Persecution of Buddhists

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Many Buddhists have experienced persecution from non-Buddhists during the history of Buddhism. Persecution may refer to unwarranted arrest, imprisonment, beating, torture, or execution. It also may refer to the confiscation or destruction of property, or the incitement of hatred toward Buddhists.

Persecution in Central Asia and China

Sasanids

In 224 CE Zoroastrianism was made the official religion of the Persia, and other religions were not tolerated, thus halting the spread of Buddhism westwards. [1] In the 3rd century the Sassanids overran the Bactrian region, overthrowing Kushan rule,[2] were persecuted with many of their stupas fired.[1] Although strong supporters of Zoroastrianism, the Sasanids tolerated Buddhism and allowed the construction of more Buddhist monasteries. It was during their rule that the Lokottaravada followers erected the two colossal Buddha statues at Bamiyan.[2]

During the second half of the third century, when the Zoroastrian high priest Kirder dominated the religious policy of the state.[2] He ordered the destruction of several Buddhist monasteries in Afghanistan, since the amalgam of Buddhism and Zoroastrianism mainfested in the form of a "Buddha-Mazda" deity appeared to him as heresy.[2] Buddhism quickly recovered, however, after his death.[2]

Hepthalites

Central Asian and North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White Hun invasion who followed their own religions such as Tengri, Nestorian Christianity and Manichean.[2] Around 440 CE they conquered Sogdiana then conquered Gandhara and pushed on into the gangetic plains.[1][2] Their King Mihirkula who ruled from 515 CE suppressed Buddhism destroying monasteries as far as modern-day Allahabad before his son reversed the policy.[2]

Emperor Wuzong of Tang

Emperor Wuzong of Tang (814-846) indulged in indiscriminate religious persecution, solving a financial crisis by seizing the property of Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism had flourished into a major religious force in China during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoyed tax-exempt status. Wuzong closed many Buddhist shrines, confiscated their property, and sent the monks and nuns home to lay life. Apart from economic reasons, Wuzong's motivation was also ideologica. As a zealous Taoist, he considered Buddhism a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society. He went after other foreign religions as well, all but eradicating Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism in China, and his persecution of the growing Nestorian Christian churches sent Chinese Christianity into a decline from which it never recovered.

Persecution by Christians

Vietnam

The roots of this persecution dated at least to 1953, when the first rumors of discrimination against Buddhists surfaced in Vietnam. The allegations stated that Catholic Vietnamese armed by the French had been raiding villages. By 1961, the shelling of pagodas in Vietnam was being reported in Australian and American media[3]

Diem regime

The regime of Ngo Dinh Diem was noted for being anti-Buddhist and for the persecution of and discrimination against Buddhists[4]. Buddhists, who made up 80% of Vietnam's population complained that Buddhists were compelled to convert to Catholicism to gain high positions in the army and civil service.[5]. Catholics held half of the 123 posts in the National Assembly and had forced Buddhists to procure special government permits to hold large meeting, a tactic used generally for trade unions[6]

In May 1963, residents of Hue flew Vatican flags during the arrival of Archbishop Ngo Dinh Thuc (Diem's brother). Three days later however, the government forbade the flying of Buddhist flags on Vesak. After Buddhist protesters clashed with government troops, nine people were killed.[7]

Thích Quảng Đức, a Vietnamese Buddhist monk, burned himself to death in Saigon in 1963. Thích was protesting the oppression of Buddhists led by U.S.-installed Catholic Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm's administration.

Sri Lanka

Buddhists in Sri Lanka were persecuted by Catholics during the fifteen and sixteenth centuries. During the time of the Portuguese many Buddhist temples were destroyed and churches built on top of them. Many Buddhists were forcibly converted to Catholisism. The persecution continued with the Dutch and the British who resorted to change the demographics of Sri Lanka by settling Tamils in the north, east and central part of Sri Lanka.

