones: eganism: Why are vegan diets on the rise? BBC, January 2, 2020, accessed April 4, 2020 . "Veganism is rapidly growing globally and Hong Kong is no exception, its local advocates claim, as dabbling in or adopting the plant-based lifestyle gains popularity." Louise Moon: Inside Hong Kong's growing appetite for veganism. Local millennials' values, social media buzz and food scandals all contribute. South China Morning, October 28, 2017, accessed April 4, 2020 . "Save the climate and the animals, and do something for your own health as well: Vegan nutrition was once a niche, today it is a lifestyle - and above all a billion-dollar market". Billions in sales Why the vegan burger is booming. Tagesschau, March 2, 2020, accessed on April 4, 2020 . Vegan Diets Become More Popular, More Mainstream. CBS News, January 5, 2011, accessed April 4, 2020 . From pro athletes to CEOs and donut cravers, the rise of the vegan diet. CBC News, June 4, 2011, accessed April 4, 2020 . “The group of vegans in particular is growing ... the number of vegan cookbooks reflects the development. There were 50 new releases this year, in 2012 there were 23 and before that 12 ". Sabine Dobel: Vegan dishes are the Oktoberfest novelty. Welt, September 27, 2013, accessed April 4, 2020 .

↑ “In 2005, around three percent still lived without meat, today every tenth Austrian describes himself as vegetarian or vegan. (...) Opinion room manager Herbert Kling spoke of a 'boom in veganism or vegetarianism' " . Moral reasons: Every tenth Austrian is a "veggie". Courier, April 19, 2018, accessed April 4, 2020 . “There are more and more people in Austria who renounce meat. According to a current study by meinungsraum.at with 1,000 respondents, these two forms of nutrition are very popular and ten percent of the population are vegetarian or even vegan. Herbert Kling, CEO of meinungsraum.at: 'One could almost speak of a boom in veganism or vegetarianism. 13 years ago it was just three percent of the local population who ate a meatless diet. '” Meinungsraum.at: meinungsraum.at study: Vegans would pay up to 50 percent more for food. APA, April 19, 2018, accessed April 4, 2020 . "Veganism in the US has grown from obscurity to become a mainstream part of the American diet. Since 2004, the number of Americans turning plant-based has reached 9.7 million people, growing from around 290,000 over a period of 15 years." Ipsop Retail Performance: Exploring the explosion of veganism in the United States. 2019, accessed April 4, 2020 .

