History of Morocco
The history of Morocco in the sense of a history of the genus Homo ("man") goes back about a million years. The Homo erectus can be demonstrated for the period 700,000 years ago, the anatomically modern humans before 145,000 years at the latest. While in the Rif land development for the 6th millennium BC It could be proven that the producing economy advanced slowly against the appropriating ones of the hunters, gatherers and fishermen. The Berbers (Imazighen) possibly go back to the culture of the Capsien (from 8000 BC ).
The Phoenicians coined from the early 1st millennium BC. The Berber cultures became increasingly popular, with Carthage asserting itself as the leading city in the eastern Maghreb . Cadiz maintained from the 7th century BC A trading post on Mogador . From the middle of the 5th century, Carthage expanded westward to the Atlantic , where bases were established. During the conflict between Carthage and Rome , the empires of the Massylers, the Masaesylers and the kingdom of Mauritania , which Rome annexed from AD 40 , emerged in the Maghreb . The southern border of the Roman province was secured by a chain of fortifications, the Limes Mauretaniae . Except for a few coastal cities, the province of Mauretania Tingitana was already lost at the end of the 3rd century.
The Christianization began in the 2nd century. Some Berber groups also adopted many aspects of Roman culture, including religions. In addition to the Christian religion , the Jewish religion also spread . In 429/435 vandals occupied the provinces of Numidia . As Arians , they fought the previously dominant church, while the Berbers were able to occupy large areas and develop their own tribal culture. In 533, Ostrom began to recapture the Vandal Empire, with the Berbers building up independent domains in changing coalitions. In the province of Tingitana, Ostrom could only gain a foothold in the far north.
The Arab conquest of the Maghreb began in 664 . The Berbers initially resisted vehemently, but eventually found a home in an Islamic law school, which guaranteed them equality with the Arabs. On the other hand, these Kharijites demanded greater independence and so uprisings began around 740, which were initially suppressed by the armies of the Umayyads and the Abbasids . By 800 there were already three great empires in the Maghreb.
The overarching tribal groups of the Berbers were initially the sedentary Masmuda , then the Zanāta , who were later driven to Morocco, and the Ṣanhāǧa in the Middle Atlas and further south, but also in eastern Algeria . They formed an important pillar for the rise of the Fatimids . These were Shiites , but in 972 they moved their empire to Egypt . Now the Zirids and Hammadids made themselves independent. In return, the Fatimids sent the Banū Hilāl Arab Bedouins west. Arabic, previously spoken only by the urban elites and at court, now increasingly influenced the Berber languages. The Islamization was intensified, the Christianity disappeared.
The Almoravids restored the broken tribal alliance of the Ṣanhāǧa in the western Sahara and conquered the western Maghreb and with it Morocco, but also large parts of West Africa and the Iberian Peninsula (until 1147). They were replaced by the Almohads , who had their origins in a sect, conquered the entire Maghreb and also advanced to Andalusia . The up until then influential, viewed by the now predominant Sunnis as heretical but dominating among the Berbers, largely disappeared in the 12th and 13th centuries.
With the collapse of the Almohad Empire in 1235, the Moroccan Merinids temporarily conquered Algeria's north and Tunisia . Iberian powers, both Muslim and Christian, increasingly interfered. From 1465 to 1549, the Wattassid dynasty ( Banu Watassi ) ruled . With the fall of Granada and the unification of Spain (1492), one of the two great powers that dominated the western Mediterranean in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries came into play . The second great power was the Ottoman Empire , which initially opposed the Spanish with pirate fleets and tried to subjugate Morocco. The Spaniards conquered bases on the coast from Ceuta via Oran and Tunis to Djerba , the Portuguese mainly on the Atlantic coast.
In the fight against the Portuguese, the Saadians , who also relied on immigrants from Yemen , wrested power from the weakened Wattassids in 1549. In 1578 a violent advance by Portugal failed in the battle of the three kings at al-Qaṣr al-Kabīr . Under the Saadians, Morocco became an independent power, which - partly with Spanish help - was the only Arab state to successfully assert itself against the Ottomans. These could only occupy Fez for a short time. At times the militarily strengthened Morocco expanded under the Saadians to the Niger . On the religious level, the precedence of the Saadian caliphate to Chad was recognized by the king of Kanem and Bornu . However, the country split after 1603 after the death of the last Saadian ruler Ahmad Al-Mansur .
From 1492 onwards , Jews expelled from Spain came to Morocco as a result of the Alhambra Edict , which had a strong cultural influence on the north of the country. At times they exerted considerable influence on the economic and political external contacts of the Alaouites (Alawids) who ruled from 1664 onwards , who are still the kings and who trace their dynasty back to Ali , Muhammad's son-in-law . Morocco's rulers resided in different cities, which are now called the four royal cities . These are Fez , Marrakech , Meknes and Rabat .
However, the unitary state disintegrated again in the 18th century. The attempt to support the Algerian war for freedom against France further weakened Morocco. In 1912 the country became a French protectorate.
Spain also attacked Morocco several times since 1859 . The colonization of the north and the extreme south by Spain led to the use of poison gas in three wars in 1893 , 1909 and 1921 in the Rif . France also exerted influence, which culminated in the division of the country in 1912: a small part of the country in the north became a Spanish protectorate , a large part of the country French . France also encountered resistance that lasted until the late 1930s. The rule of the Governor General Marshal Hubert Lyautey and his ideas that European and indigenous populations should not mix, shape the image of many Moroccan cities to this day. With the Vichy regime , in addition to the racist colonial legislation, the anti-Jewish legislation of the National Socialists temporarily moved into the Maghreb. Its representatives and laws were tolerated by the US government for a while after the landing of Allied troops as part of Operation Torch in November 1942, until Resistance forces under Charles de Gaulle achieved a detachment in June 1943. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, the Allies decided the "unconditional surrender" of the German Reich as a target of the Second World War .
In 1956 Morocco gained independence from France and Spain, and the majority of the approximately 250,000 Jews left the country. From 1975 Morocco occupied the Western Sahara . With the gradual democratization, parliamentary elections were decided for November 1997, which the left opposition won. A center-right coalition ruled from 2002 . An Islamist party won 107 of 395 seats in 2011, making it the strongest party.
Prehistory and early history
Old Paleolithic (from about one million years)
At the Casablanca sequence , the oldest finds in Morocco have been dated to around one million years. The oldest human remains come from the Grotte des Littorines and the Grottes des carrières Thomas 1 and Thomas 3. They have been dated between 400,000 and 600,000 years ago.
In addition to the sites near Casablanca, Tighenif in northwestern Algeria is the most important Acheuléen site in the African northwest. The lower jaw of Ternifine (today: Tighénif) was discovered east of Muaskar and initially referred to as Atlanthropus mauritanicus , today more as Homo erectus mauritanicus or Homo mauritanicus . It has been dated to be approximately 700,000 years old. This makes it the oldest human remains in Northwest Africa. In Salé , the neighboring city of Rabat, was found a skull has been dated to 450,000 years.
Finds from the Rhinoceros Cave and the Thomas Cave, both of which are located near Casablanca, have been dated to between about 735,000 and 435,000 years ago. The Sidi Al Kadir-Hélaoui sites were assigned to this phase, as well as Cap Chatelier, the Littorines and the Bear Caves. In this area around Casablanca, a large plain, the Acheuléen ends about 200,000 years ago. Cleavers , a special form of rectangular hand ax, are numerous as early as the 1,000,000 to 600,000 year phase, and the levallois technique came into use.
Hundreds of artifacts were found in the area of the mouth of the Oued Kert near the Mediterranean coast, west of Melilla . Most of them seem to belong to a very archaic facies of the Acheuleans. Ammorene I, located a little south of a spring, can be dated to the end of the Acheuléen, as demonstrated by the finely crafted hand axes with a thin cross-section. In the southwest, in the Tarfaya region, there were also indications of this technique.
Atérien: anatomically modern man (more than 145,000 years ago)
The carrier of the North African Atérien culture was anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ), who - in terms of their genes - are largely identical with today's humans. The culture may not have developed until the Maghreb. According to Moroccan finds, this happened 171,000 to 145,000 years ago.
This anatomically modern human appeared more than 200,000 years ago in East Africa and soon appeared in Morocco, as has been proven at several sites, including Témara on the Atlantic coast, Dar es Soltane 2 and El Harourader. The Atérien thus has a key position in the question of the spread of Homo sapiens in the Maghreb and (possibly) Europe. In any case, in the Maghreb the later hand ax complexes were followed by the teeing industries ; and blade tips that belong to the later Aterian tradition, were found. The people of Atérien were probably the first to use bows and arrows.
The Atérien, named after the site of Bi'r al-'Atir southeast of the Algerian Constantine , was long considered part of the Moustérien analogous to Western European development. However, it is now considered a specific archaeological culture of the Maghreb, which reached a very high level of processing of its stone tools. She developed a handle for tools, combining different materials to make composite tools . The main shape is the atérien tip equipped with a kind of mandrel, which is suitable for being fastened in a second tool part.
The oldest of this culture assigned archaeological site, Ifri n'Ammar, one in the Rif foothills on a connecting road to Moulouya located Abri , dates back 145,000 years. Mousteria artifacts there even go back 171,000 years. Other sites also reached an age of more than 100,000 years, so that settlement from the eastern Sahara is now considered unlikely. On the contrary, the eastern sites of the Atérien are considerably younger, as evidence sites in Libya show. However, caution is advised here too, because an Atérien blade was found in Egypt's Kharga oasis, which has been dated to over 120,000 years.
It is possible that the first anatomically modern humans did not come to the Maghreb with the Atérien culture, but developed it locally, perhaps in Morocco. The oldest human remains found there is around 300,000 years old ( Djebel Irhoud ). Moustérien artifacts were found there, but none of the Atérien. The typical shaft could have developed independently of one another in Europe and North Africa.
It is possible that a cultural loss can be established in the late Atérien, because so far there is no known evidence of (body) jewelry, such as was found in the Grotto des Pigeons in Taforalt in southeast Morocco. Thirteen pierced snail shells of the species Nassarius gibbosulus were discovered there, which were dated to an age of 82,000 years. The shells come from the Mediterranean, were transported 40 km, decorated with ocher and pierced so that they could be worn as a chain. They are considered the oldest symbolic object. Some archaeologists ascribe the emergence of a symbolic level to modern humans, as it were as a biologically determined genetic material , while others already see this pattern among the Neanderthals in Eurasia. In addition to biological approaches, cultural or climatic causes are also discussed.
Epipalaeolithic, Ibéromaurusia (17,000–8,000 BC): beginning to settle down
The period from around 25,000 to 6,000 BC In the Maghreb, BC includes both hunter-gatherer cultures as well as those of the beginning transition to the sedentary, then rural way of life. As in many regions of the Mediterranean, the transition to agriculture was preceded by a long phase of increasing locality. This long-term development was largely determined by climate changes.
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The last maximum extent of the glaciation did not reach the North African coast, but colder northwest winds led to a drier climate. Pollen studies have shown the increase in steppe plants in the region. The Ifrah Lake in the Middle Atlas offers pollen finds from the period between 25,000 and 5,000 BP . They show that the temperature during the last glacial maximum (21,000 to 19,000 BP) was an average of 15 ° C lower and that precipitation was around 300 mm per year. From 13,000 BP, temperature and precipitation rose slowly, between 11,000 and 9,000 BP there was a further cooling.
The Ibéromaurus , a culture widespread on the North African coast and in the hinterland, can be traced back to between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. BC on the entire Maghreb coast. The most important site is the Moroccan Ifri n'Ammar. Their distinctive artifacts, microlithic back tips , were found between Morocco and the Cyrenaica , but not in parts of western Libya. It extended southward in Morocco to the Agadir (Cap Rhir) region. The back tips were made into composite devices, for example in pairs to make glued, double-edged arrowheads. The proportion of the tips of the back regularly makes up 40 to 80% of stone tools.
The oldest traces of painting in North Africa have been discovered in Ifri n'Ammar's Ibéromaurus. They were sealed by layers of culture between the 13th and 10th millennium.
In addition to the lithic industry, a highly developed bone technology emerged. The bones were made into small tips, but also decorated. In addition, mussel shells were processed, apparently not for jewelry, but rather as components of water containers. In Afalou there were formed from clay and fired at 500 to 800 ° C zoomorphic figures, but also scribbles were found, such as on impact stones (cobbles), such as the mane sheep of Taforalt. The mane sheep, which is a goat-like species , was an important source of food. At the Tamar Hat site, 94% of the ungulate bones were found, which led to considerations as to whether the animals could not have been herded. It is controversial whether this type of controlled keeping or hunting came into practice in times of greater drought, only to be given up again in favor of previously common forms of hunting when the humidity increased.
It is unclear whether the culture spread from east to west along the coast or on a more southerly route. The culture can be detected up to 11,000 BP, probably even up to 9500 BP. Genetic studies have shown a close relationship with populations from the Middle East.
The oldest burial sites come from the Algerian sites Afalou-bou-Rhummel and Columnata, as well as from the Moroccan Taforalt. Anatomically, the dead belonged to modern man, but were built robustly. They were classified as “ Mechta-Afalou ” by Marcellin Boule and Henri V. Valois in 1932 , and declared as a separate “breed” for around half a century. This is all the more unlikely as the sites referred to by the authors belonged to the Capsien on the one hand and to the Ibéromaurus on the other, and thus belonged to two very different cultures. In any case, the Guanches of the Canaries were assigned to this breed without further evidence . Such classifications still haunt popular scientific literature to this day . In 1955 the "Mechta-Afalou breed" was even differentiated into four sub-types by sorting on the basis of mere visual appearance. Around 1970 further "races" were defined in this way. Marie Claude Chamla differentiated between “Mechtoide” and “Mecht-Afalou” - the former being more delicate according to their definition. This type had been discovered in the Algerian Columnata. It was found in Medjez II in one and the same layer with the other type.
The removal of mostly healthy teeth is noticeable, especially the incisors. Since there are no other traces of violence in the facial area, this was probably due to cosmetic, ritual or social reasons, such as status reasons. Something similar is stated for the Italian Neolithic.
At around 13,000 BP, piles of rubbish were produced which were predominantly composed of the shells of molluscs . They appeared a little before the Capsien sites in Algeria and Tunisia, the escargotières . In Ifri n'Ammar, Moroccan, there seems to have been pre-forms of sedentarism, because the spatial division of the demolition into workshop, living and burial areas was preserved for a long period of time. The Ifri n'Ammar Ibéromaurus and two other sites, namely Ifri el-Baroud and Hassi Ouenzga Plein Air, date between 18,000 and 7500 BC. BC, a recently developed stratigraphy in the coastal area now seems to close the gap between late Ibéromaurus and early Neolithic, i.e. the period between the middle of the 7th and early 6th millennium BC. It is possible that the people of Capsia, eastern Algeria and southern Tunisia, belong to the ancestors of the Berbers.
Pre-Neolithic pottery was found in Morocco from around 6000 BC. Apparently the hunters, fishermen and gatherers adopted Neolithic innovations, but stuck to their previous lifestyle. In addition, there was a kind of long-distance trade or exchange, including by sea, technological innovations and the formation of food stocks.
Neolithic (before 5600 BC)
Early and Middle Neolithic
Excavations until 2012 showed that ancient Neolithic finds from the "Rif Oriental" project up to 5600 BC. Go back BC. The most recent data from the coastal stations are probably even older. The Ifri Ouzabor site shows an epipalaeolithic layer under the Early Neolithic. The finds of the upper layer are already here around 6500 BC. And are therefore hardly a thousand years younger than the previous end date of Ibéromaurusien in the hinterland of the coast (Ifri el-Baroud).
It is unclear whether there was continuity between the hunter-gatherer cultures and the Neolithic cultures, as the custom of removing incisors persisted. While it was now seldom found in the east of the Maghreb, it was present in 71% of individuals in the west and again affected men and women equally. This may speak for a continuity of the population.
The grain types barley and wheat ( Triticum monococcum and dicoccum , Triticum durum and Triticum aestivum ) can be found in the Ifri Oudadane cave. There were also legumes such as lentils ( Lens culinaris ) and peas ( Pisum sativum ). One lens could be dated to 7611 ± 37 cal BP, making it the oldest domesticated plant in all of North Africa.
The oldest rock carvings in the Maghreb were found at Aïn Séfra and Tiout, both in the extreme west of Algeria, in the province of Naâma. On the mountain slopes of Mont Ksour up to El Bayadh there were pictures of ostriches, elephants and people. Apparently, hunter cultures persisted, as did cultures based on seafood. In Mogador on the Atlantic coast, a large number of waste piles, which consist of fragments of shell, snail shells, charcoal and other remains found. Forms of alpine farming were probably common, because in the mountain zone there were often buildings made of dry stone, but only rarely in connection with burial mounds that also contained additions. In the coastal area, the consumption of birds that are no longer found in Morocco today is detectable, such as the giant alkali , which was found in a cave southwest of Rabat, 300 m from today's coastline and dates back to 5000 to 3800 BC. Was dated.
In the cemetery of Skhirat-de Rouazi, at the mouth of the Oued Cherrat on the southern edge of Rabat, 101 burials and 132 ceramic vessels were found 6 m below today's ground level, which predate the bell-cup culture . The graves were dug on average 80 cm deep and sometimes sprinkled with ocher. 70 dead had received grave goods, including polished axes, mostly made of dolerite . In many cases the accompanying vases have broken and the shards scattered over the bodies of the dead. There were also ivory rings, thousands of discs made from ostrich eggs, and arrowheads. It is unusual that even the smallest children were given grave goods, and that two thirds of the children were buried. This is taken as an indication of an unusually high infant mortality rate. El Kiffen in the province of Casablanca is the second cemetery of this type, there were 43 vessels.
The only stone circle in Morocco is located about 11 km southeast of Asilah in the area of the place T'nine Sidi Lyamani. It is known as the tumulus or stone circle of M'zora and is about 5000 years old. It consists of 167 megaliths up to 5.34 m high, which were set up in a circle around a tumulus. The underlying, slightly elliptical hill has a diameter of more than 54 m in north-south direction and 58 m in west-east direction. Perhaps around 400 it was converted into a burial mound, which has since been surrounded by the much older stones.
Bell beaker culture in the north (around 2500 BC)
With the bell-beaker phenomenon , which in no way means a uniform culture created by migration or the spread of an ethnic group, copper metallurgy spread across Europe and thus laid one of the foundations for the early Bronze Age that followed. The archaeological culture spread between 2700 and 2200 BC. BC over a large part of the European mainland, the British Isles and partly also over the Mediterranean islands. A west-east spread from Portugal / Morocco to the Carpathian Basin and a north-south spread from Denmark to Sicily can be determined.
Around Tangier there are artifacts of the late Neolithic bell beaker culture, shards were found near N'Ghar, but only half a century later at Nador Klalcha about 2 km north of Mehdia in the Kénitra region . In total there are perhaps twelve vases, which raises the question of the importation of these vessels. A few years ago, further bell beaker artifacts were found in Sidi Cherkaoui in Gharb.
“Libyans”, rock carvings, burial mounds, Libyan script
Perhaps since the Capsien , cultures of considerable continuity can be detected, which were later addressed as Libyans and which were long referred to as Berbers . However, this is not considered certain, which is why many authors prefer the traditional term "Libyan", which was used quite divergent by the Greeks. Due to the adoption of the Latin word for those who did not speak Latin, namely barbari , which was later transferred to the non-Arabic-speaking population, the region was often referred to as "Berberei". The "Berbers" call themselves Imazighen (singular: Amazigh). The derivation of today's Berbers from Capsia, however, implies an origin from Eastern Algeria and Tunisia, which is neither archaeologically nor linguistically undisputed. Linguistically, the influence of the Punic was assessed much more strongly; but this, too, is limited to little more than a dozen words that can be considered certain. The adopted words are limited to minerals ("copper", "nickel"), cultural objects such as "lamp", or cultivated plants.
Early archaeological traces that can safely be assigned to the Berbers are rare and mostly of small format (up to about 30 cm). In Morocco, rock carvings were found mainly in the middle valley of the Oued Draa . The Jarf Elkhil site, 22 km west of Oulad Slimane, dates from the Libyan-Berber era with at least 109 incisions. However, the largest site from this period is Foum Chena, 7 km west of Tinzouline. The westernmost Libyan sites of this kind were found around Tiznit in the southwest. Among the 257 depictions, 63 riders were found up to 2009, who, however, unlike many Saharan depictions, do not carry lances or other offensive weapons. The first depictions of Tiznit became known through the tour of Rabbi Mardochée Aby Serour in 1875.
There are hundreds of burial mounds around Foum Larjam, which must have been built by a largely sedentary population. They originated between the 1st millennium BC. And the implementation of Islam in the 8th century. They were built using black dry stone walls . They have a length of 4 to 12 m and a height of 2 to 4 m and are equipped with a hatch. The head of the dead is generally oriented to the southeast and towards Luke. The five paintings that were discovered at the site show human beings, a battle scene and geometric patterns.