Under British rule, Christians were openly favoured for jobs and promotions.[8] Robert Inglis, a prominent 19th Century British Conservative, likened Buddhism to "idolatry" during a palriamnetary debate over the relationship of "Buddhist priests" to the British colonial government, in 1852.[9] (Inglis was also an outspoken opponent of Jewish Emancipation).

Persecution by Communists

Tibet

Persecution in India

Persecution under the Sunga Pusyamitra

Pusyamitra Sunga (reigned 185 to 151 BCE) assassinated the last Mauryan emperor Brhadrata in 185 BCE, and subsequently founded the Sunga dynasty. From the mid 3rd century BC, under Ashoka, Buddhist proselytization had begun to spread beyond the subcontinent. Buddhist texts such as the Ashokavadana and Divyavadana, written about four centuries after his reign, they contain accounts of the persecution of Buddhists during his reign. They ascribe to him the razing of stupas and viharas built by Ashoka, the placment of a bounty of 100 dinaras on the heads of Buddhist monks and describe him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka.[10]

Some historians have rejected Pushyamitra' s persecution of Buddhists and the traditional accounts are often described as exaggerated. The Asokavadana legend has been likened to a Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, reflecting the declining influence of Buddhism in the Sunga Imperial court.

Later Sunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.[11]. The decline of Buddhism in India did not set in until the Gupta dynasty.

Persecution by Muslims

Afghanistan

India

Various personages invovled in the revival of Buddhism in India such as Anagarika Dharmapala and the The Mahabodhi Movement of 1890s as well as Dr. B. R. Ambedkar hold the Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of Buddhism in India[12][13][14][15][16]

Muslim conquerors also described Indian Pagans as But-parast, and idol-breakers as but-shikan. The word "but" is derived from the Persian word for Buddha, but was used by subsequent Muslims for "Indian paganism" in general.[17] Therefore in Muslim chronicles it is not always evident if Buddhists, Hindus or other Indian religions are described by term.

In the 7th century Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and though he incorporated Buddhists into the into his administration as governors and is seen as having been welcomed against an unpopular Hindu king, is also noted to have demolished and sacked temples and monasteries and established Muslim rule.[18][19][20]

Around 1000 CE, Turkic, Persian, and Afghan Muslims began major incursions into India through the traditional invasion routes of the northwest. Mahmud of Ghazni (979-1030) established a base in Punjab and raided nearby areas. Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been an iconoclast.[21] Hindu and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and destroyed, and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.[22]

He demolished numerous monasteries alongside temples during his raid across north-western India. In 1193, Qutb-ud-Din, a Turkish commander, seized control of Delhi, leaving defenseless the northeastern territories that were the heart of Buddhist India. The Mahabodhi Temple was almost completely destroyed by the invading muslim forces. [23] One of Qutb-ud-Din's generals, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, invaded Magadha and destroyed the great Buddhist shrines at Nalanda. [24] The Buddhism of Magadha suffered a tremendous decline under Khilji. [25]

Muhammad of Ghor attacked the North-Western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times. Gujarat later fell to Muhammad of Ghor's armies in 1197. Muhammad of Ghor's armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great Buddhist university of Nalanda. [26]

In 1200 Muhammad Khilji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies, such as the one at Vikramshila. Many monuments of ancient Indian civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including Buddhist sanctuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and South India. [27]

In 1215, Genghis Khan conquered Gandhara. In 1227, after his death, his conquest was divided. Chagatai then established the Chagatai Khanate, where his son Arghun made Buddhism the state religion. At the same time, he came down harshly on Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was succeeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who converted to Islam and in 1295 changed the state religion. After his reign, and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate, little mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can be found in Afghanistan and Central Asia.[28]

Timur was a 14th-century warlord of Turco-Mongol descent [29][30][31][32], conqueror of much of Western and central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire.