^ Evelyn Medawar, Sebastian Huhn, Arno Villringer, A. Veronica Witte: The effects of plant-based diets on the body and the brain: a systematic review . In: Translational Psychiatry . tape 9 , no. 226 , September 12, 2019, Abstract , doi : 10.1038 / s41398-019-0552-0 . Online cf. the evaluation for the countries Australia, UK, France, Germany, Russia, Spain, Sweden and USA in: The Economist: Interest in veganism is surging. January 29, 2020, accessed April 4, 2020 . "Interest in a way of life in which people eschew not just meat and leather, but all animal products including eggs, wool and silk, is soaring, especially among millennials." John Parker: The year of the vegan. Where millennials lead, businesses and governments will follow. The Economist, 2019, accessed April 4, 2020 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 106 .
↑ FH Mittelstand: Vegan Food Management Bachelor of Arts (BA). Retrieved March 27, 2020 .
↑ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian and vegan nutrition . 4th, revised edition. UTB, 2020, ISBN 978-3-8252-5023-2 , pp. 71 and info box on page 72 .
↑ Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , chapter "Present" .
↑ From pro athletes to CEOs and donut cravers, the rise of the vegan diet. CBC News, June 4, 2011, accessed April 4, 2020 .
↑ Achim Dreis, Michael Wittershagen: Vegan Athletes: Meatless Success. FAZ, November 3, 2017, accessed April 4, 2020 .
^ Daphne Ewing-Chow: Five Reasons Why Sport Is Going Vegan. Forbes, February 29, 2020, accessed April 4, 2020 .
↑ Ariane Sommer: Cinema documentary about top vegan achievements: Plants make men tough. taz, September 21, 2019, accessed April 4, 2020 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 168 .
↑ Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 131 .
↑ Survey results 2015 to 2019 of the Allensbacher market and advertising media analysis AWA
↑ Meinungsraum.at: Self-study vegans / vegetarians. P. 4, Link: marktmeinungmensch.at as well as: marktmeinungmensch.at Press release: ots.at
↑ Veg survey 2017 - Swissveg. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
↑ In the land of milk and honey, Israelis turn vegan . In: Reuters . July 21, 2015 ( online [accessed April 16, 2016]).
↑ The Realeat Survey, 1984-1995. Conducted by Social Surveys (Gallup Poll)
↑ Find out how many vegans are in Great Britain. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
↑ RJ Reinhart: Snapshot: Few Americans Vegetarian or Vegan
^ Singer: Animal Liberation. HarperCollins Publishers, 2002, pp. 5–9 (English), German: The Liberation of Animals. Hirthammer, Munich 1976.
^ Günther Stolzenberg: Weltwunder Vegetarismus, Munich 1980, p. 164f.
John Lawrence Hill: The Case for Vegetarianism, Lanham 1996, pp. 52-67.
↑ Paul Amato, Sonia Partridge: The New Vegetarians, New York 1989, p. 31 ff. Evaluate an international survey in English-speaking countries in which two thirds of the 320 vegetarians questioned gave reasons of this kind. Such reasons are also frequently mentioned and discussed in the relevant popular literature, e.g. B. Helmut Kaplan: Why vegetarians? Frankfurt 1989, pp. 31 ff., 61 ff.
Axel Meyer: Why no meat? Munich 1990, pp. 79 ff.
Also Leitzmann (1996) pp. 16-21; Live vegetarian. ed. Evangelical Academy Baden, Karlsruhe 1999, p. 12 f, 23-25.
^ Tom Regan: The Case for Animal Rights. University of California Press, 1983.
↑ Critique of Pathocentrism ( Memento of August 13, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), Martin Balluch 2007. Cf. also Martha C. Nussbaum , Belknap Harvard: Frontiers of Justice - Disability, Nationality, Species Membership. 2006. In it she argues that it is not politically justifiable to leave the decision about what is to be considered a good or bad consequence of an action to be left to social institutions of justice.
↑ Balluch Continuity of Consciousness. Guthmann-Peterson, 2003.
^ Richard D. Ryder: Speciesism Again: The original leaflet . In: Critical Society . tape 1 , no. 2 , p. 1-2 ( veganzetta.org [PDF]).
↑ JM Pilcher: The Oxford Handbook of Food History (= Oxford Handbooks ). Oxford University Press, Oxford 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-972993-7 , pp. 464 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
↑ J. Poore, T. Nemecek: Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers. In: Science. published online May 31, 2018, pp. 987–992. doi: 10.1126 / science.aaq0216 (6392) (pdf)
↑ Toni Meier: Environmental protection with knife and fork - The ecological rucksack of nutrition in Germany . oekom Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-86581-462-3 .
↑ Peter Scarborough, Paul N. Appleby, Anja Mizdrak, Adam DM Briggs, Ruth C. Travis, Kathryn E. Bradbury, Timothy J. Key: Dietary greenhouse gas emissions of meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the UK . In: Climatic Change. 125, 2014, pp. 179–192, doi: 10.1007 / s10584-014-1169-1 .
↑ UNEP (ed.); E. Hertwich, E. van der Voet, S. Suh, A. Tukker, M. Huijbregts, P. Kazmierczyk, M. Lenzen, J. McNeely, Y. Moriguchi: Assessing the environmental impacts of consumption and production: Priority Products and Materials. A Report of the Working Group on the Environmental Impacts of Products and Materials to the International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management. 2010, ISBN 978-92-807-3084-5 , pp. 66, 75, 79, 82.
↑ FAO study "Livestock's long shadow" 2006. Chapter 7, p. 271.
↑ UNFCCC: Investment and financial flows to address climate change. 2007, p. 81. (unfccc.int , PDF; 2 MB)
↑ ^a ^b Angela Grube: Vegan Lifestyles. Discussed as part of a qualitative / quantitative study. 3rd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5538-5 , pp. 107-108.
