Barbarian state
As Barbary States , the States were in as the 16th and early 19th century barbarism designated region, including the Sultanate of Morocco and the Ottoman regencies Algiers , Tunis and Tripoli , respectively. The main source of income for the barbarian states was piracy and the associated kidnapping , slave trade and ransom , which is why these states were also referred to as pirate or pirate states. According to modern estimates, around 1.25 million people were enslaved in the barbarian states between 1530 and 1780, most of them through raids on the coasts of Italy, Spain and Portugal. The number is roughly one tenth of the transatlantic slave trade . The classification as a pirate state was decisive for the question of international law as to whether the rules of international martial law should apply to it or not.
history
After the Spaniards had conquered the last Muslim kingdom in Western Europe with the Emirate of Granada in 1492 , Moriscos who had fled from Spain settled in the Maghreb. Together with local Arabs and Moors, they equipped large fleets and began a permanent war against the Christian Mediterranean powers, especially against their shipping and coasts, as corsairs from their base in North Africa . Piracy , which had been widespread in the Mediterranean region for centuries, experienced a huge boom. The barbares soon advanced into the power vacuum that resulted from the persistent phase of weakness of the regional Muslim ruling dynasties ( Merinids , Wattasids in Morocco, Abdalwadids [Zay (y) anids] in Algeria , Hafsids in Tunisia ). Torn by internal power struggles and conflicts with restless Bedouin and Berber tribes, these had slipped into a state of state disintegration.
The raids of the Muslim corsairs over the next centuries led to the coasts of Ireland (1631) and even Iceland (1627), where they abducted inhabitants from coastal villages and towns and later sold them as slaves . The most frequent target of the slave raids, however, were the coasts of Italy , Spain and Portugal . All barbarian states (and their powerful fleets) soon came under the control of the Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman expansion took place partly through conquest and partly through voluntary submission. In 1518, for example, the most famous corsair leader, Khair ad-Din Barbarossa , submitted to the protection of the Sultan as soon as he forcibly rose to become ruler of Algiers. He became the overlord of North Africa (with the exception of Morocco) around the middle of the 16th century. Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli were formally Ottoman provinces, but became effectively independent again at the beginning of the 18th century.
Already at this time, the ongoing state of war with the Christian-Western states could only be justified religiously with difficulty ( jihad ). Rather, this permanent state served as the formal legitimacy of international law in the war allowed privateering ; After all, piracy was their most important source of income until the fall of the barbarian states in the 19th century. That is why there were repeated European and later US interventions.
A marginal event of this conflict was the peace treaty between the young United States and the Islamic Tripoli in 1797. Its historical significance lies in the fact that the United States stated in the text of the treaty (Article 11) that the United States government “is not in any way based on the Christian religion is based ", which was an unprecedented innovation in the European cultural area at the time. This text of the treaty, ratified by the US Senate, is still used today by secular-minded Americans against the weakening of the separation of church and state .
Wars and military operations against the barbarian states
Conflicts of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries between European naval powers and the barbarian corsairs usually culminated in the shelling of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli by European war fleets, the destruction of the pirate fleets in these ports and the forced release of European slaves and hostages. English, French and Dutch ships bombed Tripoli ten times between 1655 and 1727, before the French destroyed the city and almost the entire Tripolitan fleet in the bombardment of 1728 . The British, Dutch and French navies appeared twice before Tripoli between 1661 and 1665 alone. Tunis was the target of French, Venetian and Spanish attacks six times between 1661 and 1792. Algiers was attacked six times by the English and French navies between 1622 and 1688 and six times by the Dutch between 1662 and 1729. Between 1770 and 1773 the Danes appeared three times, from 1775 to 1784 the Spaniards three times before Algiers. In 1816 a British-Dutch squadron destroyed the Algerian fleet in the port when it bombed Algiers . The USA, Portugal, Naples-Sicily, Sardinia and Malta also undertook punitive expeditions.
Occasionally the wars against Moroccan corsairs are counted among the naval operations. The parallel and almost simultaneously ending wars of the British on the pirate coast (1801, 1809, 1818 and finally 1819 destruction of the pirate fleet in the port of Ra's al-Khaimah ) and on the Arabian Sea (occupation of Aden in 1839 ) are not included.
The piracy from the barbarian states ended only after
- In 1827 France began to block the port of Algiers
- 1830 France conquered Algeria
- In 1835 the Ottoman Empire placed Tunis and Tripoli under stronger direct administration.
- In 1844 France also forced Morocco to stop pirate activities
Overview of the military conflicts
In the interest of a functioning sortability of the table, England and Great Britain have been combined under "England / Great Britain".