From around 2500 BC The Sahara, which existed between about 9000 and 3000 BC, became Was relatively densely populated, again so dry that numerous groups were forced to seek out cheaper areas. Around 5000 BC The slow dehydration began. It initially affected the Regs and Hammadas , with the lakes of the former landscape type drying up and forming the ergs with the sand freed from the water (like the small Erg Chebbi near Sidschilmassa ), sometimes huge areas of sand that cover about a tenth of the Sahara. For a long time the high mountains, rising to over 3000 m, received plenty of water and released their water into the rivers. In the oases, on the other hand, the underground water reservoirs that were created over thousands of years of rain are still being tapped. The Sahara became a difficult but often visited region, which also acted as a bridge between the landscapes north and south of the desert that had now been transformed by the Neolithic. Written sources only set in the 2nd century BC. Wider a. At that time, the Berber culture had not only become strongly regionalized, but it was in constant exchange with the cultures of the Sahel and across the Mediterranean with southern Europe and the Middle East.
The Libyan script (also called Old Libyan or Numidian) is an alphabet script dating from around the 3rd century BC. Was used in much of North Africa until the 3rd century AD. Possibly it goes back to the Phoenician alphabet. The Tifinagh script emerged from the Libyan script . In Morocco, as in other Saharan countries, the use of writing was made a criminal offense until the 1990s. Today Tifinagh is taught in schools.
Phoenicians, Carthaginians
Around 800 BC Phoenicians, especially from Tire and Sidon , began to establish settlements in North Africa, such as Carthage. Cities such as Migdol, later called Mogador, now Essaouira , emerged in Morocco . They were looking for bases for their trade in Spanish silver and tin.
The Atlantic coast became from the 7th century BC. Visited regularly, especially by Phoenician traders on their way to Spain, who apparently had no contact with the actual Phenicia, but with Western Phenicia, especially Gadir ( Cádiz ). At the same time, the traders from Gades visited the Atlantic coast to the island of Mogador (Cerne), which served as a trading post for two centuries (but possibly also up to the Moorish-Roman period). Mogador belongs to the second wave of Phoenician expansion that started from centers in the west.
Recent excavations have shown that the Islas de Mogador (also Islas Purpurinas) located in the bay of Essaouira was used intensively by the Phoenicians to breed purple snails . With around 130 evidence, graffiti is more numerous in Mogador than in any other West Phoenician settlement. Among them is a dedication to Astarte .
Around 600 BC The trading metropolis Carthage dominated the development. A chain of bases reached as far as the Atlantic coast, some of them were founded by Carthage, perhaps also by Tingis ( Tangier ). In the 6th century, the city probably also dominated the Phoenician bases on the Atlantic. The hinterland was opened up, certainly with the consent of the regional Berber powers, from there via the Loukos and the Sebou . Carthage controlled Melilla , Emsa, Sidi Abdeslam del Bhar, Tangier, Kouass, Lixos , El-Djadida, Thamusida, Sala and Mogador . Inland, Tamuda ( Tetuan ), Banasa and Volubilis were added. In addition, the Carthaginians occupied Gibraltar and probably blocked the passage into the Atlantic in the course of the 4th century. Carthage also succeeded in 580 BC. To defend the Phoenician colonies in western Sicily against the Greek colonies on the island. This made the city the reference point for all colonies in the western Mediterranean. After Tire had also fallen into Persian hands, Carthage was the only Phoenician great power.
Trade routes led south to the areas beyond the Sahara, which, presumably through intermediaries, brought goods to the coast. Iron and copper were obtained from the Etruscans, and tin, gold and silver were offered. Presumably it happened before 540 BC. To corresponding contracts.
Carthage is believed to have around 400,000 inhabitants. Their chief god was Baal Hammon , during the 5th century BC. In BC the goddess Tanit became more and more respected. Melkart from Tire and Eschmun , who was identified with Asklepios , fell far from these two main gods .
Carthage closed in 508 BC. A first treaty with Rome, 348 and 279 others; there were no conflicts. However, when Messina died in 264 BC. Subordinate Rome to a war that lasted until 241 BC. Lasted. There were three wars in total . When it was 241 to 237 BC When there was a serious uprising, the so-called mercenary war, a Numid rebellion is said to have followed. The inscription Libyan appeared in Greek on the coins of the insurgents . Carthage began to conquer the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula after the first war against Rome and it expanded its influence on the Numidian coast.
Mauritania, Massyler and Masaesyler
Expansion of Carthage, tribes in what is now Morocco
Before the 2nd century BC Little is known about the Moorish tribes in the west. Ptolemy compiled a list of the tribes that inhabited the far west of Numidia in his day. This is what he calls the Salinsai around Sala and Volubilis , who appear as Salenses in the sources of the 2nd to 4th centuries. The Ouoloubilianoi lived in the Volubilis area. He also called Zegrenses and Banioubai which he situates but much further south than later sources indicate this. He names them and the Ouakouatai as the southern neighbors of the Nectibenen , who probably lived in the Marrakech plain . It is assumed that they lived in the area of the Banasa founded under Augustus . The localization of further tribes causes difficulties, whereby the Makanitai can probably be identified with those tribes to which the name of the city Meknes goes back.
Massinissa and Syphax (until 202 BC)
Again and again there were battles between the two eastern Numider empires. In the case of the Massylers in the east, the proportion of the permanent rural population was considerably higher than further to the west. Massinissa , whose father was the first king, allied herself in the fight against Syphax , the king of western Numidia, during the Second Punic War . He attacked Syphax together with a Punic army under Hasdrubal and forced the Roman allies to make peace with Carthage. 213 BC Chr. Syphax had changed the front and allied with the Romans, so that the Carthaginians had to quickly withdraw from Spain. Massinissa, in turn, changed in 206 BC. On the side of Rome. But he was driven out of Eastern Numidia by Syphax. Massinissa crossed from southern Spain to Numidia and King Baga of Mauritania asked him - he did not want to be drawn into the war between Rome and Carthage - 4000 men available to escort him through the kingdom of Syphax. Massinissa was defeated, however, and Syphax was now the master of both Numider realms.
Syphax allied itself in 204 BC. Finally with Carthage. When Scipio the Elder landed in Africa that year, Massinissa came to him as a nearly destitute refugee. Together with Laelius , Massinissa defeated Hasdrubal and Syphax. Hannibal, who had returned from Italy, was finally defeated by Zama and had to 193 BC. Flee from Carthage. For Numidia, in addition to Carthage's drastic power restriction, the most important contractual clause was that the city could no longer wage war without Roman consent.
Roman client kingdom Numidia (from 202 BC), Mauritania
Cirta became the capital of Numidia . First, Massinissa came across between 200 and 193 BC. BC to the west, while Baga remained neutral. Massinissa supported the Romans who ruled the city in 146 BC. Destroyed, reluctantly against Carthage.
His kingdom was divided between the king's sons Micipsa (until 118 BC), Gulussa and Mastanabal . Micipsa, who survived his two brothers, died in 118 BC. His nephew Jugurtha attacked the capital Cirta in the follow-up dispute in 112 and thus prevailed. The military operations that led to the Yugurthin War were conducted only half-heartedly. 111 BC BC Consul Lucius Calpurnius Bestia went to Numidia, but he concluded a peace that was advantageous for Jugurtha. Thereupon the tribune Gaius Memmius Jugurtha invited to Rome. He did travel there, but when Jugurtha had a possible rival murdered in Numidia from Rome, he had to flee. Gaius Marius was charged with suppressing the uprising. One of his sub-generals, named Sulla , negotiated the extradition of Jugurtha from his father-in-law Bocchus of Mauritania. Gauda , a half-brother of Jugurtha, and Bocchus of Mauritania inherited his empire .
Bocchus I, who lived until 108 BC. He had kept neutral afterwards Jugurtha, who had promised him a third of his empire, supported him, but 105 BC. He had handed it over to the Romans. They now recognized him as a "friend of the Roman people". After his death in 80 BC His sons Bocchus II and Bogudes followed him. After the death of the latter, the divided Mauritania, whose western part Bogudes had ruled, was reunited.
Roman client state (until 40/42)
After Caesar's victory over the Pompeians and thus over Juba I , the Massylian empire was divided up. Bocchu II of Mauritania, an ally of Caesar in the war against Juba, received Western Massylia and Eastern Massylia, i.e. the area around Sitifis .
The Kingdom of Mauritania was founded in 33 BC. Chr. Bequeathed to Rome in will by King Bocchus II. Augustus put Juba II in 25 BC. As ruler over this client state . In 23 AD his son Ptolemy followed him to the throne. He put down the Tacfarinas revolt against Rome . This uprising, led by a Moorish soldier trained in Roman service, lasted from 17 to 24. On the occasion of Ptolemy's visit to Rome, Emperor Caligula had him murdered in AD 40. He wanted to annex the leaderless empire. Resistance to the occupation under the freed Aedemon was soon put down.
After the region of 33 BC Came to the Romans, they founded colonies in Zilil, Babba (not localized) and Banasa , which arose as Iulia Valentia Banasa between Tingi and the Oued Sebou (Sububus flumen); the main centers in the south were Sala Colonia (Chellah on the outskirts of Rabat) and Volubilis .
Part of the Roman Empire (40/42 to about 285/429 AD)
Mauretania Tingitana Province, securing the southern border, Romanization
Suetonius Paulinus was the first governor of the new province to enforce Roman rule from 42. Emperor Claudius divided the territory of the kingdom into the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis with the capital Caesarea (Cherchell) and Mauretania Tingitana with the capital Volubilis , in late antiquity ( Tingis ). The governor had 5 to 10,000 men at his disposal, who were distributed over at least 15 camps. A straight line of defense ran eastward from Sala, now known as Seguia Faraoun (Channel of the Pharaohs). On Sebou the camp Thamusida and Souk el-Arba were, after all, were to Volubilis garrisons in Sidi Moussa bou Fri, Aïn Schkour (north of Moulay Idris created) and Tocolosida (Bled Takourart).
With the Limes Mauretaniae an attempt was made to secure the southern border of Mauritania and Numidia in the long term. The Limes of the two Mauritanian provinces, however, was not conceivable as a continuous fortified border wall because of the enormous length of the border, which stretched from the Atlantic to the eastern border of the Caesariensis province. Instead, barriers (clausurae) were primarily built in the valleys of the Atlas, as well as trenches (fossata), ramparts, but also a number of watchtowers and forts. The facilities were connected by a road network designed according to strategic aspects. The Severians had a number of forts built in the western Caesariensis.
The Tingitana was additionally secured by forts in Thamusida, Banasa and Souk el Arba du Rharb along the Sububus (Sebou) leading into the interior of the country . The Roman troops concentrated on the forts on the coast and around the 42 hectare provincial metropolis of Volubilis, which was elevated to a municipium with the occupation . Inscriptions show that Jews, Syrians and Iberians lived here as well as the indigenous population. The main product of the region was olive oil . The protection of the city, which, as a Punic inscription shows, has been around since at least the 3rd century BC. In the second half of the 2nd century AD, a new city wall with eight gates as well as numerous camps and observation posts served in its vicinity. The Sala, located on the coast, was sealed off from the Atlantic to Bou-Regreg by an 11 km long ditch, which was reinforced with a wall, four small forts and around fifteen watchtowers . Additional forts were built in Tamuda ( Tétouan ), Souk el Arba du Rharb and Ksar el Kebir on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts.
On the eastern edge of the province of Mauretania Tingitana there were mountainous regions that were dominated by Berbers. Only Septimius Severus made an attempt at the beginning of the 3rd century to occupy these areas as well. As an exception, the governors Haius Diadumenianus (202) and his successor Sallustius Macrinianus received command of both provinces of Mauritania at the same time. As a result of unknown battles, a victory monument was erected 90 km east of Volubilis near Bou Hellou.
Even at the time of its greatest expansion in the province of Mauretania Tingitana, the limits of the Roman exercise of power lay on the Oued Lau (Laud flumen) and extended from there on the Atlantic southward and to Sala and Volubilis. At the latest in 290 the entire southern part of the province up to the Oued Loukos (Lixus flumen) had to be given up, apart from Sala and the occasional use of Cerne.
Individual finds such as IAM 2, as well as archaeological finds, which are quite numerous due to comparatively intensive investigations, gave a more compact idea of the Roman era. The easternmost finds were made around Bou Hellou, works on the main streets were made. However, in the absence of larger finds, it is also evident here that the Tingitana was a border region in which the streets were primarily used to connect camps, small forts and watchtowers.
Part of the Berber upper class sought integration into the Roman system of rule. For example, Aurelius Iulianus, head (princeps gentium) of the Zegrenses in the southwestern Rif, along with his wife and four children, received Roman citizenship in 177 . Already in 168/69 a Julianus, a prominent member of the tribe, received citizenship in recognition of his loyalty. The two appropriations are known as Tabula Banasitana . In contrast to the Zegrenses, who were regarded as provincials, the neighboring baquates were treated like foederati , i.e. they were outside the immediate Roman sphere of influence. Apuleius of Madauros, a city in northeast Algeria, was a representative of these groups, which were largely integrated into Roman society - he described himself as "half-numider and half- Gaetulians ", which means that he half counted himself among the Gaetulers , those peoples who lived south of the Atlas and the province of Mauritania as well as the Sahara west of the Garamanten to the coast. Men like these, whose works are part of world literature, show that these Berbers did not "catch up with history" through Islamization, as was assumed until a few decades ago. This is even more evident in the early 2nd century BC. Terence , born in Libya in BC , was the most important poet of the ancient Latin tongue along with Plautus and at the same time one of the most famous comedy poets of Roman antiquity.
Rome concluded 277 and 280 contracts with the above-mentioned Baquates. According to an inscription, Clementius Valerius Marcellinus, the governor of the province of Mauretania Tingitana, signed a treaty on October 24, 277 with Julius Nuffuzius, son of Julius Matif, king of the Baquats. An inscription a good two and a half years younger shows that the two contracting parties continued to regard the agreements as valid. In the meantime, however, the old king had died and his son Julius Nuffuzius had become king himself. The title “rex” was given to the leader of the Baquats, who incidentally had Roman citizenship, only in this context.
The peace was apparently not lasting, because a few years later Volubilis, a relatively large city of perhaps 40,000 inhabitants, had to be abandoned. Even under Marc Aurel , it had received a 2.6 km long city wall with seven gates and forty towers. However, the city was not evacuated because Romanized residents lived here in the 7th century. At least between 599 and 655 there was a Christian community with municipal institutions. Around 800 many of the residents moved to Moulay ldris , which was founded after 791.
Attacks by the local tribes caused Diocletian to take back the border in the Tingitana on the Frigidae – Thamusida line. Volubilis was now abandoned at the latest, while Sala probably remained Roman until the early 4th century.
Roman religion, society and state of late antiquity
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The Roman religion came to North Africa mainly in the form of the triad Jupiter , Juno and Minerva . Even Mars played an important role as a god of war, it came up since Augustus the emperor cult. In addition to the official religion, old gods persisted and only received the new names. The Roman gods, for their part, were modified in the new environment. Saturn and Baal, Caelestis and Tanit could thus merge.
By today's standards, the Roman state was extremely "slim", downright minimalist. With the exception of the army and the highest jurisdiction, he delegated all state tasks to the approximately 2,500 cities scattered across the entire empire. Police tasks, road maintenance, fortifications, but above all collecting taxes, were the responsibility of the city assemblies. In addition, there were only trade associations, the collegia and corpora . In each city, perhaps 30 to 100 men, curiales , decided how the burdens were distributed among the citizens, and what share they themselves received of the rights and funds. Money was not the basis of power and influence, but the urban influence with its rights and privileges was the basis for becoming wealthy.
The total number of curials in the western empire may have been 65,000; in the east, which was much more urbanized, their number may have been higher. Accordingly, this curial class was concentrated where most cities existed, that is, around Rome and in central Italy, in southern Spain, on Sicily, around Carthage. The urban network on the Mediterranean coast of Gaul was a little less dense, then the north and south of Italy, Dalmatia, large areas of Iberia, as well as Numidia's north, in an area of perhaps up to 100 km from the coast.
Not only did the vast majority of the population live in these areas, but also the early Christians. Almost all of the authors who played a role in the clashes between pagans and Christians came from curial families. A rural Christianity appears in the sources only in the 4th and 5th centuries. This fixation on the city and the curial class brought to light debates about poverty and wealth that did not affect 90% of the population, because they had no share in the power or wealth of the curial. The corresponding writings were accordingly aimed at their own, politically closed class.
North Africa was largely spared from civil wars and invasions for a long time, so that the unusual prosperity of the 2nd century continued well into the 4th century. While in the endangered areas including Rome the construction of theaters, baths and arenas had to be withdrawn in favor of city walls and other defensive systems, this was much less pronounced in North Africa and occurred much later. In the 3rd century the tax burden was extended to all provinces and with increasing consistency and severity the taxes were collected.
The crisis of the 4th and 5th centuries, which Westrom did not survive, was of a different nature. 80% of the population worked in agriculture and contributed perhaps 60% to the total product of the empire, as much as these figures may be approximations. The harvest time ranged from spring in the south to late summer in the north. In the Mediterranean region, olive oil and wine were added from late autumn . Except in Egypt, the harvest volumes fluctuated so strongly that one can speak of shock-like jumps. Accordingly, the gods were inclined to an emperor when the harvest was good. Maximinus Daia believed that the gods consented to his persecution of the Christians in Tire because the all-important weather was extremely favorable. In the south of Spain, Christians who wanted to vote their God in favor by means of rituals demanded that the Jews not be allowed into the fields, because they spoil the effect of the rituals.
After all taxes had been deducted, the farmers had perhaps a third of the harvest, and what was even more serious, they had practically no buffer against the rigors of the weather and the poor harvests. The landowners themselves, the domini , rarely collected their own taxes. They had their land managers on site, who, like the curials in the cities, were collectors who, however, also had to endure the local conflicts. They sealed off the domini from it until they hardly intervened, especially since they were inaccessible to the country people.
At the same time, the economic area of the empire offered the wealthy completely different opportunities. They were able to stock up extensively and thus wait for more favorable sales times, i.e. higher prices, as they occurred before the new harvest, and above all they could cover greater distances to supply cities and armies. The farmers, on the other hand, were dependent on the local markets with their extreme price fluctuations. The wealthy benefited from regional and temporal price fluctuations every year. The largest grain traders were the emperors themselves. With the gold solidus , the borderline between the economy of the wealthy and the rest of society, which was dependent on bronze and silver coins, became constantly visible. The isolation of the social strata was also very clearly noticeable here, even by Roman standards, and thus fraught with conflict. In addition, this wealth had to be displayed in order to make the affiliation credible. The richest Roman senators had more income than entire provinces. Around 405, the young heiress Melania the Younger had an income of 120,000 gold solidi per year, which corresponds to 1660 pounds of gold.
Below this small group, there was a group of local landowners in the provinces who owned villas . Since Constantine, the emperors paved the way for them to enter the Roman Senate . This gave them more power and thus, according to the Roman principle, much greater wealth. They formed a kind of mediating layer, the members of which were entitled vir clarissimus or femina clarissima , and who often came from established provincial families .
With that senatorial rank, perhaps 2,000 men returned to their provinces. But some families had missed this “post-Constantinian gold rush” and feared their decline. It was mainly decurions or curials who feared social decline, falling into the large group of those who were also not safe from torture and the whip. In contrast, the system of patronage , of advancement through the mediation of influential people, helped above all .
Municipium and Colonate
Classical Roman society was subject to major changes as early as the 2nd century, but even more so during the imperial crisis. In 212 all cities of the empire received at least the rank of municipium , which brought the aforementioned financial burdens with it. Every male resident between 14 and 60 years old had to pay an annual tax. The small group of Roman citizens was exempt from this, however, the upper classes (metropolites) paid a reduced tax.
Imperial laws, presumably on the initiative of the large landowners, created the prerequisites for transferring almost unlimited power of disposition and police power to local masters, whose growing economic units were thereby increasingly isolated from state influence. The rural population was initially forced to cultivate the land and taxes (tributum) to be paid. Until the 5th century, the people who worked the land were often tied to their land while their property belonged to their master, but after three decades in this legal status others could take their mobile property or their property into their own possession. Under Emperor Justinian I there was no longer any distinction between free and unfree colonies. Colons and unfree were now used identically to describe arable farmers who were tied to the clod and no longer owned free property.
Since Constantine the Great, gentlemen have been allowed to chain fugitive colonies that had disappeared less than thirty years ago. Since 365 it has been forbidden for the colonists to dispose of their actual possessions, probably primarily tools. Since 371 the gentlemen were allowed to collect the taxes from the colonies themselves. Finally, in 396, the farmers lost the right to sue their master.
