Song Yingxing

Song Yingxing (Traditional Chinese:宋應星; Simplified Chinese:宋应星; Wade Giles: Sung Ying-Hsing; 1587-1666 AD) was a Chinese scientist and encyclopedist who lived during the late Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). He was the author of an encyclopedia that covered a wide variety of technical subjects, including the use of gunpowder weapons. Comparing him to the famous French encyclopedist, the British sinologist and historian Joseph Needham called Song Yingxing "the Diderot of China."

Biography

Song Yingxing achieved only modest wealth and influence during his life. He was born in 1587 to a gentry family of reduced circumstances. He participated in the imperial examinations, and passed the provincial test in 1615, at the age of 28. However, he was repeatedly unsuccessful in the metropolitan examination. Song sat for the test five times, the last being in 1631 at the age of 44. After this last failure, he held a series of minor positions in provincial government. The works for which Song is known today all date from 1636 to 1637. The repeated trips to the capital to participate in the metropolitan examination likely provided him with the broad base of knowledge demonstrated in the works. Song retired from public life in 1644, after the fall of the Ming dynasty.

Written works

Encyclopedias

Although Song Yingxing's encyclopedia was a significant publication for his age, there had been a long tradition in the history of Chinese literature in creating large encyclopedic works. For example, the Four Great Books of Song compiled much earlier in the 10th and 11th centuries (and all four combined, were much more extensive in size than his work). Just a few decades before Yingxing's work, there was also the Ming Dynasty encyclopedia of the Sancai Tuhui, written in 1607 and published in 1609. Song Yingxing's famous work was the Tiangong Kaiwu (天工開物), or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature, published in May of 1637. The Tiangong Kaiwu is an encyclopedia covering a wide range of technical issues, including the use of various gunpowder weapons. Copies of the book were very scarce in China during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) (due to the government's establishment of monopolies over certain industries described in the book), but original copies of the book were fortunately preserved in Japan.

The technical encylcopedia of the Tiangong Kaiwu was divided into separate chapters with broad overall themes, which included (a) agriculture, irrigation, and hydraulic engineering, (b) sericulture and textile technology, (c) agriculture and milling processes, (d) salt technology, (e) sugar technology, (f) ceramics industry, (g) bronze metallurgy, (h) transportation; ships and carts, (i) iron metallurgy, (j) coal, vitriol, sulfur, and arsenic, (k) oil technology, (l) papermaking, (m) metallurgy of silver, lead, copper, tin, and zinc, (n) military technology, (o) mercury, (p) ink, (q) fermented beverages, (r) pearls and jade. As the historian Joseph Needham points out, the vast amount of accurately drawn illustrations in this encyclopedia dwarfed the amount provided in previous Chinese encyclopedias, making it a valuable written work in the history of Chinese literature. At the same time, the Tiangong Kaiwu broke from Chinese tradition by rarely referencing previous written work. It is instead written in a style strongly suggestive of first-hand experience. In the preface to the work, Song attributed this deviation from tradition to his poverty and low standing.

Agriculture

In the first chapter, The Growing of Grains, Song Yingxing wrote about the great necessity of rural farmers in society, and although they were emulated by tradition, were scoffed at by aristocrats throughout time. Song Yingxing began the chapter with the context of this paragraph in mind:

Master Song observes that, while the existence of the Divine Agriculturalist of antiquity is an uncertain matter, the truth denoted by the two words of his name has existed down to the present day. Man cannot live long without the sustenance of the five grains; yet the five grains cannot grow of themselves; they must depend on man to cultivate them. The nature of the soil changes with time, and the species and properties [of the plants] differ according to the geographic environment. But why was it that the classification and explanation of the numerous varieties of grain had to await the coming of Houzhi, even though a thousand years had elapsed between the time of the Divine Agriculturalist and the Emperor Taotang, during which interval grain was used as food and the benefits of cultivation had been taught throughout the country? It was because the rich men regarded the [farmer's] straw hat and cape as convicts garb, and in aristocratic households the word "peasant" had come to be used as a curse. Many a man would know the taste of his breakfast and supper, but was ignorant of their sources. That the First Agriculturalist should have been called "Divine" is certainly not the mere outcome of human contrivances.

Song wrote about the general terms used in agriculture, saying that the "hundred grains" referred to crops in general, while the "five grains" were specifically sesamum, legumes, wheat, panicled millet, and glutinous millet (rice was not included in this, says Song, because the ancients were only used to the environment of northern China, which was devoid of rice at the time). He wrote about the meticulous and proper cultivation of each crop, as well as how to avoid agricultural disasters in the process.

