Bombing of Algiers (1816)
British and Dutch ships shelling Algiers
(painting by Martinus Schouman)
| date | August 27, 1816 |
|---|---|
| place | Algiers , Algeria |
| Casus Belli | Deys' refusal to abandon the enslavement of Christians |
| output | British-Dutch victory |
| consequences |
|
| Parties to the conflict | |
|---|---|
|
Reign of Algiers |
|
| Commander | |
|
Omar Pasha Dey |
|
| Troop strength | |
| 17,000 soldiers (including 11,000 Zouaves and 6,000 Janissaries ), 5 frigates, 4 corvettes, 1 brig, 1 galley, 37 sloops |
 6 ships of the line, 4 frigates, 5 brig sloops, 4 bombards, 55 sloops, 5 frigates, 1 corvette
 |
| losses | |
|
2,000 to 5,000 losses (including 300 to 2,000 dead) |
818 (128 dead, 690 wounded) 65 (13 dead, 52 wounded) Total: 883 (141 dead, 742 wounded) |
On August 27, 1816, a British fleet under the command of Admiral Edward Pellew and a Dutch fleet bombed Algiers , which resulted in the abolition of the enslavement of Christians in prison. The rulers of Tunis and Tripoli were able to obtain approval for the termination of this practice through diplomatic channels in advance.
prehistory
Since the 17th century, it was common practice in the barbarian states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli to authorize private seafarers ( barbarian corsairs ) to capture the merchant ships of those states with which they were at war. In return, part of the prize (booty) had to be transferred to the state. This practice ( piracy ) was recognized by all maritime powers as a legitimate means under international law until the Paris Declaration of the Law of the Sea was signed on April 16, 1856, and must be distinguished from piracy . However, the crew of the hijacked ships were also considered prey and enslaved. The only option left for the states of the affected occupations was to force the release of their citizens or to buy them out.
Relations between the United Kingdom and the barbaric states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli had been largely peaceful since the late 17th century. The barbarian states respected the treaties concluded with the United Kingdom, so that British merchant ships were spared from being captured. The United Kingdom was one of the few states that did not have to pay tribute to the barbarian states in order to maintain the state of peace and were permanently diplomatically represented there by consuls .
First expedition by Admiral Pellew
In the spring of 1816 Edward Pellew (since 1814 Lord Exmouth ), the commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet, was commissioned with a diplomatic mission to the barbarian states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. The Congress of Vienna had created new political conditions: The barbarian states were to be informed that the Ionian Islands and the Kingdom of Hanover were now part of the British Empire. Enslaved Ionians - as now British citizens - should be released. In addition, peace treaties were to be concluded with the barbarian states in the name of the kingdoms of Naples and Piedmont-Sardinia and their enslaved citizens ransomed.
Pellew and his fleet reached Algiers on March 24th and Tunis on April 12th. Due to a translation error, the ruler of Tunis was asked to end the enslavement of all Christians, which the ruler of Tunis surprisingly agreed to after consulting his Dīwān . Because of this success, Pellew made the same request to the ruler of Tripoli, who also consented. On April 20, Pellew was ordered to sail to Algiers again to protest against a recently signed treaty between the United States and Algiers that was detrimental to the United Kingdom. Pellew took the opportunity to call on the ruler of Algiers, Omar Pascha , for a definitive end to the enslavement of Christians. However, Omar refused to accept and held Pellew off by declaring that he had to consult the Ottoman Sultan - his nominal overlord - beforehand. Pellew finally accepted the delay and provided a British trading frigate to transport the Algerian delegation to Constantinople. Pellew thus ended his expedition and left Algiers for England on May 20, 1816. He passed the command of the British Mediterranean Fleet to Vice Admiral Charles Penrose .
Bona massacre
During the negotiations there was a heated argument between Pellew and Omar on May 16, to which both reacted impulsively: Omar sent couriers to Oran and Bona with orders to arrest all British citizens there, while Pellew gave the signal that the ships were in position for a bombing of the city, which could not be carried out due to bad wind conditions. The situation eased and negotiations resumed and concluded on May 19 through Pellew's brother, Rear Admiral Israel Pellew . Omar apologized for the order and sent couriers to revoke it. However, they did not reach their destination in time, and so there was a massacre in Bona on May 23, 1816 . In 1807 the United Kingdom received the right to fish for corals there from the ruler of Algiers . Instead of fishing themselves, however, licenses were given to Italian fishermen. May 23, 1816 was Ascension Day , which is why many fishermen were ashore when they were arrested by Algerian soldiers. The British Vice Consul and 200 to 300 Italians were murdered.