Christian churches in late antiquity
The church organization in the Tingitana was hardly developed. For example, not a single bishop from the province took part in the Synod of Elvira , which took place between 295 and 314, due to the lack of dioceses. Nevertheless, Tingis has a martyr, namely Publius Aelius Marcellus , who, according to legend, was a centurion who was stationed in Tingis and who refused to take part in the birthday celebrations of Emperor Maximian (286-305).
In contrast to the church of the years between 370 and 430, which was characterized by outstanding men like Ambrose of Milan , the situation between 312 and 370 was different. Although the clergy formed a separate class, which, like all priests of the various religions, was exempt from public service and personal taxation, the emperors denied churchmen access to the upper classes of society. In addition, this generated resistance among the curials, who were not exempt from taxes, because the more members of a community were exempt from taxes, the higher the burden on the others, because the city's taxes were passed on to all curials. Therefore one was constantly looking for wealthy relatives of the plebs , who could be called upon for tasks and duties by way of advancement.
In addition, the congregation of these clerics of the fourth century was by no means composed, as has long been believed, of the poor and marginalized of society. Recent research, such as that of Jean-Michel Carrié, shows that the members of the communities were artisans and civil servants, artists and traders. You sometimes referred to yourself as "mediocres".
Therefore, operatio , giving alms to the poor, was not only an important task, but also the life force (vigor) of the church, as Bishop Cyprian of Carthage wrote, as was the financing of church buildings. The former was especially important in times of persecution, for prisoners and refugees. However, this was only true for Christians, so that considerable amounts of money accumulated in the church. Therefore, Cyprian was able to raise 100,000 sesterces to free some parishioners who had fallen into Berber hands . It was this and the provision of the poor that earned the church state privileges. A privilege of 329 explicitly states that the clergy should be there for the poor while the wealthy, to whom the clergy did not belong, should go about their business. Ammianus Marcellinus expected verecundas from the clergy , the knowledge of the right place in society. But leading members of society who became Christians were soon able to move up in one train, displacing long-time comrades-in-arms, instead of long periods of training and experience. Ambrose of Milan was thus able to become bishop directly.
Vandal Empire (429 to 535)
In the course of the Great Migration , 429 perhaps 50,000 (Prokop) or 80,000 ( Victor von Vita ) vandals and Alans under the leadership of their war king Geiseric from Iberia to Africa. This corresponded to a force of about 10,000 to 15,000 men. Some Berber tribes supported them, as did Donatists , who hoped for protection from persecution by the Roman state church. In 435 Rome concluded a treaty with the Vandals, in which they received the two provinces of Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, as well as Numidia.
In 439, however, they conquered Carthage, breaking the treaty, and the fleet stationed there fell into their hands. With their help, the Vandals managed to conquer Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands, and in 455 they even plundered Rome. But the Tingitana could not control them permanently.
The Vandals hung the Arianism to, a faith that in the First Council of Nicaea to heresy had been declared. Property of the Catholic Church was confiscated in its sphere of influence. The colonies tied to the ground may only have changed the masters; the imperial goods were probably simply converted into royal goods and served the ruling dynasty.
Geiserich's son Hunerich fought harder against the Catholic Church. Although it was also Cirta part of the Vandal kingdom, but at the same time were other Roman territories to own small states which were attacking the Vandals Empire in shifting coalitions. Hunerich's successor Thrasamund continued church politics. In the process, the vandals lost their reputation, on the one hand because they did not support the Ostrogoths , on the other hand because they could not find any means against the Berbers, who were occupying Vandal territory piece by piece. This was not only true for the west, but also for the heartland around the capital.
King Hilderich distanced himself from Arianism. The Moors, led by a certain Antalas, defeated a vandal army in eastern Tunisia. Masties made themselves independent and ruled the hinterland. He fought the Arians and possibly had himself proclaimed emperor.
When a conspiracy overthrew the king and brought Gelimer to the throne, Ostrom regarded him as a usurper . In 533 16,000 men landed under the command of the general Belisarius , won the battle of Tricamarum and occupied the Vandal Empire.
Eastern Byzantium on the coastline (from 533), Berber empires in the hinterland
Military and civil administration, diocese, exarchate
Carthage became the seat of an Eastern Roman governor, a Praetorian prefect who was responsible for civil affairs and to whom six governors were subordinate. For the military sector, a Magister militum was appointed for imperial North Africa, to which four generals were subordinate. The bishop of Carthage received the dignity of a metropolitan from the emperor in 535. There were a total of seven provinces, namely Proconsularis (also Zeugitana ) and Byzacium in what is now Tunisia, Tripolitania (northern Libya), Numidia (especially eastern Algeria), Mauretania Caesariensis (northwestern Algeria ) and Mauretania Tingitana (northern Morocco) and Sardinia. There were also five Duces in Tripolitania (based in Leptis Magna ), Byzacium ( Capsa and Thelepte ), Numidia ( Constantina ), Mauritania ( Caesarea ) and the Dux of Sardinia.
In 590, the Carthage Exarchate was created to pool military and civilian powers . Around 600 Herakleios became the Elder Exarch. In 610 his son of the same name, Herakleios , overthrew the Eastern Roman usurper Phocas while he was traveling to Constantinople with the Carthaginian fleet. When the Persians conquered large parts of the Eastern Roman Empire from 603, like Egypt in 619, Emperor Herakleios had plans to move the capital to Carthage. This did not happen, because he was able to defeat the Persians from 627 onwards.
Rising of the Stotzas, support in Mauretania
When 536 parts of the garrison troops in Africa rebelled against the Eastern Roman general Solomon, they elected Stotza's soldiers as their leader. The insurgents besieged Carthage. When Belisarius landed back in Africa, Stotzas fled to Numidia after a defeat. General Germanus , a relative of the Emperor Justinian , was able to defeat Stotzas, although behind his army there were some ten thousand Moors under Jabdas and Ortaias. But some tribes made alliances to Germanus even before the battle. Stotzas fled with a few faithful to Altava in Mauretania, where he married the daughter of a prince and is said to have assumed the title of king in 541. In 546 he was killed by an arrow in a battle, even if his army was victorious.
Striving for autonomy, Berber empires, Antalas and Cusina
Numidia played an increasingly independent role. The Berber's striving for autonomy had already intensified during the time of the Vandals, when large parts of the province of Tingitana in the west had become independent, possibly further encouraged by the religious policy of the Vandals. At least some Berber groups adapted the Roman legitimation model and called themselves rex gentis Ucutamani (CIL. VIII. 8379).
In 2003, Yves Modéran presented a fundamental study of the history of the Berbers during this period. In the time of the vandal, there was again an increased tribalization of the Berbers. It was even belonging to a tribe that actually made the Berber what it was, while the Roman language, Christianity or title in no way diminished this membership.
When the Vandals had been defeated but still offered resistance, Berber envoys from Mauretania, Numidia and Byzacena appeared at Belisarius and offered to place them under imperial rule. But they demanded an investiture, probably an installation in their offices secured by Roman titles. The princes Antalas, Cusina and Iaudas, who played a central role in the rest of the story, are likely to have subordinated themselves accordingly. Antalas, born around 499, son of the prince of the Frexes named Gunefan, had already started fighting the vandals in 529. As a result of his victory over their army in 530, the coup that had given Constantinople the legitimacy to intervene had come about.
One of the leaders of the uprising of 534/35 in the Byzacena was Cusina, whose mother was a "Roman". He was thus considered an Afrer , as the Roman-Berber population was called. After the defeat against Ostrom and Antalas, Cusina fled to Prince Iaudas in Numidia, who, after Modéran, was the worst known of the three Berber princes, but probably the most influential. He had risen against Ostrom in the eastern Algerian town of Aurès in 535, but Solomon was able to defeat him in 539. Nevertheless, Iaudas did not surrender, but fled to Mauretania. In 542 to 543 the region suffered the great plague , so that there was no further fighting. With the Berbers living in Libya on the Syrte, the Lawata, Antalas defeated the Romans under Solomon.
Arab expansion, Islamization
Split between Sunnis and Shiites
In 644, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, a member of the Umayyads, was elected caliph. But in 656 he was murdered in Medina . ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib , the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was elected to succeed him. But as a supporter of the murdered Uthman, Muawiya was also proclaimed caliph in Damascus in 660 . The first civil war broke out within the great empire founded by Mohammed . Although Muawiya was able to assert his rule after Ali's murder by the Kharijites in 661, he was not recognized as the rightful ruler by Ali's supporters. The result was a schism between Sunnis and Shiites .
Resistance of the (Jewish) Berbers, Islamization
Under Muawiya I, the Arabs resumed their expansion , which had come to a standstill due to the above-mentioned conflicts. Africa was recaptured after the Eastern Roman exarch, together with the Berber prince Kusaila ibn Lemzem , had been crushed by Uqba ibn Nafi near Biskra in 683 .
Uqba's successor Abu al-Muhajir Dinar was able to win over the "Berber king" Kusaila (or Berber Aksil) in Tilimsān in northwest Algeria for Islam, who dominated the Awrāba clans in the Aurès up to the area around the later Fez . When Uqba returned to office, however, he insisted on direct Arab rule and rode to the Atlantic as far as Agadir . On the way back he was attacked on Kusaila's orders and with Eastern Roman support and killed in a battle. Against Kusaila, Damascus dispatched Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawī, who defeated Kusaila (before 688). A second Arab army under Ḥassān ibn al-Nuʿmān encountered heavy resistance from the Jawāra in the Aurès from 693 onwards. After the death of Kusaila, they were led by Damja, who was briefly called al-Kahina , the priestess. Their Berbers defeated the Arabs in a battle in 698, but in 701 the Arabs finally triumphed.
The Barānis were strongly influenced by Roman culture and were often Christian; they divided into two groups, namely the Maṣmṣda of central and southern Morocco and the Ṣanhāğa. This nomadic group living in the desert, to which the settled Kutāma of eastern Algeria belonged, later produced the Almoravids . The Zanāta failed to establish a permanent empire and they were forced to move to Morocco. Numerous Jews also lived in the Maghreb, which contributed to the legend that the Confederation of Kāhina was Jewish. Christianity disappeared over the following generations. For the Berbers it was crucial that you recognized some by their burnoos and others by their short tunics. The former supported the Arab-Islamic invasion, the latter were often Christians and were therefore subject to a tax that all non-Muslims had to pay.
If one follows Ibn Chaldūn (70–72), several Berber tribes were of Jewish faith. He calls the Nefoussaa around today's Tripoli , the Ghiata, the Medîouna (in western Algeria), the Fendelaoua, Behloula and Fazaz in Morocco Jews, as well as the Djerawa, who were subordinate to Queen Kahina and who lived in the Aurès. Jews may have turned to them before the Eastern Roman Christianization policy. Jews also lived in Sidschilmasa and Tafilalt, and oral tradition also suggests that Jewish states existed in the Draa Valley before the Islamic invasion. Until the 20th century, Berber Jewish communities existed in Ouarzazate , Tiznit , Ufran ((Anti-Atlas)), Illigh (southeast of Agadir) and Demnate .
Dynastic and religious battles, Berber empires
Kharijites, uprising of the Maysara, establishment of empires in the Maghreb
After stubborn resistance, most of the Berbers converted to Islam, mainly by joining the armed forces of the Arabs. Culturally, however, they did not find any recognition, because the new masters faced them with the same contempt as the Greeks and Romans. They also adopted the Greek word barbaric for those who had not learned their language or who had not learned it enough in their eyes. Therefore the Imazighen are still called Berbers today . They were paid less in the army and their wives were sometimes enslaved, as with subjugated peoples. Only Umar II (717–720) forbade this practice and sent Muslim scholars to convert the Imazighen. In the Ribats Although religious schools have been set up, but there are numerous Berber joined the denomination of the Kharijites , which proclaimed the equality of all Muslims.
As early as 739/40, a first uprising of the Kharijites began near Tangier under the Berber Maysara. In 742 they controlled all of Algeria and threatened Kairuan . The Warfajūma Berbers ruled the south in league with moderate Kharijites. They succeeded in conquering northern Tunisia in 756. Another moderate Kharijite group, the Ibāḍiyyah from Tripolitania, even proclaimed an imam who saw himself on the same level as the caliph. They conquered Tunisia in 758. The Abbasids , who overthrew the Umayyads in 750, only succeeded in retaking Tripolitania, Tunisia and eastern Algeria in 761.
Maysara al-Matghari, on the other hand, had succeeded in uniting the Miknasa , the Bargawata and the Magrawa . They defeated an army transferred from Andalusia. Maysara even assumed the title of caliph, but was murdered. Nevertheless, the rebels defeated an army in 740 in the Battle of Sabu ("Battle of the Nobles"), where they also defeated another army, which is said to be 70,000 strong.
The western Maghreb gradually gained independence, with the Berbers being supported by the fugitive Umayyads who had established themselves on the Iberian Peninsula. As early as 749 the Bargawata Empire was formed on the Atlantic coast and in 757 Miknasa founded the Emirate of Sidschilmasa . At the latest with the establishment of the Rustamids (772) and Idrisids (789) kingdoms , Damascus finally lost control of the western Maghreb.
The eclectic barghawata (from 749)
The founder of the small Barghawata empire was Salih ibn Tarif (749-795), who had participated in the Maysara uprising and rose to become a prophet. He proclaimed a religion with elements of Orthodox, Shiite and Harijite Islam, mixed with pagan traditions.
Under his successors al-Yasa (795-842), Yunus (842-885) and Abu Ghufail (885-913), the tribal principality was consolidated. The mission among the neighboring tribes was also started. After initially good relations with the Caliphate of Cordoba , it broke towards the end of the 10th century. Two Umayyad campaigns, but also attacks by the Fatimids , were repulsed by the Bargawata. From the 11th century onwards, there was a violent guerrilla war with the Banu Ifran . Even if this weakened the Bargawata considerably, they were still able to repel the attacks of the Almoravids . Thus died with Ibn Yasin , the spiritual leader of the Almoravids in the fight against barghawata in 1059. It was not until 1149 that barghawata by were Almohads as a political and religious group destroyed.
Kharijite Banu Midrar (Miknasa) around Sidschilmassa, Rustamiden in Algeria
The oasis settlement Sidschilmassa was founded in the middle of the 8th century and formed the center of the Banu Midrar from the Miknasa tribe . It is the second founding of Islam in the Maghreb after Kairuan in Tunisia, which was founded in 670. However, like the empires of the Rustamids and the Idrisids, it is not the foundation of an orthodox Islamic group, but also goes back to Kharijites, who were considered the first heretics of Islam by the other Muslims. The Kharijites had separated themselves from the Umayyads in 657 because they did not accept the procedure of determining the successor to the founder of the religion Mohammed. For them, in principle, anyone could lead the Muslim community ( umma ). Sidschilmassa managed to control the gold trade, which crossed the Sahara every two years by means of caravans, until the middle of the 11th century and at the same time to defend itself against the attacks of its neighbors who considered themselves to be orthodox.
To do this, the city needed strong defenses and in fact the citadel took up a significant part of the urban area. It was founded by Semgou Ibn Ouassoul, who is considered the founder of the Banu Midrar tribe. Until the 11th century, Sidschilmasa was the starting point for the western route of the Trans-Saharan trade . Through trade with the empire of Ghana , the city gained a prosperity that was highlighted by Arab travelers such as al-Bakri or al-Muqaddasi . Above all, luxury goods from the Mediterranean region were exchanged for gold, ivory and slaves. Their contacts reached as far as the Levant. Jews from Cairo lived in Sidschilmassa by the beginning of the 11th century at the latest. According to oral tradition, Sidschilmassa was not walled, but the oasis was surrounded by a 4 m high wall with four gates, as archaeological excavations have shown. On the other hand, Arab scholars report a wall, and it is also archaeologically tangible. It may have been abandoned at a later date in favor of the oasis wall.
After the Abbasid victory in 761, Ibn Rustam fled to the Zanata in western Algeria. After a renewed uprising of the Kharijites under Abu Quna and Ibn Rustam failed before Kairuan in 772, the latter withdrew to central Algeria and founded the emirate of the Rustamids in Tahert. In particular through the alliance with the Miknasa of Sidschilmasa and the Iberian Umayyads of the Emirate of Cordoba , the empire was able to assert itself against the Idrisids in the west and the Aghlabids in the east.
Shiite Idrisids (789–974), implementation of orthodoxy by Sanhajah
The western Maghreb was now of decisive strategic importance for the Umayyads, because only a Maghreb that was independent of the Abbasids and later the Fatimids was a guarantee of security against an invasion threatening from there. Therefore, the Umayyads supported the state formation there, including that of the Idrisids of Fez .
The founder of the dynasty was the Sherif Idris ibn Abdallah (789–791), a great-grandson of the Imam Hasan ibn Ali ibn Abi Talib . As a Shiite he was persecuted by the Sunni Abbasids and fled to the outer Maghreb in 786. There he was accepted by the Zanata. He settled in Walila, the Roman Volubilis. With the founding of the empire by Idris I in 789, the second of the permanently independent Islamic states of the Maghreb was created after the Rustamids.
Idris II (791–828) had a new residential town built on the other side of the river in 806, opposite the Fez military camp that was laid out by his father. With the settlement of refugees from Kairuan and al-Andalus in 818, the city quickly developed into a center of learning and the starting point for Islamization. The empire was also expanded through campaigns in the High Atlas and against Tlemcen , so that the Idrisids rose to become the most important power in the region against the principalities of the Bargawata on the Atlantic coast, the Salihids in the north of the Rif and the Miknasa in eastern Morocco and western Algeria and the Magrawa of Sidschilmasa . Although intra-dynastic disputes led to a political decline, this did not detract from the religious effect.
After the Miknasa had taken action against the Salihids in the name of the likewise Shiite Fatimids in 917 and had conquered their capital, they attacked in 922 under the leadership of Maṣāla b. Ḥabūs also joined the Idrisids of Fès, whose ruling head Yahya IV. But on the one hand one of the Idrisids managed to regain Fez, on the other hand the Umayyads were able to pull one of the Berber groups on their side and greatly expand their fleet operating on the coast. In the end, even the Miknasa governor of Sidschilmassa sided with the Umayyads when they conquered Ceuta .
Abd ar-Rahman III. , who ruled al-Andalus from 912 to 961, rose to the position of Caliph of Córdoba and seized the opportunity to conquer Melilla in 927 and Ceuta in 931. He was now allied with Idrisiden, Miknasa and Magrawa; a kind of protectorate arose over the western Maghreb against the Shiite Fatimids. It was not until 985 that the Fatimids, who never entered into direct battles with the Umayyads but only waged proxy wars, gave up their plan to conquer Morocco. They concentrated their forces on Egypt. The century-long struggle between Sanhadscha and Zanata ultimately led to the expulsion of the Zanata to Morocco and the relocation of numerous clans to the Iberian Peninsula. At the same time, with the victory of the Sanhajah, Orthodoxy took over almost everywhere, even if this tribal group initially appeared as an advocate of the Shia.
This glacis to the east, which the Umayyads had built, was lost again, but an 'Amridian governor ruled Fez until around 1016. The Idrisids, who were hardly able to speak Arabic, were finally expelled from Morocco. With Ali ibn Hammud an-Nasir , a non-Umayyad and at the same time an Idrisid descendant came to the throne for the first time in 1014, who was followed by his brother after his assassination in 1016.
Sunni Salihids
The founder of the Salihid dynasty was possibly a South Arabian warrior named al-'Abd aṣ-Ṣāliḥ ibn Manṣūr al-Ḥimyarī, who converted the surrounding Berbers to Islam under the Umayyad caliph al-Walid (705-15). For this he received from the caliph al-Walid I after the conquest under Musa ibn Nusayr the area of the Gumara-Berbers ( Masmuda ) between Tetouan and Melilla transferred as a fief. This principality developed alongside the Idrisid empire into one of the most important in Morocco.
At the end of the 8th century, the Nakur (al-Mazimma in today's al-Hoceima ) , which has existed since about 750, was founded by Sa'īd ibn Idrīs b. Ṣāliḥ al-Ḥimyarī, grandson of the founder of the dynasty, built as a new residence. It developed through the trade with al-Andalus under his son 'Abd ar-Raḥmān ash-Shahīd to an important trading center. A ribat, in this case a rural mosque , was built on the model of Alexandria . This was in marked contrast to Ifriqiya and el-Andalus, where Ribats always had military functions. Morocco went its own way early on.
The Salihids maintained good contacts with Cordoba and strengthened their relations with the Banū Sulaymān of Tlemcen , who were considered the descendants of the Prophet. This means of legitimizing rule was recognized among the Berbers and Arabs, and Tlemcen and the Idrisids of Fez invoked such ancestry. 'Abd ar-Raḥmān ash-Shahīd, who suffered from legitimacy problems due to his lack of traceability to the Prophet, made four pilgrimages to Mecca to compensate, but nevertheless had to fend off several Berber uprisings. Eventually he died trying to support the Umayyads (before 917). The Salihids were one of the few dynasties in the western Maghreb under which the Sunnis were promoted and in whose small empire they also made up the majority of the population.