year | Sea power | Barbarian state | annotation |
---|---|---|---|
1620-1621 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | |
1622 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | |
1655 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | |
1661 | France | Algiers | |
1661-1667 | Spain | Algiers | |
1662 | Netherlands | Algiers | |
1663 | France | Algiers | |
1665 | France | Algiers | |
1669 | Netherlands | Algiers | |
1670 | Netherlands | Algiers | joint intervention with England |
1670 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | joint intervention with the Netherlands |
1670-1672 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | |
1672-1673 | Spain | Algiers | |
1679-1680 | Netherlands | Algiers | |
1681-1682 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | |
1682 | France | Algiers | Bombing of Algiers |
1683-1684 | France | Algiers | Bombing of Algiers from July 26th to 27th, 1683, followed by a blockade |
1683 | Spain | Tripoli | |
1685 | France | Tripoli | |
1687-1688 | France | Algiers | |
1689-1694 | Spain | Algiers | |
1708-1709 | Spain | Algiers | Algerians conquer the Spanish base of Oran |
1715-1729 | Netherlands | Algiers | |
1732 | Spain | Algiers | Spaniards recapture Oran |
1770 | Denmark | Algiers | |
1772 | Denmark | Algiers | |
1773 | Denmark | Algiers | |
1774-1777 | Venice | Tunis | Bombardment of Sousse, Bizerta and La Goulette |
1775 | Spain | Algiers | |
1783 | Spain | Algiers | |
1784 | Spain | Algiers | joint intervention with Malta, Naples-Sicily and Portugal |
1784 | Portugal | Algiers | joint intervention with Malta, Naples-Sicily and Spain |
1784 | Malta | Algiers | joint intervention with Portugal, Naples-Sicily and Spain |
1784 | Naples-Sicily | Algiers | joint intervention with Malta, Spain and Portugal |
1788 | England / Great Britain | Morocco | Blockade of the ports of Tetouan and Larache |
1791-1792 | Spain | Algiers | Algerians recapture Oran |
1805 | France | Algiers | Jérôme Bonaparte forces the release of French and Italian hostages, template for The Italian in Algiers |
1812-1815 | United States | Algiers | American-Algerian War |
1816 | Netherlands | Algiers | joint intervention with Great Britain, bombing of Algiers |
1816 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | joint intervention with the Netherlands, bombing of Algiers |
1824 | England / Great Britain | Algiers | British blockade of Algiers |
1827-1830 | France | Algiers | Blockade and conquest of Algiers, Bone and Oran |
1609 | Spain | Tunis | joint intervention with France |
1609 | France | Tunis | joint intervention with Spain |
1661-1667 | Spain | Tunis | |
1666 | France | Tunis | |
1670-1672 | France | Tunis | |
1682-1692 | Venice | Tunis | |
1741-1742 | France | Tunis | |
1768-1770 | France | Tunis | |
1784-1786 | Venice | Tunis | Bombardment of Sousse, Sfax and La Goulette |
1789-1792 | Venice | Tunis | |
1800 | Denmark | Tunis | |
1818 | France | Tunis | joint intervention with Great Britain |
1818 | England / Great Britain | Tunis | joint intervention with France |
1655 | England / Great Britain | Tripoli | |
1661 | France | Tripoli | joint intervention with Venice and Malta |
1661 | Venice | Tripoli | joint intervention with France and Malta |
1661 | Malta | Tripoli | joint intervention with Venice and France |
1662 | Netherlands | Tripoli | |
1663 | England / Great Britain | Tripoli | |
1670 | Netherlands | Tripoli | |
1675-1676 | England / Great Britain | Tripoli | The English lead the Tripolitan fleet away. |
1680-1681 | France | Tripoli | |
1685 | France | Tripoli | |
1715 | Netherlands | Tripoli | |
1716 | England / Great Britain | Tripoli | |
1728-1729 | France | Tripoli | Bombing of Tripoli (1728) |
1731 | France | Tripoli | |
1797 | Denmark | Tripoli | |
1800-1805 | United States | Tripoli | American-Tripolitan War |
1802 | Sweden | Tripoli | Peace agreement with French mediation |
1803 | Netherlands | Tripoli | |
1825 | Sardinia | Tripoli | |
1828 | Naples-Sicily | Tripoli | |
1830 | France | Tripoli | |
1629 | France | Morocco | Bombing of Salé |
1765 | France | Morocco | Bombardment of the ports of Larache, Salé and Rabat |
1828 | England / Great Britain | Morocco | Blockade of Tangers |
1829 | Austria | Morocco | Bombardment of the cities of Larache, Asilah and Tétouan |
1844 | France | Morocco | Bombardment of the ports of Tangier and Mogador |
See also
- American-Tripolitan War
- Second barbarian war
- History of piracy
- Mediterranean slave trade
- Slavery in Islam
- Peace and Friendship Treaty of Algiers
literature
- Salvatore Bono: Pirates and Corsairs in the Mediterranean. Naval War, Trade, and Slavery from the 16th to 19th Centuries. Klett Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-608-94378-8 .
- Stephen Clissold: The barbary slaves. Edition Elek, London 1977, ISBN 0-236-40084-3 .
- Robert C. Davis: Christian slaves, Muslim masters. White slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Basingstoke [u. a.] 2003.
- Joerg M. Mössner: The international legal personality and the international legal practice of the barbarian states (Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis 1518–1830) ( New Cologne jurisprudential treatises. 58). De Gruyter, Berlin 1968.
- Daniel Panzac: Barbary corsaires. The end of a legend 1800-1820. Suffering a.] 2005.
- Adrian Tinniswood: Pirates of Barbary. Corsairs, Conquests, and Captivity in the Seventeenth-Century Mediterranean. Riverhead Books, New York 2010, ISBN 978-1-59448-774-3 .
- Godfrey Fisher: Barbary Legend: War, Trade, and Piracy in North Africa, 1415-1830. Oxford 1957.
- Magnus Ressel: Between slave coffers and Turkish passports. Northern Europe and the barbarians in the early modern period. De Gruyter, Berlin / Boston, 2012, ISBN 978-3-11-028249-8 .
- Barbary Pirates . In: Encyclopædia Britannica . 11th edition. tape 3 : Austria - Bisectrix . London 1910, p. 383–384 (English, full text [ Wikisource ]).
Web links
- WHKMLA: List of Wars of Tripolitania
- WHKMLA: List of Wars of Algeria
- WHKMLA: List of Wars of Tunisia
- Virtual exhibition (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ bbc.co.uk
- ↑ Petra Minnerop: Pariah States in International Law? Berlin / Heidelberg / New York 2004, p. 36.
- ↑ baltimore.ie
- ↑ About Iceland ( Memento from September 23, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Treaty of Peace and Friendship, Signed at Tripoli November 4, 1796