Timur destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which Buddhism had flourished. [33][34]

Mughal rule also contributed to the decline of Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques.[35] Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb destroyed Buddhist temples and monasteries and replaced them with Islamic mosques. [36]

Persecution in Kashmir and Ladakh

The Ladakh Buddhist Association has said: “There is a deliberate and organised design to convert Kargil’s Buddhists to Islam. In the last four years, about 50 girls and married women with children were taken and converted from village Wakha alone. If this continues unchecked, we fear that Buddhists will be wiped out from Kargil in the next two decades or so. Anyone objecting to such allurement and conversions is harassed."[37][38]

In 1989, there were violent riots between Buddhists and Muslims, provoking the Ladakh Buddhist Council to call for a social and economic boycott of Muslims, which was lifted in 1992.

References

  1. ^ a b c Ehsan Yar-Shater, The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge University, 1983, ISBN 0521246938 pg. 860-861
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Alexander Berzin, Historical Sketch of Buddhism and Islam in Afghanistan and Buddhists, November 2001, Online Article from the Berzin Archives. accessed 3 January 2007
  3. ^ Errors Escalated Too NY Times Books - May 16, 1965.
  4. ^ Vietnam at 25 - CNN
  5. ^ The Religious Crisis (Page 1) TIME - Jun. 14, 1963
  6. ^ The Buddhist Crisis (Page 2) TIME - July 26, 1963
  7. ^ The Religious Crisis (Page 2) TIME - Jun. 14, 1963
  8. ^ http://www.buddhanet.net/sacred-island/kelaniya.html
  9. ^ Hansard, 3rd Series, cxxiii, 713–714.
  10. ^ Ashok Kumar Anand, "Buddhism in India", 1996, Gyan Books, ISBN 8121205069, pg 91-93
  11. ^ Akira Hirakawa, Paul Groner, "A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana", Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996, ISBN 8120809556 pg 223
  12. ^ A Close View of Encounter between British Burma and British Bengal
  13. ^ The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 205)
  14. ^ The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 58)
  15. ^ The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi: And Other Essays, Philosophical and Sociological By Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia (page 483)
  16. ^ (B.R. Ambedkar: Writings and Speeches, vol.3, p.229-230.)
  17. ^ Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.119, 120. Koenraad Elst: Who is a Hindu. 2001
  18. ^ Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.158
  19. ^ Nicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES, Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006[1]
  20. ^ Elliot & Dowson: History of India, vol.1, p.158
  21. ^ Notes on the Religious, Moral, and Political State of India Before the Mohammedan Invasion:... By Faxian, Sykes (William Henry) pg.??
  22. ^ How to Prepare for the Sat II: World History By Marilynn Hitchens, Heidi Roupp, pg. ??
  23. ^ The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 205)
  24. ^ The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 8)
  25. ^ The Maha-Bodhi By Maha Bodhi Society, Calcutta (page 205)
  26. ^ Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions By C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren page 381
  27. ^ Islam at War: A History By Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda (page 226)
  28. ^ The Ilkhanate
  29. ^ B.F. Manz, "Tīmūr Lang", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition, 2006
  30. ^ The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, "Timur", 6th ed., Columbia University Press: "... Timur (timoor') or Tamerlane (tăm'urlān), c.1336–1405, Mongol conqueror, b. Kesh, near Samarkand. ...", (LINK)
  31. ^ "Timur", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... [Timur] was a member of the Turkic Barlas clan of Mongols..."
  32. ^ "Baber", in Encyclopaedia Britannica: "... Baber first tried to recover Samarkand, the former capital of the empire founded by his Mongol ancestor Timur Lenk ..."
  33. ^ Sir Aurel Stein: Archaeological Explorer By Jeannette Mirsky
  34. ^ Ethnicity & Family Therapy edited by Nydia Garcia-Preto, Joe Giordano, Monica McGoldrick
  35. ^ War at the Top of the World: The Struggle for Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Tibet By Eric S. Margolis page 165
  36. ^ India By Sarina Singh
  37. ^ Tundup Tsering and Tsewang Nurboo, in: “Ladakh visited”, Pioneer, 4/12/1995.
  38. ^ http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000113/j&k.htm#2

Further reading

External links

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