Nakur was sacked by Normans in 858 and occupied for eight years; Members of the court had to be ransomed for high ransom money. The conquerors, who had already destroyed Algeciras , also attacked the Balearic Islands and the coast of southern France. Only in 866 did they give up Nakur again, which was now strengthened by the Salihids.
But at the beginning of the 10th century these got caught up in the battle between the Umayyads and Fatimids. The Salihid emir Said was asked by the Fatimid caliph al-Mahdi to submit. Because he refused, Nakur was attacked by the Miknasa- Berber Masala ibn Habus, the Fatimid governor of Tahert , and conquered in 917. While Said perished, his three sons Idris, al-Mutasim and Salih were able to go to Málaga to the Umayyad Abd ar-Rahman III. flee. He helped them regain Nakur, whom Masala had entrusted to a governor named Dalul after six months and then left. After the Salihids had taken the occupation by surprise, Salih took control of the city and ruled it as a vassal of the Emir of Cordoba. As early as 921, however, Nakur was taken again by Masala and after that (928/29, 935) several Fatimid attacks took place.
Religious center Tahert, the role of the Ibādīya (until around 940)
Tahert in the Rustamid Empire developed into the religious and cultural center of the Kharijites in the Maghreb. Many of them went there from the Middle East, where they were persecuted. The realm of the rustamids participated increasingly in the caravan trade and grain exports to Andalusia. Politically, however, the Imamate was unstable due to its dependence on the allied Berber tribes and disputes over a suitable ruler. After Ibn Rustam's death in 788, the Nukkar , a main branch of the Ibdadites that has existed up to the present, split off .
Under Muhammad (828-836) the Idrisid kingdom was divided between the twelve sons of Idris II. This created several rival principalities, the most important in the Rif Mountains among the Ghumara Berbers.
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Flight of the Kharijites (909), origin of the Ibadites, separation of the Nukkār
In 909 the Imamate of the Rustamids was conquered by the Shiite Fatimids. The surviving Kharijites withdrew to Sedrata near today's Ouargla (not to be confused with Sedrata in the north-east of the country) in the Sahara. As the burial place of the last imam of Tahert, Sedrata developed into an important trade and pilgrimage center for the Ibadites. The beginnings of the Ibadis are in Basra in southern Iraq, which was a center of the Kharijites from the 680s. Jabir ibn Zaid from Oman worked here from 679 . He was a student of ʿAbdallāh ibn ʿAbbās and issued legal opinions , in which he relied primarily on Ra'y , the independent legal system of the legal scholars. Jābir, who died in 712, is considered by the Ibādites to be one of their most important authorities to this day. They only granted the other Muslims the status of ahl al- qibla , people who pray in the right direction of prayer, but who do not belong to the actual community.
Abū ʿUbaida converted his community into a mission network and sent men to the provinces of the empire with the task of planting Ibaadite churches. Most of these advertisers were also active as dealers. With the money they generated, a fund was set up in Basra, with which the community gained financial independence. Like the other Kharijites, the Ibadis were of the opinion that the imamate was not limited to the tribe of the Prophet Mohammed, the Quraish , but was open to everyone whom the Muslims elected to lead their state. They preached the principle of friendship and solidarity with all who lived in the spirit of Islam and avoidance of those who did not keep the commandments. The latter was directed primarily against the Umayyads.
Around 748 the Ibādites established their own imamate in Tripolitania, and around 750 the Ibādites of Oman paid homage to al-Dschulandā ibn Masʿūd, a descendant of the former ruling family there, as the first “imam of emergence”. Although this Ibaadite imam of Oman was overthrown by an Abbasid military expedition in 752, i.e. by the successors of the Umayyads, a new empire with Ibaadite orientation emerged with the Rustamid imamate of Tāhart in 778.
After the death of the first rustamid in 784, tensions arose. The ruler's son, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, had only been able to prevail over another candidate on the electoral body by promising to resign if they were dissatisfied. After taking power, however, he did not keep his promise because he believed that once an imam was elected, he would enjoy absolute authority. The opponents of the new Rustamid ruler seceded themselves as a community of their own called the Nukkār.
End of the Idrisids of Fez (927/985), loss of importance of the Ibadites, Fatimid rule
The Idriside Yahya IV was first expelled from Fez in 917 by the Miknasa Masala ibn Habus, a governor of the Fatimids, who was under the supervision of Musa ibn Abi l-Afiya from 922 onwards. Under this Miknasa chief, who was initially loyal to Fatimid, all Idrisids were hunted down and the dynasty was finally driven out of their capital in 927. The other lines, such as that of Tétouan, now got into the changeable battle between the Fatimids and the Umayyads for supremacy over the outer Maghreb.
In the 940s, Machlad ibn Kaidād, a member of the Nukkār, organized an uprising that almost brought down the Fatimid caliphate. After the collapse of the uprising, the Ibādīya in north-west Africa finally lost its political role as a state-supporting religious doctrine.
After the victorious campaign of the Fatimid military leader Dschauhar as-Siqillī (958-960), several Idrisid princes were taken hostage to the court in al-Mansuriya, presented by al-Muizz and sent back to Morocco as vassals. In 974 al-Hasan, the last Idrisiden-Emir of Hajar an-Nasr, had to go back to Abd ar-Rahman III. subjugate and come with me to Cordoba; after his return with Fatimid support he was killed in 985 by the Umayyads.
Victory of the Shiite Fatimids
Tribal groups of the Berbers: Zanāta, Masmuda and Ṣanhāǧa
The large tribal groups of the Berbers in the Maghreb were the Zanāta , the Masmuda and the Ṣanhāǧa . While the Zanāta were expelled by the Ṣanhāǧa from northwest and eastern Algeria to Morocco and Spain, the Ṣanhāǧa tribes settled in the Middle Atlas . For their part, they were faced with Arab invaders who came from the east and took possession of a large part of their territory. At the same time the unity of the Zanāta disintegrated. Part of the Ṣanhāǧa settled in eastern Algeria (Kutāma) and formed an important pillar for the rise of the Fatimids . In contrast, the Moroccan Zanāta allied themselves against the Fatimids with the Caliphate of Cordoba , so that this also reflected the disruption of the large Berber groups, especially since the Miknāsa-Zanāta fought long on the side of the Fatimids. In the end, the Zanāta played a crucial role in the downfall of the Emirate of Córdoba.
Temporary dominance of the Shiite Kutāma (until 911), rise of the Fatimids
The Kutāma conquered Eastern Algeria after 900, in 909 their leader Abū ʿAbdallāh asch-Shīʿī (893–911), who had founded an extremely successful Shiite cell among the Kutāma in 893, even managed to conquer Kairuan. Eventually these Shiites reached far to the west in the direction of Sidschilmasa and freed their captive Abdallah al-Mahdi .
Both leaders strove for secular rule, although the Berber had only intended spiritual leadership for his ally. But in a brutal coup on February 18, 911, the Berber rule was overturned and its leaders murdered. As a result, Arabization intensified.
In December 909, Abdallah al-Mahdi proclaimed himself caliph and thus founded the Fatimid dynasty, which ruled until 1171, but in 972 shifted its main focus to Egypt. Abdallah viewed his Sunni opponents, the Umayyads and the Abbasids, as usurpers. He himself was a representative of the Ismailis , a radical wing of the Shiites. The Ismailis had operated from their center of Salamiyya in northern Syria since the middle of the 9th century and had expanded their influence through missionaries. The Fatimids, however, failed to introduce Sharia law .
The attack on the western Maghreb began in 917. Fez was captured, but the Berbers of the West successfully resisted. The Umayyads, who supported them, conquered Melilla and Ceuta in return in 927 and 931 . In contrast, the Takalata branch of the Ṣanhāǧa Confederation, to which the Kutama also belonged, stood on the side of the Fatimids.
Ismail al-Mansur (946–953) succeeded the second Fatimid ruler, who died in 946 . With the help of the Berber Zirids (972–1149), who also belonged to the Ṣanhāǧa, he was able to subdue the Banu Ifran in western Algeria and Morocco: the last great revolt of the Kharijite Banu-Ifran tribe under Abu Yazid took place after four years in 947 dejected. The Banu Ifran had conquered large parts of the empire, but their coalition broke up during the siege of Mahdia . Then the third Fatimid caliph took the nickname "al-Mansur". The Banu Ifran themselves had founded a caliphate under Abu Qurra in the western Algerian town of Tlemcen between 765 and 786, but had come under the rule of the Moroccan Magrawa . They were now defeated by the Fatimids when they wanted to form an alliance with Cordoba, and were eventually driven to Morocco.
The fourth Fatimid caliph was Abu Tamim al-Muizz (953-975). From 955 he fought the Berbers and the Umayyads allied with them in the west. The conquest of Northwest Africa was completed in 968, after an armistice had been agreed with Byzantium in 967 . The Fatimids succeeded in conquering the empire of the Ichschididen of Egypt and territories of the Abbasids from 969 onwards. Finally, in 972, the Fatimids moved their residence to the newly founded Cairo . The focus of the vastly grown empire was now Egypt.
Zirids (972–1149), Ḥammādids
To secure rule in the west, Abu Tamim al-Muizz placed rule over Ifriqiya in the hands of Buluggin ibn Ziri († 984), who founded the Zirid dynasty. He was the son of Ziri ibn Manad , the main Fatimid ally in Algeria and namesake of the dynasty.
Under Buluggin ibn Ziri, Algiers was founded; he fought the Zanata tribes in the west. In 972 he was appointed viceroy in Ifriqiya. However, the Fatimids had taken the fleet with them so that the Kalbites could make themselves independent in Sicily. During a campaign in Morocco, Buluggin advanced to the Atlantic, but died. His son and successor al-Mansur ibn Ziri († 995) could not hold the conquests in the west. His heir and son Bādīs ibn Zīrī († 1016) was able to drive his great-uncle Zāwī ibn Zīrī to the Iberian Peninsula with Fatimid help, but there he founded the Zirid Empire of Granada (1012-1090). More serious was that his uncle Hammād could not prevent the founding of an empire. The Ziride al-Mansur also failed when trying to control Sidschilmasa and Fez.
Independence of the Zirids, Banu Hillal, Arabization, Sunnis
1016 there was an uprising in Ifriqiya, in the course of which the Fatimid residence in al-Mansuriya near Kairuan was destroyed. In addition, 20,000 Shiites were allegedly massacred. The Fatimids retaliated by supporting a Zanata uprising in Tripolitania in 1027. When al-Muʿizz, under the influence of Sunni legal scholars in Kairuan, recognized the Abbasids in Baghdad as legitimate caliphs in 1045 , there was a final break with the Fatimids. The Fatimids then sent the Banū Hilāl and Banu Sulaym westward. The invasion of these Arab Bedouins in 1051 and 1052 led to massive devastation and significant migrations.
The extensive migrations destroyed the balance between nomadic and sedentary Berbers and led to a mix of the population. The Arab , hitherto spoken only of the urban elite and the court began the Berber influence. In addition, many Berbers fled west and south. With the increased Arabization and Islamization, the other religions were displaced. There were 47 bishoprics in North Africa around 1000, at the time of Pope Leo IX. only five left.
Almoravids
At the beginning of the 11th century, nomadic Sanhajah ranchers lived in the western Sahara, where they controlled the caravan trade between Sudan and the Maghreb. However, this trade was significantly disrupted by the advance of the Magrawa , who belonged to the Zanata, in western Algeria and the subjugation of Sidschilmasa. The dissolution of the Sanhajah League at the beginning of the 11th century led to a period of unrest and war between the Berbers.
Around 1039 a Djudala tribal leader brought a theologian of the Sanhajah, Abdallah ibn Yasin († 1059), with him from his pilgrimage to Mecca . After a revolt of the tribes, Ibn Yasin and some Sanhajah from his entourage withdrew with his supporters to the south, where he founded a ribat in Senegal . In alliance with Yahya ibn Umar, the leader of the Lamtuna tribe, he struck down the Djudala. The legend comes from the Arab historian Ibn Abi Zarʿ († around 1315) that the remote place is said to have been an island called Rābi ,a, from which the name Murābiṭūn was derived. In 1042 the "Almurabitun", the "men of the Ribat", called for jihad against the infidels and those among the Sanhajah who did not want to follow the teachings of the Malikites . In the middle of the century the war league of the Almoravids emerged under Yahya ibn Umar (1046-1056). This restored the political unity of the Sanhajah with a religious goal. From 1054 the Almoravids controlled Sidschilmasa and also conquered Audaghast in the empire of Ghana .
Ibn Yasin introduced a strict order, u. a. Wine and music were banned, and non-Islamic taxes were abolished. He conceded a fifth of the spoils of war to the religious scholars. Against this rigorous interpretation of Islam, there was an uprising in Sidschilmasa in 1055.
The leadership of the movement went in the south to Abu Bakr ibn Umar (1056-1087), Emir of Adrar, and in the north to Yusuf ibn Tashfin (1061-1106). Ibn Yasin died in 1059 while attempting to subjugate what he saw as heretical Bargawata on the Atlantic coast.
In 1070 Abu Bakr ibn Umar founded Marrakech as the capital of the empire. In the south he waged war against the empire of Ghana up to the conquest of Koumbi Saleh in 1076. Yusuf ibn Tashfin organized the northern empire mainly with the support of his legal scholars. Under him, the Almoravids conquered the kingdoms of the Magrawa and Salihids in the Rif in 1075, as well as western Algeria from the Hammadids in 1082. Thus, the entire western Maghreb was under the rule of the Almoravids.
In 1086, at the request of the Muslim princes of al-Andalus, a campaign took place in the course of which Alfonso VI. of León and Castile in the battle of Zallaqa on October 23, 1086. By 1092, the Almoravids prevailed through the annexation of the Taifa kingdoms , into which the Iberian Peninsula had disintegrated since 1031. Only Valencia under El Cid and Saragossa under the Hudids (1039–1110) remained independent. The rigorous enforcement of the Puritan Islam of the Almoravids in urban Andalusian culture led to considerable resistance. Their zeal was directed not only against those of different faiths, but also against those Muslims whom they accused of religious negligence.
Under Ali ibn Yusuf (1106–1143) Valencia and Saragossa as well as the Balearic Islands were subjugated, but Saragossa was lost to Aragon in 1118 , while the strict reform movement of the Almohads began to spread in southern Morocco . The huge empire disintegrated in clashes after the death of Abu Bakr in 1087.
A new reformist power led by the Zanata Almohads conquered the Almoravid empire. After the death of Ali ibn Yusuf in 1143 and after the uprisings of the Murids , the Almoravids had to withdraw from Andalusia. With the storming of Marrakech by the Almohads in 1147 and the death of the last Almoravid Ishaq ibn Ali , the dynasty ended.
Probably the most important contribution of the Sanhajah and the Almoravids to the history of West Africa was the Islamization of other areas, the expulsion of the Kharijites and other Islamic communities, and the establishment of denominational unity in Morocco on a Maliki basis.
Almohads (1145/1152 to 1235), founding of Rabat
Around 1035 a religious movement arose in Mauritania within the Sanhajah Confederation under the leadership of Ibn Yasin . It was a response to the simultaneous threat from the Soninke of Ghana and from Berber tribes coming from the north, and was influenced by the ideas of the prevailing Maliki school of law in Kairuan. The Sanhadscha of Mauritania, especially the veiled Lamtuna , formed a kind of aristocracy with numerous privileges. Under Yusuf ibn Tashfin they conquered Morocco and from 1086 large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, their capital was Marrakech, founded in 1070. The Malkite legal scholars often gave instructions to civil servants, so that they gained considerable power. Mystical movements from Spain and the Islamic East turned against them.
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In 1121 Ibn Tumart , a Masmuda from the High Atlas, founded a corresponding theologically based movement, the Almohads , for which he won followers from eight tribes. He demanded a return to the Koran and tradition ( Hadith ) and opposed the dominance of the four schools of law; at the same time he opposed the literal interpretation of the Koran. In addition, the Almohads emphasized the absolute unity of God, which is why they called themselves "unity professors" (al-muwaḥḥidūn or Almohads). This teaching precluded the assignment of certain characteristics to God as well as the comparison with other beings. The holy war against the Almoravids was more important than against the followers of other religions. In 1128/29 there was a violent argument, as a result of which Ibn Tumart's opponent was killed. On May 13, 1129 his army was defeated at al-Buhayra, and the siege of Marrakech failed. The Mahdi died on August 20, 1130. His death was reportedly kept secret for three years.
His successor, the Qumiya Berber Abd al-Mumin , succeeded in conquering Morocco from 1133 to 1148, Fez and Marrakech fell in 1146, and from 1147 al-Andalus, which had broken up into small states, was conquered. In 1149 he overthrew the Almoravid dynasty in Morocco. A rebellion was followed by a brutal purge that allegedly killed 32,000 people. In 1151, the Almohads began attacking the Hammadid Empire and triumphed over Bougie , finally conquering the Zirid Empire in Tunisia from 1155 to 1160.
The Arabization of the Berbers was further accelerated by the resettlement of Arab Bedouin tribes from Ifriqiya and Tripolitania to Morocco. Banu Hillal from the Hammadid Empire were also resettled. They replaced the destroyed "heretical" Barġawāṭa of the Atlantic coast. The Masmudah Berbers ruled the empire, but, unlike their predecessors, they had a less clearly defined religious goal. For the only time under the Almohads, the entire Maghreb was united under a Berber dynasty. In 1161 the caliph crossed with an army to Spain and conquered Granada. In 1163 he died in Ribat, a huge army camp to which Rabat , today's capital of Morocco, goes back. From 1172 the Muslim part of the Iberian Peninsula was an Almohad province.
The Almohads pursued an extremely intolerant religious policy. They closed churches and synagogues in Granada and other cities and demanded conversion to Islam under threat of death. The family of the Jewish scholar Maimonides preferred to flee, spent several years unsteadily on the Iberian Peninsula and probably settled in Fez in 1160. In 1165 the family left the Almohad Empire and went to the more tolerant Cairo. Maimonides became court doctor and in 1177 the leader of the Jewish community there.
The final phase of Almohad rule began when the Banu Ghaniya, who ruled Muslim Spain for the Almoravids and occupied the Balearic Islands in 1148, conquered Algeria in 1184 and Tunisia in 1203. In the widening anarchy, the Arab Bedouins gained in importance. By 1235 the Almohads lost their rule on the Iberian Peninsula, and they lost the Maghreb to three Berber tribes. Ifriqiya went to the Hafsiden . In 1248 Fez went to the Banu Marin, a group of the Zanata, and in 1269 they also took Marrakech into their hands. As early as the 1230s, another Zanata group, the Abdalwadids , had begun to conquer western Algeria, which they ruled until the mid-16th century.
Merinids, marabutism
Dominance of the Merinids in the west, the Hafsids in the east
From the second half of the 14th century, the entire Maghreb came under the influence of the Merinids of Abu Inan Faris . The Merinide Abu l-Hasan had conquered the kingdom of the Abdalwadids after a marriage alliance with the Tunisian Hafsids and also subjugated the east of the Maghreb and Tripolitania from 1346 to 1347. The Banū Marīn belonged to the Zanata and lived in eastern Algeria in the 11th century. They had been forced westward into the Orange by the Banu Hillal. Like the other Zanata, they were in opposition to the Almohads, but took part in the Battle of Alarcos, in which the Almohads under Yaʿqūb al-Mansūr together with the Merinids defeated the army of Castile under Alfonso VIII .
'Abu al-Ḥaqq, the son and successor of the tribal leader who died after the victory, was killed in a battle near Fez in 1217. His tribe now moved to the edge of the Sahara. The rise of the Banū Marīn began under Abū Yaḥya Abū Bakr (1244–1258). Meknes was conquered in 1245, Fez in 1248 and the rest of northern Morocco. Abū Yūsuf Ya'qūb (1258–1286), governor of Fès, was able to assert himself as head of the Banū Marīn, eliminate the remnants of Almohad rule in the High Atlas and in the Sūs and conquer Marrakech in 1269, and finally the far north of Morocco in 1273/74. He protected the marabouts and supported the Iberian Nasrids in four campaigns. From these he had Algeciras relinquished as a bridgehead. With the establishment of New Fès, he had a new capital built for what was now the most powerful empire in the Maghreb. Under his successor Abū Ya'qūb Yūsuf (1286-1307) there was a first uprising of the related Banū Waṭṭas in the Rif in 1292.
The Merinids have been under increased pressure from the Reconquista states on the Spanish mainland since the conquest of Algeciras in 1344 . In 1348 the Merinid ruler had to flee Tunis after a heavy defeat. His son Abu Inan attempted the conquest again from 1356 to 1357, but he too was subject to Arab tribal confederations and had to leave the country just as hastily as his father.