↑ Why Vegan? PETA.de. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on July 1, 2010 ; Retrieved June 29, 2010 .
↑ ^a ^b Why go vegan? The Vegan Society. In: vegansociety.com , (English).
↑ Toni Meier: Environmental protection with knife and fork - The ecological rucksack of nutrition in Germany . oekom Verlag, 2014, ISBN 978-3-86581-462-3 .
↑ Overfishing of the world's oceans. July 6, 2016, accessed May 15, 2020 .
↑ Overfishing worse than previously thought. May 9, 2012, accessed May 15, 2020 .
↑ PETA Appeals: Save the Seas - Don't Eat Fish! People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, accessed May 15, 2020 .
↑ Eating meat means hunger for the world. PETA.de. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on July 1, 2010 ; Retrieved June 29, 2010 .
↑ Edward O. Wilson: The Future of Life. Abacus, 2003, ISBN 0-349-11579-6 .
↑ Christopher L. Delgado : Rising Consumption of Meat and Milk in Developing Countries Has Created a New Food Revolution . In: Journal of Nutritional Sciences. Volume 133, November 2003, pp. 3907S-3910S
^ Robert A. Kanaly, Darryl Macer, Lea Ivy O. Manzanero, Sivanandam Panneerselvam: Energy Flow, Environment and Ethical Implications for Meat Production . (PDF; 527 kB). Bangkok 2009 (Working paper of the Ethics of Energy Technologies in Asia and Pacific (EETAP) working group of UNESCO ).
^ Albert Schweitzer Foundation: Germs in meat and antibiotic resistance
↑ PETA: Intensive animal husbandry only possible through the use of antibiotics
↑ Swissveg: Antibiotics in meat is against the animal protection law
↑ Reducing antimicrobial use in food animals . In: Science . tape 357 , no. 6358 , p. 1350-1352 , doi : 10.1126 / science.aao1495 , PMID 28963240 ( sciencemag.org ).
↑ Christopher A. Hirschler: What Pushed Me over the Edge Was a Deer Hunter. Being Vegan in North America. In: Society & Animals. Vol. 19, 2011, p. 159.
↑ A. Waldmann, JW Koschizke, C. Leitzmann, A. Hahn: Dietary intakes and lifestyle factors of a vegan population in Germany: results from the German Vegan Study . In: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition . tape 57 , p. 947-955 , doi : 10.1038 / sj.ejcn.1601629 ( researchgate.net ).
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Lifestyles. Discussed as part of a qualitative / quantitative study. 3rd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5538-5 , p. 11.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 147, 167, 175.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , p. 173.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 13, 134, 154.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 132, 148, 175-176.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 88, 152, 167.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 152, 159.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 159, 183.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 128, 157, 188.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , pp. 70, 103, 110.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Lifestyles. Discussed as part of a qualitative / quantitative study. 3rd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5538-5 , pp. 89, 90, 92, 98, 101, 102.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Lifestyles. Discussed as part of a qualitative / quantitative study. 3rd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5538-5 , pp. 9, 14, 24, 116.
↑ Federal Institute for Risk Assessment: Vegan Diet as a Lifestyle. Motives and Practice. Final report. Berlin 2017, pp. 11, 33, 58–60.
↑ Angela Grube: Vegan Biographies. Narrative interviews and biographical reports from vegans. 2nd, revised edition. ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-8382-5988-8 , p. 128.
↑ Bio-vegan nutrition at www.lebensmittellexikon.de
↑ Fruganism, Fruitarism on www.lebensmittellexikon.de
↑ Vegan raw food at www.lebensmittellexikon.de
↑ Raw food nutrition at www.lebensmittellexikon.de
↑ John McDougall, Mary McDougall: The High Carb Diet: Lose Weight with the Right Carbohydrates . Riva Verlag, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-86883-577-9 .
↑ Claus Leitzmann: Veganism. Basics, advantages, risks . CH Beck, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-406-72684-2 , section "Forms of vegan nutrition" .
↑ Heike Englert, Alexandra Tölke: Introduction: Vegan Diet - Developments and Aspects of Plant-Based Diet . In: Heike Englert, Sigrid Siebert (ed.): Vegan nutrition . 1st edition. UTB, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8463-4402-6 , section "The Vegans" .
↑ Sigrid Siebert: Vegan Diet . Ed .: Heike Englert, Sigrid Siebert. 1st edition. UTB, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8463-4402-6 , chapter "Nutrient supply in the life cycle of vegan people" .
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Davey et al.: EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non-meat-eaters in the UK. May 2003, doi: 10.1079 / PHN2002430 . PMID 12740075 . (n = 25,765)
↑ A. Waldmann, JW Koschizke, C. Leitzmann, A. Hahn: German vegan study: diet, lifestyle factors, and cardiovascular risk profile. In: Annals of nutrition & metabolism. Volume 49, number 6, Nov-Dec 2005, pp. 366-372, doi: 10.1159 / 000088888 . PMID 16219987 .
^ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian nutrition. 2nd Edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-1868-3 , p. 208.
↑ An elevated cholesterol level - a creeping threat to health. In: DGE-aktuell. 03/2003. ( dge.de ( Memento from October 17, 2013 in the Internet Archive ))
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k C. L. Larsson, GK Johansson: Dietary intake and nutritional status of young vegans and omnivores in Sweden. In: The American journal of clinical nutrition. Volume 76, Number 1, July 2002, pp. 100-106. PMID 12081822 .