Second expedition by Admiral Pellew
News of the Bona massacre shocked the British public and convinced the British government to send a new expedition to end the enslavement of Christians in Algiers by all means. Admiral Pellew was again entrusted with the command. The fleet put together for this purpose, consisting of 25 ships, left Portsmouth on July 25, 1816 and reached Gibraltar on August 9. A Dutch fleet of 6 ships anchored there under the command of Vice Admiral Theodorus Frederik van Capellen . Since regaining independence from France in 1814 as a result of the Congress of Vienna , Dutch ships have been subject to piracy by Algerian corsairs, as the Netherlands refused to resume the annual tribute payments to Algiers set out in the peace treaty (last confirmed in 1794). However, van Capellen's fleet proved too weak to enforce Dutch interests, which is why he and his fleet were waiting for reinforcements in Gibraltar. Van Capellen took the opportunity and suggested that Pellew conduct their expeditions together, which Pellew accepted. The stay in Gibraltar was used for exercises, retrofitting and planning.
The HMS Prometheus was sent ahead to evacuate the British Consul General Hugh McDonell from Algiers . The venture failed, however, and McDonell and 18 crew members were arrested. After the captain of the Prometheus had unsuccessfully protested to Omar Pascha against the arrest, he sailed from Algiers to rejoin the fleet.
The Anglo-Dutch fleet left Gibraltar on August 14th and reached Algiers on the morning of August 27th. At around 11:00 a.m. Pellew sent Omar Pascha a letter with the following demands:
- Abolition of Christian slavery
- Extradition of all Christian slaves
- Repayment of the ransom that the kingdoms of Naples and Piedmont-Sardinia had paid for the ransom of their enslaved citizens in the spring of 1816
- Peace treaty with the Netherlands
- Release of the captured crew members of the HMS Prometheus and the Consul General McDonell
Pellew threatened to bomb the city if claims are not accepted within three hours. Omar Pascha let the deadline pass, whereupon Pellew gave the signal for the attack.
Starting position
British-Dutch fleet
| Great Britain | Netherlands | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ships of the line |
HMS Queen Charlotte (100) ( FF ) HMS Impregnable (98) HMS Albion (74) HMS Minden (74) HMS Superb (74) HMS Leander (50) |
- | 6 (470) |
| Frigates |
HMS Glasgow (40) HMS Severn (40) HMS Granicus (36) HMS Hebrus (36) |
Melampus (40) (FF) Amstel (40) Diana (40) Frederika Sophia Wilhelmina (40) Dageraad (30) |
9 (342) |
| Brig- sloops , corvettes |
HMS Heron (18) HMS Mutine (18) HMS Prometheus (16) HMS Britomart (10) HMS Cordelia (10) |
Eendrag (18) | 6 (90) |
| Bombardment ships |
HMS Belzebub (12) HMS Fury (12) HMS Infernal (12) HMS Hecla (12) |
- | 4 (48) |
| Total | 19 (742) | 6 (208) | 25 (950) |
(Note: The information on the number of cannons varies slightly in the literature. The above information is taken from the following source: William Laird Clowes : The Royal Navy - A History from the earliest times to the present, Volume VI . London 1901. Page 227. )
In addition, the following ships not actively involved in the bombing belonged to the British fleet: the schooner HMS Express (8) (supply ship to HMS Queen Charlotte ), the Hoy , HMS Falmouth (8) and three transporters ( Trafalgar , Maria and Friends ). In addition, the fleet resulted in a Gibraltar to Brander retrofitted saver and 55 Schaluppen , 37 with guns, mortars and 10 with 8 of which Congreve missile launchers have been equipped with. These sloops (so-called battering vessels ) were combined into a flotilla during the bombing , which was commanded by Frederick Thomas Michell .
Originally part of the British expedition fleet but not sailed to Algiers were the brig sloop HMS Jasper (10), which sailed back from Gibraltar to England on August 14 to transport reports, and the brig sloop HMS Saracen (18), who stayed in Gibraltar.