Conquest of the entire Maghreb, loss of the Iberian territories (until 1344)
While eastern Algeria remained in the hands of the Tunisian Hafsids, Morocco in the hands of the Merinids, in 1235 Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan ibn Zayyan made himself independent of the Almohads as the leader of the Berber Banu Abd al-Wad (also: Banu Ziyan / Zayyan). The capital became Tagrart, today's Tlemcen or Berber Tilimsan.
Like the Moroccan Empire of the Merinids, the Abdalwadid Empire in western Algeria was a creation of the Zanata. The Abdalwadids now tried to prevent the Merinids from becoming overwhelming and they supported their former overlords. In 1250, 1260 and 1268 they invaded the Merinid Empire. Although they were repulsed in all three cases, the Merinids were thus deprived of the opportunity to take more forceful action against the Almohads in the south.
Initially, the rulers relied on the Banu Hilal, then, in order to be able to withstand the Merinids in Morocco and the Hafsids, they tied themselves to the Nasrids of Granada and, what was particularly explosive for the Merinids, to the Kingdom of Castile . From 1283 the Merinids attacked their eastern neighbors in four campaigns. In 1295 the Merinids attacked them again, they besieged Tlemcen from May 1299 to 1307 and built a rival city called al-Mansura, "the victorious". But the assassination of the Merinid ruler Abū Ya'qūb Yūsuf in May 1307 ended the long siege and the Abdalwadids destroyed al-Mansura.
Under Abū Sa'īd 'Uṯmān (1310–1331) there was a peaceful epoch in which three madrasas were founded. There civil servants were trained, who in turn were used to centralize the empire. Through Ibn Abī Tsar 'he had the story of the Idrisids written in the sense of Orthodoxy; In the long term, a comprehensive cult around Idris II developed from this, with the privileges of his descendants.
Already in the Treaty of Monteagudo of December 1291 a kind of spheres of interest between Aragon and Castile had been agreed. Aragon claimed privileges with the Hafsids and the Abdalwadids, Castile in the Merinid Empire. In addition, the Merinids had refused in 1276 to conclude a peace and trade treaty with Aragon. When the two Iberian powers were at war, Aragon tried in 1286 to bring about an alliance with the Merinids against Castile, but this was also refused. The Merinids remained neutral, as did the Iberian Nasrids, but they saw the conquest of the Abdalwadid Empire as an opportunity to defend themselves against the continued pressure of the two Christian states.
The Abdalwadids, who wanted to take action against the Hafsids, were opposed by a coalition of the Hafsids with the Merinids. In 1337 Tlemcen fell to the Merinids. The victor, Abul-Hassan (1331-1351), succeeded in occupying the Abdalwadid Empire by 1348. The rival city of al-Mansura was rebuilt. In 1352 the Merinids also defeated an alliance of Abdalwadids and Arabs in the Angad plain north of Oujda . Tilimsan was reoccupied, and in 1347 the Merinid army was even in Tunis, although it had to withdraw after a defeat by the Bedouins near Kairuan.
Against the Castilians, the Merinids also suffered a crushing defeat on October 30, 1340 during the siege of Tarifa. In 1344 Algeciras fell, with which the Merinids finally disappeared from the Iberian Peninsula. Eventually his son rose against Abū l-Ḥasan, who died in 1351 in the High Atlas.
These battles within the Maghreb were probably related to the fact that in the course of massive political changes south of the Sahara, which included the penetration of Arab tribes into the Draa Valley in the 13th century, then the collapse of the Empire of Ghana and the relocation of the Gold and trade flows to the east. All this led to strong competition for Sidschilmasa from Algerian and Tunisian cities, as the city lost its trade monopoly.
Loss of the Eastern and Central Maghreb, a vassal state of Tilimsan
After Tunisia was evacuated, the Merinid rule in Algeria also began to falter, and Tlemcen fell in 1359. For decades, the Abdalwadids resisted the Merinids, who drove him out of his capital in 1359, 1360, 1370 and 1383.
In 1383 the Abdalwadids planned to move their capital to Algiers in order to evade the nearby Merinid Empire. To this end, Abu Hammu wanted to send his court treasure to Algiers in 1386, but one of his sons feared that he would be excluded from the succession. This Abu Tashfin had his father arrested in January 1387, but Abu Hammu managed to escape and in July 1388 he was back in Tlemcen. His son now allied himself with the Merinids. The army leaving Fez succeeded in killing Abu Hammu. Abu Tashfin received Tlemcen, but the Abdalwadids remained vassals of the Merinids until 1424. The tomb mosque of the mystic and city patron Abu Madyan (1126–1198), built by the Merinids in 1339, is of particular importance .
Between the great powers, Sufi order, Republic of Salé
Morocco got caught up in the conflicts between the world empires in the 15th and 16th centuries. Spain, the new great power on the Iberian Peninsula, and the Ottoman Empire, the new eastern great power, fought each other primarily in the Mediterranean. A zone formed around Morocco in which their conflicts mixed with religious and local conflicts. Society and economy were oriented towards this struggle and provided the resources for holy wars on both sides. At the same time, Portugal and Spain competed in trade and occupied numerous bases along the coast, while the Ottomans extended their power to Algeria.
Wattasids (1472–1554)
The Wattasids , initially regents of the Merinids, de facto took over power in Morocco in the 1420s, which they ruled independently from 1472 until they were overthrown by the Saadians in 1554. However, when they had to give in to the Iberian states too much, they lost their reputation and Sufis and marabouts increasingly opposed them.
The Banū Waṭṭās were Zanata and related to the Merinids. In the 13th century they had moved from Tripolitania to eastern Algeria. Even if they did not eliminate the Merinid dynasty, their rulers were entirely dependent on the Wattasids. After Abdalhaqq II (1421–1465) had operated in vain to overthrow the Wattasids, in 1472 they finally achieved rule in Morocco under Muḥammed aš-Šayḫ al-Mahdi .
But the Wattasids failed to pacify the country. Their authority over the Bedouin and Berber tribes was neither sufficient nor could they prevent the Portuguese from conquering the ports on the Atlantic. A truce even had to be concluded with Portugal for twenty years after they had conquered Tangier in 1471. This led to an enormous loss of reputation in large parts of the population. Also some principalities of the Meriniden and Idrisiden in the Rifgebirge kept their independence for a long time.
At the same time, the Saadians under Sherif Abu Abdallah al-Qaim (1505–1517) built their own sphere of power as the basis for the fight against the Portuguese. Although the Saadians were temporarily stopped by the Wattasids under the regent Bou Hassoun , they gained broad popular support through their fight against the Portuguese. They resided in Marrakech from 1525 and recaptured Agadir from the Portuguese in 1541 . They also forced their withdrawal from Safi and Azammur. Now they were able to prevail against the ruling dynasty and overthrow the Wattasids in Fez in 1549. An Ottoman intervention in favor of the Wattasids failed.
Saadians, defense of the Ottomans and Spaniards
The Saadians asserted themselves not only against the Portuguese, but above all against the Ottoman Empire, which at the beginning of the 16th century ruled the entire North African Mediterranean coast with the exception of Morocco and had also made neighboring Algeria a vassal in 1519. During the attempts at conquering the Ottomans, they succeeded in occupying Fez and interfering in the line of succession of the Saadians. Under Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1603), however, Morocco was finally able to assert itself against the Ottomans and became a regional power whose influence extended far beyond the Sahara.
At the same time, Moors and Jews began to immigrate from Andalusia, whose last Muslim rule had been conquered by the Spanish in 1492. In 1534 the Spaniards captured Tilimsan, which resulted in a massacre. 1,500 Jews were enslaved, but Jews from Fez and Oran bought them free.
Expansion of Castile-Spain
In 1492 the Castile army entered the last Muslim city on Iberian soil without a fight. The Muslims were encouraged to emigrate and in the following year 6,000 of them left the peninsula for the Maghreb. After failed attempts at conversion, the Castilian government switched to forced conversions from 1499, and Jews who did not want to convert had to leave the country as early as 1492.
At the same time, Spain was preparing to expand to the other side of the Mediterranean, but was held up by clashes with France over the Kingdom of Naples . In addition, there was the surprising opportunity to expand to America from 1492, which soon tied up enormous forces, and which made the expansion to North Africa appear secondary. Spain was content with the occupation of bases (presidios) along the African coast. But the presidios remained dependent on Spanish food and arms deliveries. The Spaniards held Alcazarquivir from 1458 to 1550, Tangier from 1471–1580 (again 1640–1668), Asilah from 1471 to 1550 (again 1577–1580), then Safi between 1488 and 1541. They also briefly occupied the Fortaleza da Graciosa in 1489. Malila ( Melilla ) was not occupied until 1497.
Competition between Portugal and Spain, interference by France (from 1536)
In addition, the Spaniards in Morocco competed fiercely with Portugal, which conquered a long chain of bases on the Atlantic coast. Between 1458 and 1755, despite their crushing defeat in the Battle of Alcácer-Quibir (1578) , the Portuguese ruled a number of bases along the coast, which they called the Rei do Algarve dalém mar em África (Kingdom of the Algarve over the sea in Africa) . In the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 they agreed with the competing Spaniards on the division of this part of North Africa. In Morocco in 1505 Agadir (until 1541), 1506 El Jadida (until 1580 and again 1640–1769), Mogador (until 1510) and Aguz (until 1526) were occupied by Portuguese, then in 1513 Azemmour (until 1541) and 1515 Casablanca , which came to Spain from 1580 to 1640 together with Portugal, then again from 1640 to 1755 to the again independent Portugal.
But the Spaniards, who looked more towards Oran and Tunis, occupied some coastal towns in Morocco, such as Ifni on the heights of the Canary Islands, which they held from 1476 to 1524 (again 1868-1969), then in 1505 Cazaza near Melilla (until 1532 ). In 1610 Larache (until 1689) and 1616 La Mamora (until 1681) were added.
All in all, the empires of the Maghreb, which had neither the technology nor the population, which also had neither the resources of large urban conurbations nor adequate centralization, had little opportunity to openly defend themselves. However, Morocco was able to maintain its function as a buffer state between the great powers.
In 1536, the Kingdom of France and the Ottoman Empire signed a treaty which provided in secret clauses that the two powers would support each other against Spain. France felt threatened from two sides by the Habsburg Empire. Emperor Charles V, for his part, offered the pirate Khair ad-Din Barbarossa , who was in Ottoman service, rule from Algiers to Tripoli under Spanish sovereignty. But this offer had no consequences due to mutual distrust.
Between 1557 and 1584, when the Habsburgs and Ottomans vied for control of the Old World, the pirate war was also at its height. In 1571 the Spanish-Venetian fleet defeated the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto , but two years later Cyprus finally fell to the Istanbul Empire; Tunisia became a province of the Ottoman Empire in 1574.
Ottoman expansion attempts to Morocco, Saadier
But Istanbul's influence did not reach as far as Morocco, where Sherif , who were believed to be the descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, rose. In 1552 Hassan, the son of Khair ad-Din and lord of Algiers, was recalled as there were repeated conflicts with the Saadians, who ruled the country to the west between 1549 and 1664. But Istanbul had an interest in bringing together all Muslim forces. So Salah Ra'is obtained rule over Algiers, but he did not succeed in working with the Saadians either.
At the beginning of 1554 Salah Ra'is conquered Fez and left 'Ali Abu-Hassun there with some Janissaries . But as early as September the troops under Muhammad el-Sheikh recaptured the city. He established contacts with the Spaniards in Oran in order to prepare a joint attack on Algiers. But at first Spain refused, but changed course when the Ottomans captured Béjaia and in turn attacked Oran. When the Ottomans broke off the siege of Orange in August 1556 - in the meantime the Moroccans had conquered Tilimsan - the Spaniard Alcaudete traveled from Oran to Madrid and his envoys to Morocco, where they reached an agreement to work together. On the other hand, envoys Muhammad al-Sheikh asked to mint coins in the name of the Ottomans and to submit to the Sultan in public prayer. However, this refused. In October of that year he was murdered by alleged Turkish deserters whom he had taken in. But neither party could decide the battle in Wadi al-Laban north of Fez in their favor. The Turkish army had to withdraw to Algiers in 1558.
In 1576 the corsairs made another attempt to gain a foothold in Morocco; 'Abd al-Malik was installed there as an ally of Istanbul. Spain, for its part, became increasingly embroiled in the struggle for the Reformation in northern Europe, especially in the Netherlands, and the crown was faced with a new Atlantic rival, namely England. His traders even appeared in Morocco, which in turn brought Portugal to the scene. In addition, people in Lisbon mistrusted Venice , which they trusted to interfere in the Atlantic trade. Spain also tried to destabilize the country in 1595/96.
From the Habsburg-Ottoman armistice of 1581, there was a tendency to turn Morocco into a kind of buffer state. France and Habsburg made peace in 1598, the Habsburgs and the Ottomans in 1604, and the Habsburgs and the Netherlands in 1609.
Saadier (1549-1659)
Opposition to the Wattasids
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In the resistance of the religious brotherhoods and marabouts, Islamic saints, mostly from the Sufism tradition , the Saadians took the lead under the Sherif Abu Abdallah al-Qaim (1509-1517). They established their power base in southern Morocco, in Taroudannt , by uniting the Banū Saʿd with the tribe of the Banū Maʿqil. The Banū Maʿqil had come from Yemen in small numbers in the 13th century . With the conquest of the Portuguese Agadir (1541), the Saadians gained broad support and were able to overthrow the ruling dynasty in 1549.
Assertion against the Ottomans and Portuguese under Ahmed al Mansur (1578–1603)
The sultans Muhammad al-Sheikh (1549–1557) and Abdallah al-Galib (1557–1574) were able to assert themselves against the Ottomans. In the struggle for the succession to the throne, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik (1576–1578) was able to secure rule with Ottoman help.
The dethroned Abu Abdallah al-Mutawakkil (1574–1576) then turned to the Portuguese king for support in the fight for his claim to the throne. The ambassador of Abu Abdallah disguised this plan by pointing to a threat to the bases and maritime trade of Portugal, which the new sultan would attack as an avowed enemy of Christianity. When King Sebastian I then tried to bring the dethroned Abu Abdallah back to the throne, the invading army failed at Qsar al-Kabir . In June 1578 it set out with 500 ships for Arzila, where Abu Abdallah had gathered with his followers and another 6,000 allies. This army of around 24,000 men was opposed to the sultan's troops by around 15,000 Ottoman janissaries, about 40,000 men. On August 4, 1578, around 9,000 men were killed, including many Portuguese nobles and the king. Only about 100 Portuguese managed to escape to the coast, most of the armed forces, about 16,000 men, were taken prisoner. Abu Abdallah and Sultan Abd al-Malik were also killed. In order to be able to release the numerous prisoners, a significant part of the Portuguese state treasury had to be given to the Moroccan treasury.
Short-term expansion towards Niger (1590–1591)
Now Ahmad al-Mansur was able to assert himself as ruler. New trade agreements attempted to exploit the contrast between the Spanish Empire, to which Portugal also fell in 1580, and the Protestant states, above all England. As well as trade with London, Trans-Saharan trade was encouraged. In 1584, Morocco brought the Taghaza salt mines in the Sahara under its control in order to be able to make higher profits from the trade . Then the Moroccans smashed the Songhai Empire on the Niger in 1591 and conquered the trading centers of Gao and Timbuktu (1590–1591). However, the Sahara trade from there to Morocco was severely damaged and shifted eastward to Tripoli and Tunis.
Ahmad al-Mansur first recognized the suzerainty of the Ottomans in order to end the attacks by Turkish corsairs on the coast. At the same time he began to build a strong army of Turks, Kabyle and Moriscus , reorganized the administration and restructured the state finances. In addition to the promotion of science and culture, there was increased construction activity. This is how the Taza fortress was created and the fortifications of Fez were expanded. Architects from Florence are said to have built the el Badi Palace in Marrakech . Among the most important scholars at the court of Ahmad al-Mansūrs were the biographer and panegyric Shihāb ad-Dīn Ibn al-Qādī († 1616), the writer Abd al-Azīz al-Fīschtālī († 1631/2), who was also head of the chancellery and court historian acted, and the religious scholar Muhammad ibn Qāsim al-Qassār († 1604), who worked as Mufti and Chatīb at the Qarawīyīn Mosque in Fez. They celebrated the new ruler and his role for Islam.
Splintering of rule (from 1603), Dila brotherhood (until 1668)
After the death of al-Mansur in 1603, power struggles broke out due to a lack of succession to the throne. Two Saadian lines prevailed in Fez and Marrakech. During this time, Morocco took in many of the moriscos who had been driven from Spain. Parts of them settled in Salé, where they founded an independent corsair empire between 1603 and 1668. In 1626 Fez was lost to the Dila Brotherhood , and in 1659 the Alaouites conquered Marrakech and ended Saadian rule.
The Dila Brotherhood, a major Sufi brotherhood or Tariqa , was founded by Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad (1537-1612), a disciple of the mystic al-Jazuli (1390s to 1465). He was one of the Seven Saints of Marrakech . The headquarters of the brotherhood was ad-Dila in the Middle Atlas, the ruins of which are about 30 km south of Khénifra . Under Abu Bakr's successor Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (1612–1637), the brotherhood expanded its influence on the tribes in the High Atlas. With Muhammad al-Hajjj (1635–1688) the brotherhood reached its greatest influence.
After 1637, the members of the Brotherhood began to conquer Morocco, where they were able to defeat Muhammad al-Ayyaschi in Meknes in 1640. He was ruler of the independent pirate republic Bou-Regreg of Salé, which shortly after fell into the hands of the brotherhood. After the conquest of Fez in 1641, they overthrew the northern sidelines of the Saadian people. In contrast, the Alaouites prevailed in southern Morocco. In 1664 they defeated the troops of the Dila Brotherhood near Meknes in a three-day battle. In 1668 they had ad-Dila destroyed and the brotherhood dissolved.
Republic of Salé (1627–1668)
At the end of the 16th century, Muḥammad al-ʿAyyāši (1573–1641), a member of the Arab tribe of the Banu Malik, came to Salé in the Rharb region further north on the coast to pursue Islamic studies. Al-Ayyaschi was made governor of Azemmour on behalf of the Saadian sultan. From there he attacked the Spaniards in neighboring El Jadida and soon became a rival for the Sultan. He sent an army from Marrakech against him in 1614, but al-Ayyaschi went with his men to Salé. There he declared holy war on the Spaniards, and from Salé he worked as a pirate until his death in 1641. The surrounding area and the coastal strip further north became under his rule an independent state of corsairs , whose prey targets were European merchant ships.
Moors came as Moriscos forcibly converted to Christianity, who were expelled to Morocco in large numbers between 1609 and 1614. They were given their own district on the other side of the river near the Kasbah. The Dutch navigator Jan Janszoon (around 1570 - around 1641), better known under the Arabic name Murad Reis, also joined the pirates. Initially a pirate on his own account, he moved from his base in Algiers to Salé in 1619, where he was promoted to admiral of the pirate fleet. In 1623 Sultan Mulai Ziden appointed him governor of Salé. Presumably it was not a real appointment of the Sultan, but only the confirmation of an accomplished fact in order to preserve the outward appearance of the sovereign. The Dutch who converted to Islam received a daughter of the sultan as his third wife in 1624. From 1627 the political situation deteriorated for him, as the leadership of the Kasbah founded the independent Republic of Bou-Regreg. So he moved his base back to Algiers.
Two community leaders ( Alkalden ), a community council ( Dīwān ), and a fleet commander were the leading men of the republic. The power base was the kasbah. Al-Ayyaschi established his political and spiritual authority in Salé. He had two fortresses built outside the city wall, which were connected to his palace by a tunnel. The Andalusians in Rabat al-Ayyashi repeatedly refused to obey, whereupon the latter had the cannon fire open in the direction of Rabat from his fortresses in Salé. The two cities of the Bou-Regreg republic fought against each other on several occasions and later remained at odds. In 1631 al-Ayyaschi felt betrayed by the Andalusians, which is why he besieged Rabat until October 1632. The peace lasted until 1636 when the Andalusians attacked the kasbah and gained complete control of the south side of the river. Now they began to besiege Salé. An English fleet under Admiral Thomas Rainsborough (1610-1648) ended the siege in April 1637. When al-Ayyashi attacked the Andalusians again a few months later, they sought support from a rival Sufi whom they found in Muḥammad al-Ḥāǧǧ († 1671). His grandfather had founded the Sufi order of the Dila Brotherhood . He converted the order into an army in the fight against the Sultan. In 1640 he captured the city of Meknes, which was under the influence of al-Ayyaschi. After further fighting in the area, al-Ayyaschi was killed on the Sebou in April 1641 .