↑ DA-CH reference values for nutrient intake. In: DGEinfo. 02/2009. ( dge.de ( Memento from October 17, 2013 in the Internet Archive ))
^ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian nutrition. 2nd Edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-1868-3 , p. 191.
^ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian nutrition. 2nd Edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-1868-3 , p. 203.
^ A. Draper, J. Lewis, N. Malhotra, E. Wheeler: The energy and nutrient intakes of different types of vegetarian: a case for supplements? In: The British journal of nutrition. Volume 69, Number 1, January 1993, pp. 3-19. PMID 8457537 .
^ S. Haldar, IR Rowland, YA Barnett, I. Bradbury, PJ Robson, J. Powell, J. Fletcher: Influence of habitual diet on antioxidant status: a study in a population of vegetarians and omnivores. In: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Volume 61, Number 8, August 2007, pp. 1011-1022, doi: 10.1038 / sj.ejcn.1602615 . PMID 17299498 .
↑ ^a ^b A. Waldmann, JW Koschizke, C. Leitzmann, A. Hahn: Dietary intakes and blood concentrations of antioxidant vitamins in German vegans. In: International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. International journal for vitamin and nutritional research. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition. Volume 75, Number 1, January 2005. PMID 15830918 , pp. 28-36.
^ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian nutrition. 2nd Edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-1868-3 , p. 211.
↑ PH Peeters, N. Slimani et al: Variations in plasma phytoestrogen concentrations in European adults. In: The Journal of Nutrition. Volume 137, Number 5, May 2007, pp. 1294-1300. PMID 17449595 .
^ Claus Leitzmann, Markus Keller: Vegetarian nutrition. 2nd Edition. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-1868-3 , p. 160.
↑ A. Dewell, G. Weidner et al: A very-low-fat vegan diet increases intake of protective dietary factors and decreases intake of pathogenic dietary factors. In: Journal of the American Dietetic Association. Volume 108, Number 2, February 2008, pp. 347-356, doi: 10.1016 / j.jada.2007.10.044 . PMID 18237581 .
↑ CM Weaver, KL Plawecki: Dietary calcium: adequacy of a vegetarian diet. In: Am J Clin Nutr. Vol. 59, 5 Suppl, May 1994, pp. 1238S-1241S. PMID 8172128 full text (PDF; 1.1 MB)
↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e W. J. Craig, AR Mangels; American Dietetic Association: Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets. In: J Am Diet Assoc. Vol. 109, No. 7, July 2009, pp. 1266-1282. PMID 19562864 full text (PDF; 644 kB)
↑ CM Weaver, WR Proulx, R. Heaney: Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. In: Am J Clin Nutr. Volume 70, 3 Suppl, Sep 1999, pp. 543S-548S. PMID 10479229 (full text)
↑ M. Gillooly, TH Bothwell, JD Torrance, AP MacPhail, DP Derman: The effects of organic acids, phytates and polyphenols on the absorption of iron from vegetables . In: British Journal of Nutrition . tape 49 , no. 3 , May 1983, ISSN 0007-1145 , pp. 331–342 , doi : 10.1079 / BJN19830042 ( cambridge.org [accessed February 16, 2020]).
↑ ^a ^b Vegan Diet: Nutrient Supply and Health Risks in Infancy and Childhood. In: DGEinfo. 04/2011. ( dge.de ( Memento from May 12, 2014 in the Internet Archive ))
↑ E. Mantzioris, MJ James, RA Gibson, LG Cleland: Dietary substitution with alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil Increases eicosapentaenoic acid Concentrations in tissues. In: The American journal of clinical nutrition. Volume 59, Number 6, June 1994, pp. 1304-1309. PMID 7910999 .
↑ Gwendolyn Barcel-Coblijn, Eric J. Murphy: Alpha-linolenic acid and its conversion to longer chain n-3 fatty acids: Benefits for human health and a role in maintaining tissue n-3 fatty acid levels. In: Progress in Lipid Research. Volume 48, No. 6, 2009, pp. 355-374, doi: 10.1016 / j.plipres.2009.07.002 .
↑ Tom Saldeen: Allt om Omega-3. 2nd Edition. Swede Health Press, 2008, ISBN 978-91-975950-2-5 .
↑ Peter Clarys, Tom Deliens, Inge Huybrechts, Peter Deriemaeker, Barbara Vanaelst: Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet . In: Nutrients . tape 6 , no. 3 , March 24, 2014, p. 1318–1332 , doi : 10.3390 / nu6031318 ( online [accessed January 16, 2018]).
↑ P. Trumbo, S. Schlicker, AA Yates, M. Poos: Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. In: Journal of the American Dietetic Association . tape 102 , no. 11 , 2002, p. 1621-1630 .
^ Protein in the Vegan Diet - The Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved January 16, 2018 .
↑ Rachel Evtuch, Aneeta Vedula, Solveig Adalsteindottir, Michelle Chellino, Rachel E. Scherr, Sheri Zidenberg: Nutrition and Health Info Sheet: Vegetarian Diets. (PDF) Center for Nutrition in Schools Department of Nutrition University of California, Davis, August 2016, accessed January 16, 2018 .
↑ ^a ^b M. F. Holick: Environmental factors did influence the cutaneous production of vitamin D . In: Am J Clin Nutr. Volume 61, 3 Suppl, 1995, pp. 638S-645S.
↑ P. Urbain, F. Singler, G. Ihorst, HK Biesalski, H. Bertz: Bioavailability of vitamin D2 from UV-B-irradiated button mushrooms in healthy adults deficient in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a randomized controlled trial. In: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Volume 65, 2011, pp. 965-971, doi: 10.1038 / ejcn.2011.53 . DRKS-ID of the study: DRKS00000195
↑ Paul Stamets, fungi.com: Place Mushrooms in Sunlight to Get Your Vitamin D. accessed on April 29, 2014 06.08.2012.