In aiding the text, he also provided many different drawn illustrations, including a man loosening the soil by ploughing with an ox, soil broken into fine particles by an ox-drawn harrow, men engaging in foot weeding and hand weeding of rice, a vertical waterwheel with hollow wooden cylinders dipping water into an open woodwork tub feeding an irrigation canal, a cylinder-type chain pump powered by a vertical waterwheel placed in a narrow, low-lying stream with a mounted rotating wheel placed at the top of an elevated plane, whereupon the cylinders fed water into an irrigation canal, a wooden river dam correcting the flow of water around a field of crops, a sluice gate controlling the flow of a water channel, a square-pallet chain pump powered by a horizontal waterwheel, connected by an axle to a gear-tooth wheel above, which in turn engaged a vertical gear-tooth wheel, another square-pallet chain pump employing an ox-drawn set of geared wheels, two different types of foot-treadle operated chain pumps, a counterweighted lever for raising or lowering a bucket, a pulley-wheel for raising or lowering a bucket, an ox-drawn plough-seeder with a cone-shaped filter, an ox-drawn pair of stone rollers, used for pressing seeds into the soil, the simpler process of sewing seeds by hand and pressing them into the dirt by foot, and finally, an illustration of men cultivating wheat with broad-headed hoes.

In another chapter, The Preparation of Grains, he also provided illustrations for rolling rice grains with a wooden ox-drawn roller, a crank-operated rotary-fan winnowing machine that separated husks, a hand-operated wooden hulling mill, a hand-operated earthen hulling machine, a process of sieving to separate husk-free grains, two types of foot-operated trip hammers, a hydraulic-powered trip hammer powered by a waterwheel that rotated an axle of overhead cams, a horse-drawn hulling mill, an oxen-drawn grinding mill, a grinding mill operated by a vertical waterwheel, and a rolling mill operated by a horizontal waterwheel, the waterwheel placed in a rushing current found under a wooden deck that rotated the axle of the stone roller above within the interior of a building.

Nautics

The subject of maritime and nautical technology and engineering was discussed extensively by Song Yingxing. In his encyclopedia he wrote this about the stern-mounted steering rudder, which had been known to the Chinese since the 1st century (and here he speaks mostly of fresh-water ships at Poyang Lake and the Grand Canal):

The nature of a ship is to follow water as the grass bends under the wind. Therefore a rudder is constructed to divide and make a barrier to the water, so that it will not itself determine the direction of the vessel's motion. As the rudder is turned, the water turbulently presses on it, and the boat reacts to it. The dimensions of the rudder should be such that its base is level with the bottom of the (inland transport) ship. If it is deeper, even by an inch, a shallow may allow the hull to pass but the stern with its rudder may stick firmly in the mud (thus grounding the vessel); then if the wind is at gale strength that inch of wood will give rise to indescribable difficulties. If the rudder is shorter, even by an inch, it will not have enough turning forces to bring the bows round. The water divided and obstructed by the rudder's strength, is echoed as far as the bows; it is as if there were underneath the hull a swift current carrying the vessel in the very direction desired. So nothing needs to be done at the bows...The rudder is worked by a tiller attached to the top of its post, a 'door-bar' (as the sailors call it). To turn the boat to the north the tiller is thrust to the south, and vice versa...The rudder is made of a straight post of wood [more than 10 ft. long and 3 ft. in circumference for the grain-ships] with the tiller at the top, and an axe-shaped blade of boards fitted into a groove cut at its lower end. This blade is firmly fastened to the post with iron nails, and the whole is fixed (with tackle) to the ship to perform its function. At the end of the stern there is a raised part (for the helmsman) which is also called the 'rudder-house'.

Song Yingxing also wrote of the methods of pearl diving in Guangdong. Song wrote that these divers were able to stay underwater for prolonged periods of time since a secure rope was tied around their waists connected to the ship as they breathed through a long curving pipe that led up above the surface of the water. This long breathing tube was strengthened by rings of tin and fastened to a watertight leather face mask. A drawn illustration of this was provided in his book.

Sulfur and saltpetre

There were many manufacturing processes described in the Tiangong Kaiwu. For example, for roasting iron pyrite in converting sulphide to oxide in sulfur used in gunpowder compositions, the book illustrated how ore was piled up with coal briquettes in an earthen furnace with a still-head that sent over sulfur as vapor that would solidify and crystallize. For the preparation of saltpetre, Song Yingxing wrote:

Saltpetre (solve-stone) is found both in China and in the lands of neighboring peoples, all have it. In China it is chiefly produced in the north and west. Merchants who sell (saltpetre) in the southern and eastern (parts of the country) without first paying for the official certificate are punished for illegal trading. Natural saltpetre has the same origin as common salt. Subterranean moisture streams up to the surface, and then in places near water (e.g. the sea), and where the earth is thin, it forms common salt, while in places near the mountains, and where the earth is thick, it forms saltpetre. Because it dissolves immediately in water it is called solve-stone. In places north of the Yangtze and the Huai rivers, after the mid-Autumn fortnightly period, (people) just have to be at home and sweep the earthen floors on alternate days to collect a little for purifying. Saltpetre is most abundant in three places. That produced in Sichuan is called chuan xiao; that which comes from Shanxi is commonly called yan xiao; and that found in Shandong is commonly called tu xiao.