Immediately afterwards, the Dilaiyyas conquered the port of Salé, which Muḥammad al-Ḥāǧǧ then controlled for ten years. During this time, European traders settled in the city. In 1651, rule over the city-state passed to Muhammad's son Abdullah. Trade agreements were signed with the Dutch who had no objection to the pirates continuing to attack the ships of the Spaniards who were enemies with them with their fists . The Bou-Regreg republic continued to exist as a political unit under the rule of the Brotherhood until Abdullah, who resided in the Kasbah, was cordoned off by an uprising by the Andalusians in June 1660 and had to give up his position in 1661. In 1668 the first Alaouite sultan, Mulai ar-Rashid, ended the city's independence.
Alaouites
Fall of the Saadians, Conquest of the North, Mulai Ismail (1672–1727)
Mulai ar-Raschid (1664–1672) established the rule of the Alaouite dynasty, which still ruled Morocco today . His territory initially only extended over southern Morocco. With the conquest of Marrakech in 1659, however, he was able to overthrow the southern branch of the Saadians. Then he began the fight against the Dila Brotherhood , which had subjugated northern Morocco. In 1664 he achieved a decisive victory at Meknes. Ar-Raschid has been widely recognized as ruler since entering Fez in 1666, and Salé was finally incorporated into his empire in 1668.
Mulai Ismail (1672-1727) succeeded his brother on the throne. He restructured the military system and created an army of around 40,000 Sudanese slaves, the 'Abīd al-Bukhārī . In addition to subjugating the remaining tribes, he succeeded in conquering the English base Tangier in 1684 and, five years later, the Spanish Larache . In 1691 he occupied Asilah and the coastal region there. To consolidate his religious authority, he initiated the pilgrimage cult of the Seven Saints of Marrakech in 1691 .
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State revenues from trade with Western Europe made extensive construction possible. In addition to fortifying cities and relocating the capital from Fès to Meknes, he had an enormous palace complex built there. However, the palace complex of Mulai Ismail was destroyed on November 27, 1755 by the Meknes earthquake. The ruler's mausoleum and a large part of the architecture, for example the city wall with the Bab el-Mansour gate , have been preserved. The 'Abīd al-Bukhārī, whose relatives were allowed to purchase property since 1697/98, led a life of their own after 1727. Many of them moved to the cities or lived as brigands; they also played a role in intrigues at court again and again until the end of the 19th century.
Inner dynastic battles (from 1727)
After Mulai Ismail's death, power struggles broke out between his seven sons, which led to the collapse of the unitary state he had created. Fez was again the capital of the empire. Only under Mulai Muhammad (1757–1790) was the country pacified again.
With the dissolution of the Dila Brotherhood in 1668, the influence of Sufism was by no means broken. This was particularly evident in the entire border area between Morocco and the west of the Ottoman Empire. So, along with other Sufi orders, the Tijaniyya Tariqa came into conflict with the Ottomans from 1784. Muhammad al-Kabir Bey subjugated the tribes of al-Aghwat ( Laghouat ) at this time . After an expedition in 1788, the Sufi leader Ahmad al-Tijani had to leave Algeria in 1789. He spent the rest of his life in Fez, where he died in 1815. However, his son Muhammad al-Kabir formed a tribal alliance to drive the Turks out of western Algeria. This source of conflict, namely the attempt of the Ottoman Beys to subjugate the tribes in the border area with Morocco, had been smoldering for half a century. Bey 'Uthman (1747–1760) had begun military submission. Muhammad al-Kabir (1780–1797) had succeeded in forcing the powerful local tribes to pay taxes. Now the Banu Hashim joined Sufism. In 1827 Muhammad al-Kabir led his followers to the Gharis plain in front of Muaskar and attacked the Ottoman troops there. But he succumbed and was killed. Supporters of the Tijaniyya Tariqa saw in the French occupation of Algiers in 1830 the fulfillment of the founder's prayers for the expulsion of the Turks.
The role of the Jewish communities, pogrom of 1465
The Jewish religion was already widespread in the Maghreb in Roman times. If one disregards the attempt by the Almohads to convert them to Islam forcibly, then they lived in North Africa relatively safe from persecution. None of the rulers even wanted to drive them out, as on the Iberian Peninsula, unless they converted to Islam and then returned to their faith. Similar to the Marranos in Spain , they then had to leave the country. With the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and later from Portugal, perhaps 150,000 of them came to the countries around the Mediterranean. Most of them went to North Africa, where after several generations they assimilated to the Jewish Berbers and Arabs, the toshavim . They paid the usual fee for non-Muslims, the jizya , a poll tax for every adult man. The communities were liable to pay as a whole, but passed the taxes on to the community members according to their assets. The jizya was accompanied by the hadiyah, a special tax for the major holidays, but also payments that are valid for all residents, such as for fortifying the respective city.
In return, the government assured the security of the trade routes, and in many cities it set up mellahs , Jewish quarters of their own. The first mellah was established in Fez by Abdalhaqq II , the last sultan of the Merinids , in 1438 . A year earlier the grave with the undamaged body of Idris II had been found. The intention was to revive the cult of the Idrisids and their Sherif descent, which should strengthen the reputation of the Merinid ruler. In an atmosphere of religious enthusiasm, news spread that wine had been found in the mosques of Fez, which was immediately blamed on the Jews. Then a massacre began. For their protection, Abdalhaqq had the Jews brought from their previous district of Kairouan in the medina to the fortified new town of Fès Djedid, where their new residential area was being built on a salty (Arabic mellah ) site. Mellahs were also erected in other places, often near the royal palace or the governor's kasbah . In the 19th century, such Jewish quarters were common across Morocco.
In 1465, during an uprising against the Merinids, one of the most extensive pogroms in Moroccan history occurred in Fez, during which the Jewish community was almost exterminated. The Wattasid sultan Mulai Muhammad esch-Sheikh (1472–1505) allowed those forcibly converted to Islam to return to their beliefs. The decimated community recovered in the 16th century, to which the Sephardim, who fled Spain in large numbers from 1492, contributed. They achieved enormous mobility and traveled throughout the Islamic area, in many cases also to Europe. Despite the social advancement, the Jews were marginalized. They lived in ghetto-like districts that were otherwise only found in Persia in the Islamic area. They had to wear eye-catching footwear - in Fez these were straw sandals - and did despised jobs, such as emptying the septic tanks. The same was true for the professions of tanners, butchers and executioners.
The Aramaic that was originally brought with them had long since disappeared, and the Greek and the hardly adopted Latin also slowly disappeared in favor of Arabic. Only Hebrew survived in the liturgy , the synagogue , and poetry. Arabic dominated philosophy and science, especially in commerce and administration.
The inhabitants of Morocco called the immigrant Jews from the Iberian Peninsula "the displaced" or Megoraschim . The immigrants, in turn, often called the Moroccan Jews Forasteros (strangers) or Berberiscos . They still spoke Castilian among themselves in the 18th century, which also made it easier for them to trade with other European countries. Under Mulai Ismael they became not only the sultan's traders, but also his diplomats and financiers. In terms of trade, Livorno , where a Jewish community had settled, increasingly served as a hub for the western Mediterranean. In contact with Spain, the Jews of Tangier were particularly important. By the end of the 17th century at the latest, they controlled practically all of Salé's foreign trade. In addition, they were responsible for collecting the customs duties, which they often leased from the Sultan. They were also the main lenders. What caught the eye of the European visitors was that they controlled the trade in slaves and prisoners, and enormous ransom money flowed through their hands. The negotiations were often held in Amsterdam or other metropolises. In 1696, on the occasion of the prisoner exchange between Portugal and Morocco, an Amsterdam Jew received 60,000 piastres . This liaison officer had been chosen by the Sultan's treasurer, who was in turn a member of the Jewish Maymoran family. Besides them, the Toledano and Sasportas were of great influence. Joseph Toledano managed to conclude a treaty between Morocco and the States General in Amsterdam in 1683. Conversely, the States General made use of members of their own Jewish communities when negotiations with Morocco were to be conducted. In 1682, Joseph and Jakob Mesquita accompanied the Dutch consul to Morocco. In 1699 it was Guidòn Méndez who held the post of consul in Morocco. At this top level only Moise Ben 'Attar could play, who had been the leader of the Taroudant community and went from there to Meknes before he rose to the highest power with Sultan Mulai Ismail. The traditional protection of the Jews by the Sultan continued. Sultan Mohammed V made the Jews living in Tangier into Moroccan citizens and refused to deport them, as required by the German Empire and Vichy France.
This addiction was not without risk. When the Sultan died in 1663, the previously rich and influential Palache family was practically not mentioned. Staying in Spain was also extremely dangerous for Jews who could easily come into conflict with the Inquisition . Yet the system of interdependencies persisted. Under Mulai Muhammad, the Sultan's great favorites were Mordechai Chriqui, Mess'ud ben Zikri or Samuel Sumbel, who led an embassy to Denmark. Under Mulai Suleiman (1792-1822) these were the ministers Mesud and Meir Cohen, who also represented the Sultan at the English court.
Increasing European influence in the 18th and 19th centuries
Trade relations and first ambassador to France
Under Mulai Ismail , who was looking for allies against Spain, good relations developed with the French court of Louis XIV. There, in 1682, the envoy Mohammad Temim appeared. From then on, the French military and engineers worked with drill and training and with the construction of public buildings. The ambassador François Pidou de Saint Olon was sent by the king to the sultan's court in 1693; the ambassador of Morocco, Abdallah bin Aisha , visited Paris in 1699.
After the end of the Seven Years' War , there were conflicts with the corsairs of the Maghreb, who had used the war for pirate trips. The French fleet suffered a defeat in Larache after they had shot at Rabat and Salé. Overall, however, the contacts intensified, so that from 1760 the engineer Théodore Cornut was able to build the port of Essaouira for the Sultan. After Paris had received assurances from the Alaouite, ambassadors were exchanged again and a consulate was established. A trade agreement was concluded in 1767, and in 1777 the ambassadors Tahar Fennich and Haj Abdallah went to Paris to stay there for half a year. A trade agreement was also signed with the USA.
French conquest of Algeria (from 1830), first Moroccan-French war (1844)
Mulai Abd ar-Rahman succeeded his uncle Mulai Sulaiman (1798-1822) in 1822 . After the fraternities and the marabouts were ousted, he began to expand the imperial administration. The extensive controls triggered several riots. In order to secure the support of the population for his politics, the brotherhoods had to be promoted again, because they had influence on the tribes.
In 1829, Larache, Asilah and Tétouan were shelled by the Austrian fleet, as corsairs continued to endanger the sea trade. US warships did so in 1836. Now the piracy has been stopped by Abd ar-Rahman. Another confrontation occurred with France, which in Algeria met the resistance of Abd el-Kader , which was supported by Morocco. Morocco occupied Tlemcen as early as 1830, but abandoned it after protests from Paris - the city was occupied by France in 1841.
In 1830 French troops occupied Algiers, Oran and Beleb el-Anab (Bône) and began to conquer Algeria. Abd el-Kader, who resisted in western Algeria, opposed them; he was also supported by the Qādirīya . So France had to recognize him on May 20, 1837 in the Treaty of Tafna as Emir of Algeria. After the French troops had captured Constantine on October 13, 1837 , they also invaded western Algeria and forced Abd el-Kader to flee to Morocco in 1844.
The French shelled Tangier on August 4, 1844, and Essaouira on August 15. The day before, the Moroccan army was completely defeated at Isly, near the border town of Oujda. It later had to extradite Abd el-Kader to France and agree to the definition of the borders with Algeria.
War with Spain (1859-1860)
When Berbers invaded the Spanish possessions in northern Morocco in 1859, Spain, after they had been repulsed, demanded cession from the Moroccan government as compensation and as a guarantee for the security of its possessions. The negotiations remained unsuccessful, however, and on October 22, 1859, Spain declared war on Morocco, which would cost the lives of 4,000 Spaniards and 6,000 Moroccans.
General Leopoldo O'Donnell was given supreme command of the Spanish army, which consisted of 35,000 to 40,000 foot soldiers, 2,000 cavalry and 150 guns. Although he was attacked by 60,000 cavalrymen in December, after many skirmishes he was able to occupy Tétouan on February 4, 1860, and after the decisive victory on March 23, force an armistice west of the city. The peace of Wad-Ras was signed in Tétouan on April 25th by O'Donnell and the Ambassador Muley-el-Abbas and determined that Morocco pay compensation of 20 million piastres to Spain and the city of Tétouan until this sum is paid Should be left to the Spaniards. The city only returned to Morocco when it gained independence in 1956.
Guarantee of sovereignty (1880), further wars with Spain (1893, 1906)
From 1880 onwards, Morocco increasingly became an object of influence by major European powers and a bone of contention in the race for Africa . A similar race to divide the Ottoman Empire began. Since Algiers became French in 1830, Algeria has been enlarged not only at the expense of the Ottomans, but also at the expense of Morocco. In 1881, raids by looters from Kroumirie into Algeria provided the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry with the pretext to annex Tunisia as well; Great Britain invaded Egypt in 1882 , Italy in Libya in 1911 .
On July 3, 1880, at a conference in Madrid between the Sultan of Morocco and various European states and the USA, the Madrid Convention was concluded, which guaranteed the Sultan the sovereignty of the country, but also forced him to make concessions to the powers involved.
In the Rif War (1893) , the Spanish army fought against about forty tribes of the Rif. Sultan Mulai al-Hassan I was also drawn into this conflict . On November 9, 1893, Práxedes Mateo Sagasta declared war on Spain, which was ended by the 1894 Fez Agreement.
The First Morocco Crisis (1905–1906) arose after an alliance between France and Great Britain had secured French influence in Morocco (Sudan Treaty of 1899). At the international Algeciras conference from January 16 to April 7, 1906, the European powers decided on the solution to this crisis without the participation of Morocco.
The events surrounding the kidnapping of the alleged American citizen Ion Perdicaris were indicative of the weakness of the Moroccan state around 1900 . In June 1904, the United States, using a naval squadron with two cruisers, forced Morocco to give in to all demands of Ahmed ben Mohammed el-Raisuli in order to obtain his release. Raisuli had already taken a British hostage the previous year. With the kidnapping of Perdicaris, he demanded that the suppression of the Rif be ended, that all tribe members be released, that he be paid $ 70,000 in gold and that he be recognized as the pasha of two districts around Tangier. In 1907, through another kidnapping, he enforced that, as a “protected subject” of Great Britain, he was subject exclusively to British jurisdiction. Raisuli was appointed governor of the north-west provinces by Mulai Abd al-Hafiz. In 1909 the Spaniards appointed him Pasha of Asilah and Jebala, the western part of the later Spanish Protectorate, but General Miguel Fernández Silvestre, the commander of Larache , undermined his authority.
In 1909 another military conflict took place between Morocco and Spain, again in the Rif area. This Rifkrieg of 1909 or "War for Melilla", in which the Spaniards deployed 40,000 soldiers against Morocco after initial defeats and expanded their enclave Melilla with the loss of 2,500 men, set the country in motion.
The second Morocco crisis , also known as the "Panther Jump to Agadir", was triggered in 1911 by the dispatch of the German gunboat SMS Panther to Agadir on the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II , after French troops had occupied Fez and Rabat . The Panther , which arrived on July 1, 1911 , was replaced after a few days by two other German warships. The aim of the German threatening gesture was the cession of French colonial territories to the German Reich in return for the acceptance of French rule over Morocco.
Part of the French colonial empire (1912–1956)
Division between France and Spain, First World War
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Wherever there were enough Europeans in Algeria, French law was to be introduced, and the rest of the country was to be assimilated through the expansion of settlement and corresponding extensive land expropriations. The Code de l'indigénat, introduced in 1881, forced the local population under “special jurisdiction” and was valid until 1946. The Europeans lived predominantly in the cities, the Jews there, who were closely connected with their surroundings, were often not very interested in integration into the Franco-European culture. The colonial administration, however, saw in them oppressed people who had to be liberated and civilized. She also considered the Berbers to be more capable of integrating than the Arabs, and so she developed a kind of segregation policy that deepened the division of the country. This had an impact on ethnology and historiography , which interpreted the history of the country from the 7th century onwards as the story of an unceasing rebellion by the Berbers against the Arabs.
In 1904, France and Spain agreed to split up Morocco in order not to get into unpredictable conflicts. Its government was weakened after the Rif War (1909) . In 1911 the sultan tried to consolidate his power vis-à-vis the tribes with a policy of centralization, but a revolt broke out in the course of which the rebels advanced as far as Fez.
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With the Treaty of Fez of March 30, 1912, Morocco was divided into several zones. The lion's share became the French colony of French Morocco . Mulai Abd al-Hafiz was deposed and Mulai Yusuf was appointed sultan instead, although the political decisions were made by the colonial administration. The capital became Rabat, and the Sultan, who had previously resided in Marrakech, had to relocate there. During the First World War, a total of 40,000 Moroccans fought on the French side.
Spain had secured its piece of Spanish Morocco , also known as Er-Rif, in the form of two strips of land. One stretched along the Mediterranean coast, the other formed the Tarfaya strip between the colony of Spanish West Africa and the French part of Morocco, plus Cape Juby . The capital of Spanish Morocco was Tetouan .
Zayyan War (1914–1921 / 24)
The Zayyan Confederation fought against French expansion from 1914 to 1921. It was under the leadership of Mouha ou Hammou Zayani, who, however, initially lost the most important cities of Taza and Khenifra . Paris used groupes mobiles against the insurgents, who combined regular and irregular units. But it had to withdraw some of its troops to the European theater of war from 1914. The Central Powers, on the other hand, took the opportunity to persuade the Berbers to resist France. Even after the end of the war, the Berbers continued to resist. In the Khénifra area, France opened the offensive in 1920 and induced three of Hammou's sons to submit to French violence. In the spring of 1921, power struggles broke out within the Zayyan, in the course of which Hammou was killed. Some of the Zayyan moved to the High Atlas and continued guerrilla warfare under Moha ou Said well into the 1930s.
The French were led by Louis-Hubert Lyautey , who let the tribal system exist. However, he replaced Sultan Mulai Abd al-Hafiz with his brother Yusuf . On the other hand, the tribes Ahmed al-Hiba in Marrakech. Lyautey then sent General Charles Mangin (1866-1925) with 5000 men to occupy the city. Al-Hiba was able to flee with a few men and continued the resistance in the Atlas until 1919.
France now extended its rule into the Atlas, where however Mouha ou Hammou Zayani, leader of the Zayyan Confederation, Moha ou Said, head of the Aït Ouirra, and Ali Amhaouch, religious leader of the Darqawa , resisted. Hammou had ruled around 20,000 people since 1877 and was the father-in-law of the deposed Sultan Mulai Abd al-Hafiz. Although he was ready to cooperate with the French, he was persuaded to take part in the uprising under pressure from the war advocates. With 14,000 men, the French attacked Khénifra from June 10, 1914, which was evacuated two days later when they arrived. Over the next few weeks there was heavy fighting with hundreds of dead. Now three groupes mobiles were set up, consisting mainly of Algerian and Senegalese units with machine guns . While there were repeated attacks by the Zayyan in July, the French tried to separate them from the Taschel hit- speaking Schlöh in the south.
At the beginning of the First World War, French troops were withdrawn, which made an invasion in the south impossible. Lyautey sent 37 battalions to France, more than required. Since no one dared to send Austrian or German Foreign Legionnaires to the European front, they now formed a majority in the Foreign Legion units stationed in Morocco. The Zayyan attacked Khénifra continuously from August 4th to early November. The French did everything in their power to maintain the connection with Algeria.
The Zayyan now sat in an area between the rivers Oum er-Rbia and the Serrou and the Atlas, where they were in dispute with neighboring tribes about the necessary wintering places. Hammou decided to hibernate 15 km from Khénifra. There he was attacked by French units, but they were destroyed on the retreat. 431 men escaped, 623 died, France's most costly defeat in Morocco. Of the Zayyan, about 182 men died. With the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the First World War, they gained further popularity. But after a French victory there was an armistice until November 11, 1915. In 1917 Lyautey concentrated his troops in the Moulouya Valley, but the French suffered another heavy defeat with 238 dead.
The Central Powers tried to bind as many French forces as possible in the colonial war. They tried in vain to win Sultan Abdelaziz; the French banished him to the south to be on the safe side. His successor, Abd al-Hafiz, went to Barcelona in autumn 1914 to negotiate with Germans and Turks ; at the same time, however, he was selling information to France. He was detained in El Escorial but received payments from Germany to keep the matter confidential. Germany supported the insurgents with money and weapons, but also with trainers and deserters from the Foreign Legion. They received up to 600,000 pesetas a month. The Ottomans, who had been providing military training in the country since 1909, worked together with the German secret service and distributed propaganda in Arabic, French and in the Berber languages of the Middle Atlas. But from 1916 the Ottomans had the problem that with the uprising of the Arabs, many of the Arabic-speaking liaison men got into a loyalty conflict.