↑ Stacey R. Dunn-Emke, Gerdi Weidner, Elaine B. Pettengill, Ruth O. Marlin, Christine Chi, Dean M. Ornish: Nutrient Adequacy of a Very Low-Fat Vegan Diet. In: Journal of the American Dietetic Association. Volume 105, 2005, pp. 1442-1446, doi: 10.1016 / j.jada.2005.06.028 .
↑ ^a ^b ^c New reference values for vitamin D. In: DGE aktuell. 01/2012. ( dge.de ( Memento from November 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive ))
↑ ^a ^b Crowe et al .: Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans: results from the EPIC-Oxford study. Feb 2011. PMID 20854716
↑ Abdulla et al. a. 1981, Krajcovicova-Kudlackova u. a. 2003.
↑ HJ Lightowler, GJ Davies: Iodine intake and iodine deficiency in vegans as Assessed by the duplicate-portion technique and urinary iodine excretion. In: Br J Nutr. Dec 80, 1998, pp. 529-535. PMID 10211051 .
↑ This also applies to fermented products and algae: "Fermented foods (such as tempeh), nori, spirulina, chlorella algae, and unfortified nutritional yeast cannot be relied upon as adequate or practical sources of B-12.39,40 Vegans must regularly consume reliable sources - meaning B-12 fortified foods or B-12 containing supplements - or they could become deficient, as shown in case studies of vegan infants, children, and adults. " See Vesanto Melina, Winston Craig, Susan Levin: Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. In: Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Vol. 116, No. 12, December 2016, pp. 1970–1980, p. 1972. jandonline.org DOI: 10.1016 / j.jand.2016.09.025 (full text)
↑ Alexandra Jungert, Katharina Quack Lötscher, Sabine Rohrmann: Vitamin substitution in the non-child area. Necessity and Risks. In: Deutsches Ärzteblatt. Volume 117, Issue 1–2, January 6, 2020, pp. 14–22, especially p. 18.
↑ Vivien M. Hodges, Terry RJ Lappin, Susan Rainey, Peter Maxwell: Pathophysiology of anemia and erythrocytosis. In: Critical Reviews in Oncology / Hematology. Volume 64, No. 2, December 2007, pp. 139–158, p. 142. (researchgate.net)
^ Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline: Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid , Biotin, and choline. 1998, p. 528. (ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
↑ the compilation by Jack Norris and the references there to the cases documented in the specialist literature: Vitamin B12 - Individual Cases of Deficiency. 2017, accessed March 11, 2020. (veganhealth.org)
↑ Ibrahim Elmadfa, Ingrid Singer: Vitamin B ₁₂ and homocysteine status among vegetarians: a global perspective. In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Vol. 89, No. 5, 2009, pp. 1693S-1698S. PMID 19357223 , (PDF full text)
↑ "Suggestions online or on social media that vegans do not need extra B12 are not based on evidence, scientists say. Tom Sanders, emeritus professor of nutrition and dietetics at King's College London, said:" Of all the micronutrients, B12 is the one we're most concerned about. I'm concerned many people think B12 deficiency is a myth. "" Cf. BBC: Vegans "need to be aware of B12 deficiency risk". December 18, 2019. bbc.com ; Also here: The Guardian: Doctors warn vegans to take risks of vitamin B12 deficiency seriously. (theguardian.com)
↑ Ibrahim Elmadfa, Ingrid Singer: Vitamin B ₁₂ and homocysteine status among vegetarians: a global perspective. In: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. Vol. 89, No. 5, 2009, pp. 1693S-1698S. PMID 19357223 , (PDF full text)
↑ Newby et al .: Risk of overweight and obesity among semivegetarian, lactovegetarian, and vegan women. In: Am J Clin Nutr. Volume 81, No. 6, Jun 2005, pp. 1267-1274.
↑ Spencer et al .: Diet and body mass index in 38000 EPIC-Oxford meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. Jun 2003. PMID 12833118
↑ Appleby et al .: Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans in EPIC-Oxford. Oct 2002. PMID 12372158 .
↑ Fraser: Vegetarian diets: what do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases? May 2009. PMID 19321569 . PMC 2677008 (free full text).
^ SE Berkow, ND Barnard: Blood pressure regulation and vegetarian diets. In: Nutr Rev. Vol. 63, No. 1, Jan 2005, pp. 1-8. PMID 15730229 .
^ Neil D. Barnard et al.: A low-fat vegan diet improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in a randomized clinical trial in individuals with type 2 diabetes. In: Diabetes Care. Volume 29, No. 8, August 2006, pp. 1777-1783. doi: 10.2337 / dc06-0606 . PMID 16873779 .
^ American Diabetes Association: Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2012. In: Diabetes Care. Volume 35, Suppl 1, January 2012, pp. S11-S63. doi: 10.2337 / dc12-s011 . PMID 22187469 , PMC 3632172 (free full text).
↑ Key et al .: Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. In: Am J Clin Nutr. Volume 70, 3 Suppl, Sep 1999, pp. 516S-524S. PMID 10479225 . PDF full text .
^ ^A ^b Duo Li: Chemistry behind Vegetarianism. In: J. Agric. Food Chem. Vol. 59, 2011, pp. 777-784. PMID 21204526 , doi: 10.1021 / jf103846u , PDF full text .
↑ M. Dinu, R. Abbate, GF Gensini, A. Casini, F. Sofi: Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies. In: Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. Volume 57, No. 17, 2017, pp. 3640-3649. PMID 26853923 . Full text (PDF) .
↑ ^a ^b Appleby et al: Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. Dec 2007. PMID 17299475
↑ Calcium. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
↑ Federal Nutrition Commission (EEK): Review of the nutritional and health advantages and disadvantages of a vegan diet - management summary and recommendations. May 2, 2018, p. 17.
↑ Federal Nutrition Commission EEK: 2018 Vegan diets: review of nutritional benefits and risks. P. 65. (blv.admin.ch)
↑ Federal Nutrition Commission EEK: 2018 Vegan diets: review of nutritional benefits and risks. P. 62. (blv.admin.ch)