After collecting saltpetre by scraping or sweeping the ground (as also from walls) it is immersed in a tub of water for a night, and impurities floating on the surface are skimmed off. The solution is then put into a pan. After boiling until the solution is sufficiently concentrated, it is transferred to a container, and overnight the saltpetre crystallizes out. The prickly crystals floating on the surface are called meng xiao and the longer crystals are maya xiao (the amount of these varies with the places where the raw material has been collected). The coarse (powder or crystals) left at the bottom as a residue is called pu xiao.

For purification the remaining solution is again boiled, together with a few pieces of turnip, until the water has evaporated further. This is then poured into a basin and left overnight so that a mess of snow-white (crystals) is formed, and that is called pen xiao. For making gunpowder this ya xiao and pen xiao have a similar effect. When saltpetre is used for making gunpowder, if in small quantity it has to be dried on new tiles, and if in large quantity it should be dried in earthenware vessels. As soon as any moisture has all gone, the saltpetre is ground to a powder, but one should never use an iron pestle in a stone mortar, because any spark accidentally produced could cause an irretrievable catastrophe. One should measure out the amount of saltpetre to be used in a particular gunpowder formula, and then grind it together with (the right amount of) sulfur. Charcoal is only added later. After saltpetre has been dried, it may become moist again if left over a peroid of time. Hence when used in large cannons it is usually carried separately, and the gunpowder prepared and mixed on the spot.

Gunpowder weapons

Many of the gunpowder weapons that Song Yingxing described were similar to those in the Chinese Huolongjing of the earlier 14th century, although there are many noted differences between the two. For example, the Huolongjing described a land mine that was triggered by motion of the enemy above, with a pin release that let down falling weights which would use rope and axle to rotate a flint steel-wheel which in turn sent sparks onto a train of fuses for the mines. It also described an explosive naval mine that was timed by a fuse and sent down river to an enemy ship. However, it was the Tiangong Kaiwu of Song Yingxing that outlined the use of a rip-cord pulled from ambushers hidden on a nearby shore that would trigger the steel-wheel mechanism in producing sparks for the naval mine placed in the river or lake. Song Yingxing also outlined the different types of metals that were preferable in casting different types of handguns and cannons.

Song Yingxing described a 'match for ten thousand armies' bomb as follows:

(When attacks are made upon) the walls of small cities in remote prefectures; if the available guns are too weak to repulse the enemy, then bombs should be suspended (i.e. dropped) from the battlements; if the situation continues to worsen, then the 'match for ten thousand armies' bomb should be employed...The saltpetre and sulfur in the bomb, on being ignited (explode), and blow many men and horses to pieces in an instant. The method is to use a dried empty clay ball with a small hole for filling, and in it are put the gunpowder, including sulfur and saltpetre, together with 'poison gunpowder' and 'magic gunpowder'. The relative proportion of the three gunpowders can be varied at will. After the fuse has been fitted, the bomb is enclosed in a wooden frame. Alternatively a wooden tub, coated on the inside with the sort of clay used for image-making, can be used. It is absolutely necessary to use the wooden framework or the tub in order to prevent any premature breakage as the missle falls (until the gunpowder explodes). When a city is under attack by an enemy the defenders on the walls light the fuse an throw the bomb down. The force of the explosion spins the bomb round in all directions, but the city walls protect one's own men from its effects on that side, while the enemy's men and horses are not so fortunate. This is the best of weapons for the defense of cities.

The historian Needham notes that Song Yingxing must not have been much of a military man with extensive knowledge of martial matters, due to his enthusiasm for this archaic type of bomb that had been used by the Chinese since the Song Dynasty in the 12th century.

Cosmology

Song Yingxing also published two scientific tractates that outline his cosmological views. In these, he discusses the concepts of qi and xing (形). Qi has been described in many different ways by Chinese philosophers. To Song, it is a type of all-permeating vapor from which solid objects (xing) are formed. These solid objects eventually return to the state of qi, which itself eventually returns to the great void. Some objects, such as the sun and the moon, remain in qi form indefinitely, while objects like stones are eternally xing. Some objects, like water and fire, are intermediary between the two forms.

See also

• List of Chinese people
• History of science and technology in China
• Huolongjing
• History of gunpowder
• Gunpowder warfare
• History of agriculture
• History of ferrous metallurgy
• Wang Zhen (official)

References

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
• Song, Yingxing, translated with preface by E-Tu Zen Sun and Shiou-Chuan Sun (1966). T'ien-Kung K'ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.