The French created jobs by building public works, they established markets at their military posts, and Muslim scholars were encouraged to publish fatwās in favor of the sultan, which supported the sultan's declaration of independence from the rule of Constantinople. French and British intelligence agents worked together in both colonies of Morocco. They intercepted spies, infiltrated the trainers, observed agents. The French managed to break into communication with Berlin and read the news. The flow of arms and money was largely cut off.
The heavy losses in the Battle of Gaouz gave encouragement to the insurgents in the southeast around Boudenib. The French tried to bring troops through the Moulouya Valley, but the snow and cold stopped them and Lyautey had to call for help from Algeria. On January 15, 1919, the French were able to achieve a victory at Meski, but still had to withdraw. They now relied on Thami El Glaoui , a man whom Lyautey had made Pasha of Marrakech in 1912. They accepted that he enriched himself enormously, so that he was considered one of the richest men in the world. He led an army of 10,000 men and defeated the rebels in the Dadès Gorge.
French successes in the Khénifra area led Hammou's son Hassan and his two brothers to surrender on June 2, 1920. Hassan became pasha of Khenifra. Hammou was killed in a skirmish with opponents of the insurgents. The French took the opportunity to attack the last bastion, El Bekrit, in September, along with followers of Hassan and his brothers. That ended the uprising.
Lyautey became Marshal of France and expanded Morocco even further until 1923, when Said was also defeated at El Ksiba in April 1922. He fled with his Aït Ichkern to the highest areas of the Middle, then the High Atlas. Lyautey meanwhile gained control of the Moulouya Valley. For the purposes of the French occupation of the Ruhr , however, he had to surrender so many troops that he did not allow the last rebels to be followed up into the high mountains. Said never surrendered, but died fighting with a groupe mobile in March 1924. There was resistance until 1934, and until 1936 there were still armed raids in the high mountains. The Comité d'Action Marocaine laid in 1934 with a plan to build the indirect rule again. There were riots and demonstrations in 1934, 1937, 1944 and 1951.
Uprising under Raisuli (from 1919)
At the same time, the situation in the north of the country has been worsening for a long time. In early 1919, Dámaso Berenguer Fusté was appointed High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Spanish Morocco with the mandate to depose Raisuli as governor of Tangier. On March 21, 1919, Berenguer Ksar es Srhir (Alcazar Seguir) occupied 40 km west of Ceuta, whereupon Raisuli closed all streets with a guerrilla war. Between July 11 and 13, 1919, Raisuli let the protectorate troops attack in Wadi Rás (Oued Mharhar), about 30 km southeast of Tangier. His troops were in Spanish uniforms and were armed with grenades and bombs containing asphyxiating gases from the Protectorate Army. Raisuli had got the impression that Spain had been on the side of the German Reich during the First World War. On July 14, 1919, in a letter to Walter Burton Harris , he described the killing of Spaniards as his contribution to the Peace of Versailles . Harris believes that around 300 Spaniards were killed and 1,000 injured in the Battle of Oued Rás. With the battle, a governor of Tangier armed by the Spanish protectorate had become an opponent of protectorate politics. Raisuli's troops blocked the road link between Tangier and Tetuan. On September 27, 1919, around 12,000 soldiers from the Protectorate troops encircled El Fendek (Fondak). Raisuli retired to Tazrout, where he was arrested in 1925 for collaborating with Spain.
Rif Republic under Abd el Krim (1921–1926 / 27)
This was related to the fact that in 1921 Rifkabylen led by Mohammed ben Abd el-Karim el Khattabi , known as Abd el Krim, had started an uprising in Spanish Morocco. In 1923 they proclaimed the Rif Republic .
Mohammed Abd al-Karim was born in 1881 or 1882 to Abd el Krim el Khatabi, who had studied mining in Madrid - with good connections to the Mannesmann brothers , who held numerous mining concessions in Morocco. He was a kadi and belonged to a family that was influential among the Beni Ouriaghel. In Tétouan and Melilla, his son Mohammed Abd al-Karim graduated from high school, which is recognized in Spain, studied in Fez, then at the University of Salamanca . His other son, Si M'hammed, was the first Rif-Kabyle to receive a Western education: he learned French in the Alliance israélite in Tetuan, studied in Málaga and became a mining engineer in Madrid. From 1906 his brother Mohammed Abd al-Karim worked as a secretary in the "Bureau for Native Affairs" in Melilla, as editor of the Arabic-language supplement of the Telegrama del Rif newspaper (1906–1915), then as a judge for the Melilla area. In 1914 he became cadre of Melilla. At that time, the Khattabi believed that the Rif could only be modernized with Spanish help. When the Spaniards wanted to occupy the Bay of Alhucemas and negotiated with the family, their house was set on fire on November 6, 1911. Rif-Kabylen rebelled against colonial rule since August 1911 under the leadership of Mohammed Ameziane († spring 1912). The Khattabis had to go into exile in Tetuan for two years. There their ideas, which were supported by Mannesmann in the sense of greater autonomy for the Rif-Kabyle, found no approval with the Spaniards.
During the First World War, Walter Zechlin , the consul of the German Empire in Tetuan, fueled anti-colonial efforts in Morocco and negotiated with Abd el Krim. At the same time, the Khattabi support Ottoman efforts to weaken the French opponents in Morocco. The German-Turkish Morocco action stipulated that a nephew of the now legendary freedom fighter Abdelkader should initiate an uprising against colonial rule from the north. The German agent Franz Far reached Melilla on June 25, 1915 and offered arms and money to the Khattabi and other families. In doing so, he promised the Rif Kabyle independence, a prospect that particularly inspired Abd el-Krim. But Zechlin was transferred to Madrid in 1917 and Abd el Krim was imprisoned in Spain from 1916 to 1917.
From the beginning of 1919 he campaigned for the formation of an anti-colonial tribal alliance, but Abd el-Karim's father died on August 7, 1920. During this time, the Spaniards set up the Foreign Legion ( tercio de extranjeros ) around them , which was used exclusively in Morocco in the first few years Area to expand along the coast. The future dictator Francisco Franco made a career in it. In October 1920, Abd el-Karim and 300 men established their first headquarters at Ait Bou Idhir. On June 1, 1921, 250 Spaniards advanced near the Ouriaghel, starting the Rif War. Fighters from the Beni Touzine, Temsamane, Beni Amart, Beni Gamil, Beni Ifrah or Beni Itteft now poured into the rebels.
The Spanish general Manuel Fernández Silvestre waged a war of conquest with 25,700 men and made fun of his opponents and their clothes, which in his eyes were ridiculous. In 1921 six tribes of the Rif had proclaimed Mohammed Abd al-Karim to be emir , most of the fighters came from the Beni Ouriaghel, the Beqqioua, the Temsamane and the Beni Amart. He attacked with 4 to 6,000 men on July 21, 1921 the Spanish positions at Annual . Over 8,000 Spanish soldiers were killed in the Battle of Annual , including the General. Now more than 130 military posts and the mines near Melilla were overrun, but Abd el Krim feared the intervention of the great powers if he occupied Melilla himself. It is true that he was now the undisputed leader of the area, which had the best harvest since 1907 and whose stocks the area could draw on for three years - strict export bans were intended to ensure this advantage. But Melilla later became the gateway for the Spanish reconquest, which began on September 12, 1921.
Abd el Krim ruled the Rif above all with the help of his family, besides whom the Rifkabylen assembly only had an advisory function. Representatives sat in Tangier, Rabat, Algiers and Paris. Except for his uncle, most of these men belonged to the younger generation trained in Western schools. The capital was Ajdir . The Sharia served as legitimation for the central rule, which was unusual in this region, and at the same time as a means of settling conflicts without having to resort to blood feuds. Slavery and corruption, as well as the sale and consumption of hashish, were made a criminal offense. Roads and a telephone network connected the military posts, and the power of the local caids was restricted. But the establishment of its own national currency, the riffane , failed, and a school system could only be set up in rudimentary form . The creation of its own air force also failed. The only aircraft that had been transferred from Algeria were destroyed by the Spaniards with 52 aircraft on March 23, 1924 at the only airfield, that of Izemouren, 12 km west of Ajdir; a rif machine dropped propaganda material, but it was never used militarily.
In Spain, General Miguel Primo de Rivera took power as dictator on September 13, 1923 with the consent of the king. He ruled until 1930 and was willing to solve the Rif problem that had cost thousands of lives and devoured 2 billion pesetas. General Luis Aizpurù Mondeéjar replaced the previous High Commissioner, and 29,000 soldiers had been withdrawn by December 1923. The Rifkabylen expanded their influence westward towards Ghomara and Jebala. Increased air strikes on Ajdir should relieve the Spanish posts. Abd el Krim succeeded in conquering practically all of the Spanish posts in July and August 1924. At the end of the year the Spanish army withdrew to a line south of Tetuan, and on November 17th the Rifkabylen entered Chechaouuen . Three quarters of the Spanish territory was under Abd el Krim.
With the help of numerous supporters from Europe, but also from Algeria, the Rif Republic attempted a modernization based on the Western model. The colonial powers took joint action against this republic after Berbers had violated French territory. The French Minister of War Paul Painlevé agreed on July 25th with the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera a sea blockade . The Algerian Governor General Théodore Steeg became the new General Resident . On July 13, Philippe Pétain , who later became the leader of the Vichy regime , was appointed commander in chief of the French Rif army. By September 1925 he had more than 200,000 men, not counting the more than 350,000 Harkas of Makhzen , the Sultan's government. In September 1925, 160,000 men were under Pétain on the northern French-Morocco border. They faced 60 to 80,000 Rif Kabyls. While the French marched from the south on the capital of Kabyle, 36 warships and 62 troop carriers landed at Cebadilla, west of the Bay of Alhucemas. Despite fierce resistance, Ajdir fell on October 2, 1925. On October 11, Spanish troops destroyed Ait Kamara, the home village of Abd el Krim. Aristide Briand , who became French Foreign Minister in November 1925, pushed for a military solution. The peace conference in Oujda broke down on May 7th, 1926. Now half a million Spanish and French soldiers advanced into the remaining Rif republic. Annual fell on May 18, 1926, and Targuist on May 23. On May 27, Abd el Krim surrendered. It took until July 1927 for the Spaniards to subdue the entire area.
On the initiative of King Alfonsus VIII , who wanted the Rif-Kabylen to be exterminated, mustard gas (Lost) was purchased from Hugo Stoltzenberg , the manager of the warfare agent recycling company in Munsterlager- Reloh, under strict secrecy , and on June 10, 1922 the construction of a production plant in La Marañose near Madrid, a corresponding bottling plant was built in Melilla and the use of chemical weapons was carried out by Stoltzenberg according to a contamination strategy. Even if poison gas was used in the First World War and it was first used in a colonial conflict in 1920, the use in Morocco was a drastic change of direction in two respects. On the one hand, the outlawed ordnance was first used from the air, and on the other hand, it was targeted for the first time against the civilian population.
From October 1921, the Spanish military was already firing grenades with asphyxiating agents. On July 15, 1923, mustard gas was used for the first time in the Battle of Tizi Azza. The first air drops took place in June 1924. France limited itself to the use of tear gas, but did not contradict the Spanish operations, although these occasionally met French people. Great Britain, too, sacrificed the question of justification to its Mediterranean interests. All three countries signed the League of Nations protocol, which banned them, on June 17, 1925, practically during the operations that lasted until July 1927. In the summer of 2000, a study confirmed in 2004 showed that 60% of those who died of throat cancer in Morocco came from the Nador region.
Simultaneously with the evacuation of the interior of Spanish Morocco for the use of the contact poison Lost, the French army under Pétain occupied the fertile areas of the Rif in French Morocco and thus cut off the food supply of the Rif republic. This led to a famine.
In November 1925, the flight squadron Escadrille Chérifienne under the direction of Charles Sweeney, an American pilot from the Lafayette, bombed Escadrille Chaouen . When the bombing became known, the French government under Aristide Briand and Édouard Herriot withdrew the Escadrille Chérifienne . The two colonial powers Spain and France defeated the rebels by 1927 using phosgene and chlorine-arsine warfare agents . In the course of this chemical weapon deployment, 500–600 t of the poison gas were used.
Overall, the official information on losses is likely to be too low. The Spanish army put the losses in the years 1921 to 1926 at 17,020 men, the French between April 1925 and May 1926 at 2,162. During this time, French pilots flew 11,586 sorties and dropped more than 1,400 tons of explosives.
Tangier, international zone (1923–1956)
Since 1892 the diplomatic corps of Tangier administered the city and its surroundings, which was considered a neutral zone. By the Act of Algeciras of April 7, 1906 its international status has been confirmed. France and the Sultan of Morocco agreed in the 1912 Treaty of Fez to establish a French protectorate that included all of Morocco, but not Tangier. It became the center of the international demilitarized area. From 1923 to 1956, the Tangier International Zone existed , a self-governing territory.
The Tangier question, which was excluded from the Protectorate Treaties, was dealt with at a conference which began on June 29, 1923 in London. The statute of the International Zone of Tangier was signed by France, Spain and Great Britain on December 18th in Paris, other countries joined and finally the Moroccan Sultan. The sovereignty remained formally with the Sultan of Morocco. He was represented by the Mendoub, a high commissioner who resided in the Mendoubia, a palace in the center of Tangier, and had a French adviser.
On June 14, 1940, the now fascist Spain occupied the International Zone of Tangier and in November the city was incorporated into the Spanish Protectorate of Morocco, but retained the demilitarized status of the zone under pressure from the signatory powers.
Sultan Mohammed V made the Jews living in Tangier Moroccan citizens and refused to deport them. On October 11, 1945, under pressure from the four great powers, Spain vacated the city and zone of Tangier. The area became an International Zone again. In addition, it was decided that Italy would leave the international administration of Tangers exercised by the signatory states in 1923; however, it returned in 1948. The USA and the Soviet Union were added to this, but they withdrew from the control committee in the same year.
A conference of the nine states passed a declaration on October 29, 1956, in which all previous treaties and agreements on Tangier were declared invalid. Morocco pledged to keep its status as a free trade and free currency area in order to use it for the economic development of the country. On January 1, 1957, the International Zone was returned to Morocco, which had regained its independence a few months earlier. In 1956 the Jews, who called themselves Hebrews there, began to emigrate from Tangier.
Second World War, Vichy regime, Free France
When the Second World War began in 1939, the Moroccan Sultan called on his compatriots to participate on the Allied side, although there had been riots in Meknes in 1937 when French settlers were suspected of diverting water for their fields. Berbers in particular responded to the sultan's call. However, when France was occupied by Germany in 1940, the Sultan refused to enforce anti-Jewish laws in Morocco.
The French metropolitan area and its territories were subject to the Vichy regime under Marshal Philippe Pétain . He collaborated with Hitler and, with the support of the extreme French right, installed the État français , in which the left and the trade unions were persecuted, democracy was abolished, the press censored and racial laws were applied along the lines of the Nuremberg Laws . On the other hand, there was Charles de Gaulle , who, from his exile in London, advocated the continuation of the French armed resistance on the side of the Allies .
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After the Allied landings in French North Africa ( Operation Torch ) on November 8, 1942, they supported members of the Resistance . After the victory of the Allies, they expected the exchange of people discredited by collaboration and the restoration of democratic freedoms. Instead, the commander in chief of the Vichy armed forces, Admiral François Darlan , who happened to be present and who could only be persuaded to cease fire with extreme pressure, was appointed ruler of French North Africa liberated by the Allies. After his death he was followed by General Henri Giraud . In an interview , President Franklin D. Roosevelt described this situation, in which the Vichy regime in North Africa under the protection of the Allies continued for a few months and in which Charles de Gaulle was kept at bay .
With the operation brushwood , an exclusively carried out by American troops and naval forces partial operation of the company Torch, which is about 25 km northeast of Casablanca lying and defended by Vichy troops Harbor Fedala should be occupied. The rapid conquest within less than twelve hours enabled the encirclement and decisive conquest of Casablanca on November 9, 1942 with only relatively minor losses in the two following days.
The undertaking against Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia has been in preparation for a long time. When Colonel William Alfred Eddy took over responsibility for intelligence, sabotage and resistance in Tangier under his disguise as a naval attaché, a radio network was set up along the coast in the first half of 1942 to keep the Allies informed. However, with Pierre Laval's regaining influence, contacts with the Vichy-French military and civil administration were threatened. In order not to weaken this further, Roosevelt's representative Robert Murphy refrained from informing the Resistance with around 15,000 Europeans about the imminent Allied landing. Against a conceivable German advance through Spanish Morocco, it was possible to recruit a guerrilla group among the Berber tribes of the Rif. A brotherhood served as an information network. In a memorandum , Murphy made himself the spokesman for the Vichy-French generals, whose cooperation he saw guaranteed in an American intervention if it was to be under French command. He interpreted their hitherto unclear attitude as an expression of military weakness towards the Wehrmacht .
Struggle for independence
In December 1934, a small group of nationalists from the Comité d'Action Marocaine called for a return to indirect rule and the establishment of representative councils. When the demands proved fruitless, the group tried to gain broader support, but was banned in 1937. In January 1944, the Istiqlal party issued a manifesto calling for full independence, national reunification and a democratic constitution. The Sultan had approved this manifesto before it was given to the French President General. However, he announced that there was no consideration of changing the status of the protectorate; on the contrary, Ahlmad Balafrej, General Secretary of Istiqlal, was accused of collaborating with Nazi Germany. In Fez and other cities, this led to unrest, in the course of which around 30 people were killed.
When the Sultan visited the Spanish Rif in 1947, this visit turned out to be a triumphal procession. The more willing to compromise General Resident Eirik Labonne was then replaced by General Alphonse Juin. Although he promised representative bodies in the cities, he tried, as in his Algerian homeland, to accommodate the French. The Sultan then refused to sign his decrees. The Berber Thamy al-Glaoui accused him of leading Morocco into disaster. Juin was replaced by General Augustin Guillaume in August 1951, and on November 18, the Sultan continued to express his hope that Morocco would become independent. On April 10, 1947, he spoke out in favor of independence for the first time.
French economic and settler interests on the one hand and nationalist groups on the other increased tensions. In December 1952 riots broke out in Casablanca on the occasion of the murder of the Tunisian labor leader Ferhad Hached. As a result, the General Resident banned the Communist Party and the Istiqlal, and on August 20, 1953, the French deposed the Sultan and exiled him. He was replaced by Mohammed ibn Aarafa . Since France had also been involved in colonial conflicts in the Algerian War since 1954 , the government tried to defuse the situation in Morocco. On November 16, 1955, Mohammed V was allowed to return to the country. In 1956 negotiations for independence began with both Spain and France.
Foundation of the state of Israel, pogrom of Jews in Djérada and Oujda (1948), emigration
On June 7, after a speech by Muhammad V directed against the establishment of the state of Israel, a pogrom broke out in the eastern Moroccan city of Oujda and in neighboring Djérada, in which 47 Jews were murdered. The French general resident of the years 1947–1951, Alphonse Juin, reported after the war about fears of the Jews that the emerging nationalism might lead to pogroms. Some groups negotiated with the Istiqlal, which, like Mohammed V, was hoping for support, while others were preparing to emigrate to Israel. This in turn was seen by the Istiqlal as a lack of loyalty, and the newspaper Le jeune Maghrebin reported on the "Zionist poison". The colonial authorities assumed that the anti-Zionist struggle should only be used as an opportunity to rally the nationalist forces and later lead them against France's colonial government itself. A few days before the pogrom, nationalists called for a boycott of European and Jewish goods. At the same time there were rallies and demonstrations for the war against Israel.
Now there were violent attacks on houses, shops and the Jews themselves, and many Muslims tried to prevent this. It appears that the outbreak of violence was organized because, on the one hand, the students in the city had been released and, on the other hand, Algerians were arriving by train. The houses of the Muslims were also marked in order to exclude them from the anticipated attacks. After that, eight Jews were dead, around 500 seriously injured, and 900 homeless. Only two and a half to three hours after the start of the pogrom did the army appear and end the violence. Shortly before, rioters drove to the phosphate city of Djérada, 60 km south, claiming that the Jews had set fire to the great mosque in Oujda. Of the 150 local Jews, 39 were massacred and 44 injured; the survivors were only brought to safety in Oujda the next day.
France was assumed to have induced the Muslims to discredit themselves and to portray France as an indispensable regulatory power. Many Muslims were very much against the Jews, but were appalled by the extent of the violence. Si Muhammad al-Hajawi, the Pasha of Oujda, visited every single family to give them comfort. For this he was attacked with a knife on June 11th by a Muslim; he barely survived the attack. Al-'Alam , the Istiqlal's Arabic newspaper, expressed sorrow for both the pogrom and the assassination attempt. On February 11, 1949, two death sentences were passed in Oujda, along with a series of long prison terms and fines. The Istiqlal raised funds to defend the defendants; The military tribunal judged the defendants from Djérada much more mildly, although this pogrom was much more brutal.