Algiers
The Algerian fleet anchored in the port had a total of 337 to 361 cannons and consisted of 5 frigates (4x44-50, 1x38), 4 corvettes (1x30, 1x26, 1x22, 1x20), a brig (20) and a galley (5) . In addition, 37 sloops were available to protect the harbor, equipped with cannons or mortars.
course
When the Dey responded with cannon shots to Exmouth's demands, the Anglo-Dutch fleet began shelling the fortress, port and town. Algerian batteries initially fired back violently. However, the fortress artillery and the Algerian fleet lying in the harbor were destroyed by the six-hour bombardment, and almost half the city and its storage facilities were destroyed. The townspeople struggled desperately, but the Janissaries urged the Dey to give up.
consequences
Numerous Algerian civilians were killed in the bombing. On August 28, 1816, an agreement was reached through which the Dey promised to abandon slavery forever. In the reign of Algiers, all remaining Christian slaves, a total of 1,211, were released, 1,083 of which were in the city of Algiers and its surroundings alone. The majority was brought to their homeland by the two transport ships. Under pressure from Pellew, Tunis and Tripoli also released the remaining Christian slaves into freedom. Pellew's expeditions freed 1,642 Christian slaves in the reign of Algiers alone and 3,003 in all three reigns.
However, the bombing of Algiers did not end the piracy. Omar Pascha was overthrown by the Janissaries, and in 1817 Algerian pirates again attacked ships in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and even in the North Sea. Spain and the Italian states continued to pay tributes to Algiers. In 1824 a British squadron under Admiral Neale fired again at Algiers.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Daniel Panzac: Barbary Corsairs. The End of a legend 1800-1820. Brill, Leiden and Boston 2005. p. 282.
- ^ Alan G. Jamieson: Lords of the sea. A History of the Barbary Corsairs. Reaction Books, London 2012. p. 205.
- ↑ Daniel Panzac: Barbary Corsairs. The End of a legend 1800-1820. Brill, Leiden and Boston 2005. p. 287.
literature
Experience reports
Abraham Salamé accompanied the British fleet as an interpreter and translator. Frederick Thomas Michell commanded the British cannon, mortar and rocket launcher boat flotilla during the battle.
- Abraham Salamé: A Narrative of the expedition to Algiers in the year 1816 . London 1819. (Digitized: online )
- Frederick Thomas Michell : Personal Recollections of the Expedition to Algiers in August 1816 . Totnes 1865. (Digitized: online )
Secondary literature
- William Laird Clowes : The Royal Navy - A History from the earliest times to the present, Volume VI . London 1901. pp. 226-231. Digitization: online
- Gregory Fremont-Barnes: Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the shores of Tripoli: The birth of the US Navy and Marines . Osprey Publishing Ltd., Oxford and New York 2006. pp. 79-87. ISBN 1846030307 .
- Daniel Panzac: Barbary Corsairs. The End of a legend 1800-1820 . Brill, Leiden and Boston 2005. pp. 273-288.
- Edward Osler: The life of Admiral Viscount Exmouth . London 1835. (Digitized: online )
- JC Mollema: Het bombardement van Algiers 27 August 1816 in: Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam. Jaarverslag 1937, pp. 55-64.
- Joseph Allen: Battles of the British Navy from AD 1000 to 1840, Volume II . London 1842. pp. 517-525. (Digitized: online )
- Frederick C. Leiner: The End of Barbary Terror: America's 1815 war against the Pirates of North Africa . Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 151-176. ISBN 978-0195189940 .
- Abdeljelil Temimi: Documents turcs inédits sur le bombardement d'Alger en 1816 . In: Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, Volume 5, No. 5, 1968. pp. 111-133. (Digitized: online )
- Roger Perkins and Kenneth J. Douglas-Morris: Gunfire in Barbary. Admiral Lord Exmouth`s battle with the Corsairs of Algiers in 1816 - The story of the suppression of white christian slavery . Hampshire 1982.
- Cyril Northcote Parkinson : Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth, Admiral of the Red . Methuen & Co., London 1934. pp. 416-464. on-line
Web links
- Royal Navy website: Bombing of Algiers by a British-Dutch fleet (Dutch)