^ Margrit Richter, Heiner Boeing, Dorle Grünewald-Funk, Helmut Heseker, Anja Kroke, Eva Leschik-Bonnet, Helmut Oberritter, Daniela Strohm, Bernhard Watzl for the German Society for Nutrition e. V. (DGE): Vegan Nutrition - Position of the German Society for Nutrition e. V. (DGE). In: Ernaehrungs Umschau international. Volume 63, No. 04, pp. 92-102. doi: 10.4455 / eu.2016.021 .
↑ Nutrition Commission of the German Society for Child and Adolescent Medicine (DGKJ), C. Bührer, O. Genzel-Boroviczény, F. Jochum and others: Nutrition of healthy babies. Recommendations of the Nutrition Commission of the German Society for Child and Adolescent Medicine. ( Memento from January 22, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) In: Monthly Pediatric Medicine. 2014, p. 536. doi: 10.1007 / s00112-014-3129-2 .
^ Austrian Nutrition Society (ÖGE): Vegan Nutrition. 2019.
^ British Dietetic Association: Plant-based diet: Food Fact Sheet
↑ Vesanto Melina, Winston Craig, Susan Levin: Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. In: J Acad Nutr Diet. Volume 116, No. 12, Dec 2016, pp. 1970–1980. PMID 27886704 . doi: 10.1016 / j.jand.2016.09.025 . (Full text, PDF) .
^ National Health and Medical Research Council: Australian Dietary Guidelines. ( Memento of August 19, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 2 MB), Canberra 2013, p. 35.
↑ VSMK documents - 2016. VSMK, accessed on July 3, 2017 .
↑ Reasons and goals of the definitions for the terms vegan and vegetarian. (PDF) VSMK, 2016, accessed on July 3, 2017 .
↑ Definitions vegan - vegetarian. (PDF) VSMK, 2016, accessed on July 3, 2017 .
↑ Where funny-frisch, albi and Co. hide animals. foodwatch, November 24, 2016, accessed July 5, 2017 .
↑ List of additives that can be of animal origin. Federal Association of Consumer Centers and Consumer Associations - Bundesverband eV, May 6, 2015, accessed on July 5, 2017 .
↑ The term "vegan" is protected by law ( Memento of June 27, 2010 on WebCite ) In: europarl.europa.eu , Texts adopted, June 16, 2010, consumer information about food, amendment § 175, proposal for a regulation, Article 35 - Paragraph 6 a (new) , accessed on June 27, 2010.
↑ Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on consumer information about food and amending Regulations (EC) No. 1924/2006 and (EC) No. 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Directive 87/250 / EEC of the Commission, Directive 90/496 / EEC of the Council, Directive 1999/10 / EC of the Commission, Directive 2000/13 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Directives 2002/67 / EC and 2008/5 / EC of the Commission and Regulation (EC) No. 608/2004 of the Commission , accessed on February 3, 2016
↑ Niamh Michail: EU to set legal definition of vegetarian and vegan food. Food Navigator, November 3, 2017, accessed April 23, 2020 .
↑ Alwine Kraatz: Vegan foods / functional foods - aspects of food law, labeling and certifications . In: Heike Englert, Sigrid Siebert (ed.): Vegan nutrition . 1st edition. UTB, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8463-4402-6 , section "Food labeling" .
↑ Seal for vegan foods. (PDF) Consumer Center Hamburg e. V., accessed on July 19, 2017 .
↑ Alwine Kraatz: Vegan foods / functional foods - aspects of food law, labeling and certifications . In: Heike Englert, Sigrid Siebert (ed.): Vegan nutrition . 1st edition. UTB, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8463-4402-6 , section "Food labeling" .
↑ Alwine Kraatz: Vegan foods / functional foods - aspects of food law, labeling and certifications . In: Heike Englert, Sigrid Siebert (ed.): Vegan nutrition . 1st edition. UTB, 2016, ISBN 978-3-8463-4402-6 , section "Seals and Symbols" .
↑ Consumer Center Hamburg, information on vegan products
↑ Vegan Food Market by Product Type and Distribution Channel: Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2019-2026 , November 2019, researchandmarkets.com
↑ Himanshu Vig, Roshan Deshmukh: Meat Substitute Market by Product (Tofu-based, Tempeh-based, TVP-based, Seitan-based, Quorn-based, and Others), Source (Soy-based, Wheat-based, Mycoprotein, and Others), Category (Frozen, Refrigerated, and Shelf Stable): Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2019–2026. Allied Market Research, September 2019, accessed March 25, 2020 .
^ Good Food Institute: Plant-based Market Overview. accessed on March 12, 2020, Link: https://www.gfi.org/marketresearch
↑ Study from https://www.britishtakeawaycampaign.co.uk/ ; see. The Guardian: Vegan food becomes UK's fastest growing takeaway - Orders of vegan meals grew 388% between 2016 and 2018, figures show. Link: https://www.theguardian.com/food/2019/aug/28/vegan-food-becomes-uk-fastest-growing-takeaway
↑ Nutritional evaluation of conventionally and organically produced vegetarian and vegan meat and sausage alternatives. (PDF) Study on behalf of the Albert Schweitzer Foundation for our environment. 2017, p. 53 , accessed on March 19, 2020 .
↑ Ökotest: Vegan burger in the test: Every second patty contaminated with mineral oil. Magazine November 2019, https://www.oekotest.de/essen-trinken/Vegane-Burger-im-Test-Jeder-zweite-Patty-verotropigt-mit-Mineraloel_10922_1.html
↑ "[R] it is not good to stick to your old habits and buy lots of packaged plant-based products and junk food and just make sure that it is vegan. When I rave about the health potential of a plant-based diet, I mean it a diet consisting of whole grains, vegetables, fruit, legumes, nuts and seeds and supplemented with algae for iodine requirements, a reliable source of vitamin D and vitamin B12. " Cf. Niko Rittenau & friends: The 1x1 of the vegan diet. P. 7, https: //www.deutschlandistvegan.de,/ Link: https://www.deutschlandistvegan.de/pdf/NikoRittenau&friends_das_vegane_1x1.compressed.pdf

[130] There was practically no animal liberation movement at the time the book was published. According to Singer, the demand for the liberation of animals is to be understood as a metaphor. He calls for strict non-violence (cf. foreword to the 1990 edition, P. Singer: Democracy and Disobiedence. 1974, Oxford University Press)

[131] Singer does not understand equality as descriptive equality of states, but as a prescriptive norm for mutual treatment. It is formulated for him as an ethical "duty to take comparable account of comparable interests".

[1] Veganism. In: WAHRIG.digital. Wissen Media Verlag, Gütersloh / Munich 2005.

[2] Veganism. In: Duden - German Universal Dictionary. 6th edition. Bibliographisches Institut & F. A. Brockhaus AG, Mannheim 2007.

[3] Gary Francione in Gary Francione , Robert Garner : The Animal Rights Debate. Abolition Or Regulation? Columbia University Press, 2010, p. 62: “Although veganism may represent a matter of diet or lifestyle for some, ethical veganism is a profound moral and political commitment to abolition on the individual level and extends not only to matters of food but also to the wearing or using of animal products. Ethical veganism is the personal rejection of the commodity status of nonhuman animals, of the notion that animals have only external value, and of the notion that animals have less moral value than do humans. " (Preview on Google Books)

[4] Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz: Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism . ABC-Clio, 2010, p. 242: “Vegans are divided into two subcategories: lifestyle vegans and dietary vegans. Lifestyle vegans eschew all animal products in their diet and life […] Dietary vegans exclude animal products only from their diet. " (Preview on Google Books)

[5] Veganism : "Webster's dictionary provides a most dry and limiting definition of the word vegan: 'one that consumes no animal food or dairy products.' This description explains dietary veganism, but so-called ethical vegans — and they are the majority — carry the philosophy further. ” In: Vegetarian Times. January 1989. (Preview on Google Books)

[6] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 219 .

[7] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 219 .

[8] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 222 f .

[9] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 225 .

[10] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 226 .

[11] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 .

[12] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 .

[13] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 224 .

[14] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 .

[15] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 221 and 227 .

[16] “One of my earliest memories is a vacation on my uncle Georg's farm, where I was surrounded by many interesting animals. They all "gave" something: the big horse pulled the plow, the little horse pulled the single horse, the cows "gave" milk, the chickens "gave" eggs and the rooster was a useful alarm clock - at that time [as a child] I did not realize that he has another function. The sheep "gave" wool. I couldn't figure out what the pigs “gave”, but they were obviously very friendly creatures - always happy to see me. Then the day came when one of the pigs was killed: I still have vivid memories of the whole process - including the screams, of course. What really shocked me was that my uncle George, who I thought only the best of, was part of the gang. ”In the original:" One of my earliest recollections is of holidays on my Uncle George's farm where I was surrounded by interesting animals They all "gave" something: the farm horse pulled the plow, the lighter horse pulled the trap, the cows "gave" milk, the hens "gave" eggs and the cockerel was a useful "alarm clock" - I didn't realize at that time that he had another function too. The sheep "gave" wool. I could never understand what the pigs "gave", but they seemed such friendly creatures - always glad to see me. Then the day came when one of the pigs was killed: I still have vivid recollections of the whole process - including the screams, of course. One thing that shocked me was that my Uncle George, of whom I thought very highly, was part of the crew. " See George D. Rodger: Interview with Donald Watson - Vegan Founder. December 15, 2012, accessed March 19, 2020 .

[17] Colleen Patrick-Goudreau: On Being Vegan: Reflections on a Compassionate Life . Montali Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-615-78721-3 , Chapter 2: Defining Vegan .

[18] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 227 .

[19] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 223-224 .

[20] Leah Leneman: No Animal Food: The Road to Veganism in Britain . In: Society and Animals . tape 7 , no. 3 , 1999, p. 223 ff .

[21] Leslie Cross: Veganism Defined . In: The Vegetarian World Forum . tape 5 , no. 1 , Spring, 1951, pp. 6-7 ( ivu.org [accessed April 4, 2020]).

[22] Colleen Patrick-Goudreau: On Being Vegan: Reflections on a Compassionate Life . Montali Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-615-78721-3 , Chapter 2: Defining Vegan .

[23] Colleen Patrick-Goudreau: On Being Vegan: Reflections on a Compassionate Life . Montali Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-615-78721-3 , Chapter 2: Defining Vegan .

[24] The Vegan Society: Definition of veganism. 1988, accessed March 19, 2020 .

[25] Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 4th f .

[26] The original name "Plantmilk Ltd" was later changed to "Plamil Foods". See Arthur Ling interviewed by Harry Mather: The Milk of Human Kindness. In: Vegan Views. 1986, accessed March 23, 2020 (Fall 1986). , Archive version

[27] Plamil Foods: C Arthur Ling, 1919-2005. Retrieved March 19, 2020 .

[28] Arthur Ling interviewed by Harry Mather: The Milk of Human Kindness. In: Vegan Views. 1986, accessed March 23, 2020 (Fall 1986). , Archive version

[29] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 26 .

[30] Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 2-3 .

[31] Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 2-3 .

[32] Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 3 .

[33] Joanne Stepaniak: The Vegan Sourcebook . 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-7373-0506-1 , pp. 3 .

[34] vegan. In: Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Incorporated. Retrieved April 11, 2020 .

[35] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 32 f .

[36] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 12 .

[37] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 17 .

[38] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 38 .

[39] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 66-67 .

[40] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 74 .

[41] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 65 f .

[42] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 56 ff .

[43] Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 300 ff .

[44] Quoted from: Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 115 ff .

[45] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 60-61 .

[46] Stefan Bollmann: Monte Verità: 1900 - the dream of an alternative life begins . DVA, 2017, ISBN 978-3-641-15719-7 , pp. 115 ff .

[47] Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 80 .

[48] Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

[49] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

[50] Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 82 .

[51] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 81 .

[52] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 83 .

[53] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 .

[54] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 ff .

[55] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 86 .

[56] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 85 .

[57] Florentine Fritzen comes to the verdict “aggressive” and “angry”: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 147 .

[58] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 147 .

[59] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 148 .

[60] Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 148-149 .

[61] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 91 .

[62] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 94 .

[63] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 95 .

[64] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 95 .

[65] Quoted from Florentine Fritzen: Vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 96 .

[66] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 98 .

[67] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 113 .

[68] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 113 .

[69] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 142 f .

[70] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 111 .

[71] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 116 ff .

[72] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 123 .

[73] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 120 .

[74] Florentine Fritzen: vegetable saints. A story of the vegan life . Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016, ISBN 978-3-515-11429-5 , pp. 123 f .

[75] Basic program of the Animal Welfare Party. Animal Welfare Party, accessed June 29, 2018 .