Meanwhile, the number of illegal emigrants who wanted to get to safety via Algeria and Marseille grew; authorities estimated that if the border were opened, 200,000 of the 250,000 Moroccan Jews would emigrate. They gathered in the villages around Oujda and in the city itself, so that in Sefrou they already made up a third of the population. In 1949 the authorities approved the establishment of Cadima, headquartered in Casablanca, a Jewish organization that promoted emigration until 1956. The French and Moroccans now feared less that the Jews would benefit the State of Israel militarily, as Mohammed V had argued in view of the Palestinian War. But initially only 600 Jews were allowed to emigrate per month. A camp on Mazagan Street, 26 km outside Casablanca, initially took in the emigrants. From there they went either (until 1950) via Algiers, but above all via Casablanca to Marseille, in order to get from there to Israel. Today maybe 5,000 Jews still live in Morocco.
Kingdom of Morocco (since 1956)
Morocco gained independence on March 2, 1956, and the Spanish part of the country joined on April 7. The Spanish High Commissioner has been withdrawn. The peseta also disappeared in favor of the franc, but this led to enormous increases in prices and an uprising in the Rif that lasted from October 1958 to February 1959 . In 1958, Tarfaya, located in the south, until then Spanish, came back to Morocco, but Ifni did not return until 1970. In 1978, the Americans handed over their last military base to Kénifra.
In 44 years France had produced 1415 baccalaureats , 775 of which were Jewish. Only 15% of the students actually went to school. The massive land expropriation had left 3.5 million Moroccans without land. Neither state nor civil parts of society were prepared, the social security of the individual was minimal.
The first cabinet was headed by the independent army officer M'Barek Bekkai from December 7, 1955 to May 12, 1958, a Berber from the Oujda region. An alliance between the monarchy and the rural dignitaries emerged. He was followed by Foreign Minister Ahmed Balafrej , who had been in office since 1956, until December 16, 1958. In the first cabinet there were representatives of all groups, including a representative of the Jews. 17,994 of them emigrated to Israel between 1957 and 1961 alone, although this still took place illegally, so that an extensive underground network developed (Misgeret, Operation Yakhin). The king and the authorities largely accepted this procedure, and the number of emigrants fell sharply again from 1964 to 1967. At this time around 60,000 of the former 250,000 Jews were still living in the country. By 1971 their number had dropped to 35,000, most of them now moved to Europe or America.
In 1957 the Sultan assumed the title of king. He selected the ministers and controlled the army and police. However, he had an advisory body with 60 members. The independence fighters who had started an uprising in Ifni and Mauritania were integrated into the army. Morocco supported the rebels in Algeria, but continued to maintain ties to Paris, on whose technology and money the country was dependent. The Istiqlal party propagated claims to Mauritania, Western Sahara as well as parts of Algeria and Mali as part of its Greater Morocco concept.
In 1959 the Istiqlal split and the Union Nationale des Forces Populaires was created. It tended towards socialist ideas, while the remaining Istiqlal was more traditionalist. Mohammed V settled the differences, but died in 1961. He was followed by his son Hassan II. The French army, which was still in Algeria, was not allowed to interfere in 1962 during the massacre of entire villages, which was also perpetrated by Tunisian and Moroccan freedom fighters were.
Constitutional monarchy (since 1962), border war with Algeria (1963–1964)
In 1962 Morocco was converted into a constitutional monarchy . In 1965, however, Hassan II dissolved parliament and took over the government himself. In addition to the left, the Istiqlal now saw itself in the opposition, because Hassan had founded a party loyal to the government in the 1963 parliamentary elections, which in turn included many Berbers who were from did not see the Istiqlal represented.
Between October 1963 and February 1964, Morocco experienced the first military conflict over its long-unexplained borders with the border war with Algeria , also known as Guerre des sables ("Sand War").
In 1970 a constitution was passed that provided for a unicameral parliament , but an attempted coup took place on July 10, 1971 . In August 1972, the military made a second attempted coup. The rigged elections of 1977 earned the king an overwhelming majority. This was mainly due to its southern Saharan expansion. In terms of foreign policy, Morocco remained closely linked to the West.
Occupation of the former Spanish Sahara colony, Western Sahara conflict
In the conflict between Morocco and the Polisario Front over the former Spanish Sahara colony , Morocco claimed the territory, while the Polisario sought the independence of the entire territory. Spain had already agreed to hold a referendum on the status of the colony in 1967. Morocco and Mauritania supported this project, but after Spain had delayed the implementation further and further, a group of former students around al-Wali Mustafa Sayyid founded the liberation movement Frente Polisario, which wanted to liberate the colony from colonial rule by force.
From 1974, King Hassan called for the Western Sahara to be annexed, but without holding a referendum. At the end of 1974 Spain announced that it would let the population decide the following year. In the same year, Mauritania and Morocco obtained UN General Assembly Resolution 3292 calling on Spain not to hold the referendum; instead, the International Court of Justice should issue an opinion. It stated on October 16, 1975 that the right to self-determination had a higher value, i.e. a referendum had to be held.
On the same day, Hassan announced a march of Moroccan civilians to underscore historical ties with Western Sahara. After the Moroccan military invaded the north to prevent Algeria from intervening and to tie up Polisario forces, the Green March took place from November 6th to 10th. 350,000 participants crossed the border in several places. But a march on to the capital El Aaiún did not take place because of the Spanish military presence. Negotiations between Morocco, Mauritania and Spain resulted in Spain giving up its colonial rule on February 26, 1976.
After the very day had agreed to a meeting of Sahrawi tribal leaders of dividing the Western Sahara between Morocco and Mauritania, the Polisario, supported by Algeria called the next day in Bir Lehlou the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic of.
Morocco occupied the northern two thirds of Western Sahara, Mauritania the southern third. The UN General Assembly also called for a referendum to be held. The Polisario, which had been supported by Algeria since 1975, managed to get Mauritania to renounce all claims in 1979, whereupon Morocco also annexed the southern third.
In the course of the fighting, the Moroccan Wall was built to prevent Polisario supporters from entering the Moroccan-controlled area. Since 1991, the length of the outermost ramparts has been around 2500 km. The battle between Morocco and the Polisario ended in 1991 with a ceasefire. A referendum failed in 1992 and 1997 because the Polisario only wanted to admit the Saharawi people who lived in Western Sahara during the period of Spanish colonial rule and their descendants, while Morocco also wanted to admit the members of Saharawi tribes who had previously lived in southern Morocco.
In 2007 the UN Security Council passed resolution 1754 , in which the opponents were again called on to hold a referendum and the MINURSO peace mission was extended to October 2007. Moroccan security forces forcibly cleared a tent camp near El Aaiún that was set up in October 2010 by supporters of the Polisario. At least eleven people were killed. The current UN mission was extended to April 30, 2014. Around 180,000 refugees have been living in refugee camps near Tindouf in western Algeria since 1976 .
Dispute over Spanish exclaves, “Parsley War” (2002), refugees to Europe
On July 11, 2002, Moroccan soldiers occupied Parsley Island (Isla del Perejil), an island only 500 m in diameter off the coast, but also 8 km west of the Spanish exclave of Ceuta, with the grounds that a post to better monitor illegal migrants and drug smuggling and counter-terrorism. In addition, Morocco declared the island its possession, as it is not mentioned in the Spanish-Moroccan treaty for the independence of Morocco of 1956. Spain then accused Morocco of breaking a tacit agreement from the 1960s that had stipulated that the island could not be occupied by either of the two states.
Morocco has been demanding the surrender of the Spanish exclaves Ceuta and Melilla since 1975. There was a dispute over fishing rights and illegal immigrants from Morocco. Spain sent guided missile frigates to Ceuta to reinforce its claims to possession, and they arrived there on July 15, 2002. Three days later, elite soldiers, supported by six helicopters, two submarines and several warships, stormed the island and drove the twelve Moroccan soldiers away. However, since Spain was unable to substantiate its claims with documents, because the island was not mentioned in any treaty, its soldiers had to vacate the island again. On the occasion of the visit of the Spanish king to the African exclaves, diplomatic tensions arose between Rabat and Madrid in 2007, during which Morocco withdrew its ambassador.
Resistance to the monarchy, attempts at democratization
On October 29, 1965, the left opposition politician Mehdi Ben Barka was kidnapped in exile in Paris with the help of French police officers and murdered on the same day. Republican coup attempts against Hassan's rule failed in 1971 and 1972. Riots broke out in June 1981 after the economy began to suffer from the burdens of the Sahara War and several poor harvests. Since the 1990s, the pressure of the Islamists on the regime increased, similar to that in Algeria.
With the announced gradual democratization, parliamentary elections were decided for November 1997, which the left opposition under Abderrahmane Youssoufi won for the first time. He became Prime Minister in March 1998. However, Hassan retained the right to depose the government, dissolve parliament or not accept laws. He could also rule with emergency ordinances if necessary. In addition, he was also the spiritual leader. From 1994, like Algeria, he pursued a policy of amnesty to reconcile political opponents.
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After Hassan's death in July 1999, his son Mohammed VI resigned . to succeed him. He introduced reforms which, however, did not affect the king's strong position in politics. In contrast, the rights of women came to the fore, both in marriage, inheritance and divorce law. On May 16, 2003 , members of Islamist groups carried out suicide attacks on Jewish institutions (the alliance israélite and the Jewish cemetery) and places of the “western” lifestyle, also in March and April 2007.
From 2002 a center-right coalition ruled, which supported the system of the monarchy in contrast to the opposition and rejected a constitutional reform. In terms of economic policy, she pursued a course of privatization, as well as a deregulation of the education and health systems.
The Mouvement Populaire Démocratique et Constitutionnel , founded in 1967 by Abdelkrim el Khatib, a doctor of King Hassan II, became the third largest party in 2002 with 42 of 325 seats. In the early parliamentary elections in 2011 , the Islamist group was the strongest party and won 107 out of 395 seats. Abdelilah Benkirane , who has been General Secretary since 2008 , became Prime Minister, replacing Abbas al-Fassi, who had been in power since 2007 . He formed a coalition with the Istiqlal and the Socialist Union of People's Forces , which had split off from the Istiqlal in 1959. There were also two other socialist parties, such as the Parti du progrès et du socialisme , the former Communist Party of Morocco, which had been a member of all governments since 1997.
Benkirane's Justice and Development Party takes moderate Islamist positions. On May 12, 2013, the Istiqlal announced its withdrawal from the government coalition, and on July 9, five of its six ministers resigned. The new coalition partner was the National Collection of Independents , founded in 1978 and led by a brother-in-law of King Hassan's , which had won 52 seats.
literature
Overview works
Historical lexicons
- Thomas K. Park, Aomar Boum: Historical Dictionary of Morocco , 2nd ed. Scarecrow Press, 2006.
- Hsain Ilahiane: Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen) , Scarecrow Press, 2006.
- Robin Leonard Bidwell : Dictionary of Modern Arab History. An A to Z of Over 2000 Entries from 1798 to the Present Day , Routledge, 2012.
Overall representations
- Bernard Lugan: Histoire du Maroc , Librairie Académique Perrin, 2000.
- Daniel Rivet: Histoire du Maroc, de Moulay Idrîs à Mohammed VI , Fayard, 2012.
- Amy McKenna (Ed.): The History of Northern Africa , The Rosen Publishing Group, New York 2010 (v. A. Pp. 109-125).
- Jörg-Dieter Brandes: History of the Berber. From the Berber dynasties of the Middle Ages to the Maghreb of the modern age , Katz, 2004.
prehistory
- Jean-Paul Raynal, Fatima-Zohra Sbihi-Alaoui, Abderrahim Mohib, Denis Geraads: Préhistoire ancienne au Maroc atlantique: bilan et perspectives régionales . In: Bulletin d'Archéologie Marocaine , 21, 2009, pp. 9–53, hal.inria.fr (PDF; 3.8 MB)
- Alain Rodrigue: Préhistoire du Maroc . Casablanca 2002.
- Elarbi Erbati, Athena Trakadas: The Morocco maritime survey. An archaeological contribution to the history of the Tangier peninsula , Archaeopress, 2009.
- IC Winder: Looking for problems: A systems approach to hominin palaeocommunities from Plio-Pleistocene Africa , in: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22 (2012) 460–493. doi: 10.1002 / oa.1219
- Denis Geraads: The Faunal Context of Human Evolution in the Late Middle / Late Pleistocene of Northwestern Africa , in: Jean-Jacques Hublin , Shannon P. McPherron (eds.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective , Springer 2012, pp. 49–60.
- Jean-Paul Raynal, Fatima-Zohra Sbihi-Alaoui, Abderrahim Mohib, Denis Geraads: Evidences et questions à propos des premiers peuplements de l'extrême Maghreb. L'exemple du Maroc atlantique , in: Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société , 2004, halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr (PDF; 3.4 MB)
- Claire Manen, Grégor Marchand, Antonio Faustino Carvalho: Le Néolithique ancien de la péninsule ibérique: vers un nouvelle evaluation du mirage africain? , in: Jacques Évin, Emmanuelle Thauvin-Boulestin (ed.): Un siècle de construction du discours scientifique en Préhistoire. XXVIe Congrès Préhistorique de France , Avignon 21. – 25. September 2004, Vol. 1, Paris 2007, pp. 133-151.
- Ian Turek: Origin of the Bell Beaker phenomenon. The Moroccan connection , in: Harry Fokkens, Franco Nicolis: Background to Beakers. Inquiries Into the Regional Cultural Background to the Bell Beaker Complex , Sidestone Press, Leiden 2012, pp. 191-203.
- Katherine E. Hoffman, Susan Gilson Miller: Berbers and Others. Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib , Indiana University Press, 2010.
- Harold L. Dibble , Vera Aldeias, Zenobia Jacobs, Deborah I. Olszewski, Zeljko Rezek, Sam C. Lin, Estebab Alvarez-Fernández, Carolyn C. Barshay-Szmidt, Emily Hallett-Desguez, Denné Reed, Kaye Reed, Daniel Richter, Teresa E. Steele, Anne Skinner, Bonnie Blackwell, Ekaterina Doronicheva, Mohamed El-Hajraoui: On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb , in: Journal of Human Evolution 64,3 (2013) 194-210.
Phoenicians and Carthaginians
- Dexter Hoyos: A Companion to the Punic Wars. John Wiley & Sons, Oxford a. a. 2011.
- Werner Huss : History of the Carthaginians , CH Beck, Munich 1985.
- Werner Huss: Die Karthager , CH Beck, Munich 1990, 3rd revised. 2004 edition.
- Fernando Prados Martínez: Arquitectura púnica. Los monumentos funerarios , 2008.
Numidia, Mauritania, Berbers
- Mokhtar Ghambou: The 'Numidian' Origins of North Africa , in: Katherine E. Hoffman, Susan Gilson Miller (Eds.): Berbers and Others. Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghreb , Indiana University Press 2010, pp. 153-170.
- Malika Hachid: Les Premiers Berbères , Edisud, Aix-en-Provence 2000.
- Lucien-Samir Oulahbib: Le monde arabe existe-t-il. Histoire paradoxale des berbères , Editions de Paris, 2007.
Rome, Vandals, Byzantium
- Noe Villaverde Vega: Tingitana en la antigüedad tardia (siglos III - VII). Autoctonia y rornanidad en el extremo occidente mediterráneo , Real Academia de la Historia, 2001.
- Lluís Pons Pujol: La economía de la Mauretania Tingitana (see I-III d. C.). Aceite, vino y salazones , Edicions Universitat Barcelona, 2009.
- Claude Lepelley, Xavier Dupuis (ed.): Frontières et limites géographiques de l'Afrique du Nord antique. Homage a Pierre Salama: actes de la table ronde réunie à Paris les 2 et 3 may 1997 , Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999.
- Margaret M. Roxan : The auxilia of Mauretania Tingitana , in: Latomus 52 (1973) 838-855.
- Christine Hamdoune: Ptolémée et la localization des tribus de Tingitane , in: Antiquité 105 (1993) 241–289, persee.fr
- Elizabeth Fentress: Romanizing the Berbers , in: Past & Present 190 (2006) 3-33.
- Andreas Gutsfeld: Roman rule and local resistance in North Africa , Franz Steiner, Stuttgart 1989.
- John Spaul: Across the Frontier in Tingitana , in: Willy Groenman-van Waateringe, BL van Beek, Willem JH Willems, Simon L. Wynia (eds.): Roman Frontier Studies 1995: Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies , Oxbow, Oxford 1997, pp. 253-258.
- Manuel Sotomayor: El cristianesimo en la Tingitana, el Africa proconsular y la Bética y sus relaciones mutuas , in: Congreso internacional <El Estrecho de Gibraltar> , Ceuta, November 1987, Actas I, Madrid 1988, pp. 1069-1079.
- Brent D. Shaw: Who were the Circumcellions , in: Andy H. Merrills (Ed.): Vandals, Romans and Berbers. New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa , Aldershot 2004, pp. 227-258.
- Yvette Duval: Loca sanctorum Africae , 2 vols., École française de Rome, Rome 1982.
- Leslie Dossey: Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa , University of California Press, Berkeley – Los Angeles – London 2010.
- Anna Leone: The End of the Pagan City. Religion, Economy, and Urbanism in Late Antique North Africa , Oxford University Press, 2013.
- Walter Emil Kaegi: Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 2010.
- Dennis P. Kehoe: The Economics of Agriculture on Roman Imperial Estates in North Africa , Habil., Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988.
- Anna Leone: Changing Townscapes in North Africa from late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest , Edipuglia, Bari 2007.
- E. Lennox Manton: Roman North Africa , Trafalgar Square, London 1988.
- Georges Tirologos (ed.): L'Afrique du Nord antique. Cultures et paysages, Colloque de Nantes - may 1996 , Presses Universitaires Franche-Comté, 1999.
- Christian Witschel : On the situation in Roman Africa during the 3rd century , in: Klaus-Peter Johne , Thomas Gerhardt, Udo Hartmann (eds.): Deleto paene imperio Romano. Transformation processes of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century and their reception in the modern age , Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, pp. 145–221.
- Edmond Frézouls: Rome et la Maurétanie tingitane: un constat d'échec? , in: Antiquités africaines 16 (1980) 65-93.
- Enrique Gozalbes: Propiedad territorial y luchas sociales en la Tingitana durante el Bajo Imperio , in: Memorias de Historia Antigua 2 (1978) 125-130.
- René Rebuffat : Enceintes urbaines et insécurité en Maurétanie tingitane , Mélanges de l'École française de Rome - Antiquité 86 (1974) 501-522.
- René Rebuffat: L'implantation militaire romaine en Maurétanie Tingitane , in: Africa romana 4 (1986) 31-78.
- Maurice Euzennat : Le limes de Tingitane. La frontière méridionale , Paris 1989.
- José Maria Blázquez: Ultimas aportaciones a Mauretania Tingitana en el bajo imperio , in: Klaus Geus, Klaus Zimmermann: Punica, Libyca, Ptolemaica. Festschrift for Werner Huss for his 65th birthday presented by students, friends and colleagues , Peeters, 2001, pp. 393–404.
- Helmut Castritius : The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer-Urban, Stuttgart 2007 (from p. 76).
- Andy H. Merrills (Ed.): Vandals, Romans and Berbers. New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa , Aldershot 2004.
- Paolo Odorico: L'image des Berbères chez les Byzantins. Le Témoignage de Corippe , in: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'études berbères 40-41 (2009-10) 161-169).
Muslim dynasties, Ottomans
- Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001 (p. 312–14 (Abdalwadiden), see from p. 264 (Maghreb), from p. 576 (1950–1985), p. 618 ( 1988-1992)).
- Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press, 1987.
- Juan Eduardo Campo: Encyclopedia of Islam, Infobase Publishing, 2009.
- Ulrich Rebstock : The Ibāḍites in the Maġrib (2nd / 8th 4th / 10th century). The story of a Berber movement in the guise of Islam , Klalus Schwarz, Berlin 1983.
- Heinz Halm: The Empire of the Mahdi. The rise of the Fatimids (875–973) , Beck, Munich 1991.
- Hans-Rudolf Singer : Almoravids . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages (LexMA). Volume 1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8 , column 449 f.
- Hans-Rudolf Singer: Almohads . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages (LexMA). Volume 1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8 , Sp. 447-449.
- Herman L. Beck: L'image d'Idrīs II, ses descendants de Fās et la politique s ẖarīfienne des sultans marīnides 656 - 869/1258 - 1465 , Brill, Leiden 1989.
- Ahmed Khaneboubi: Les institutions gouvernementales sous les Mérinides. 1258–1465 , L'Harmattan, Paris 2008.
- Auguste Cour: La dynastie marocaine des Beni Wattas (1420–1554) , Constantine 1920.
- Mohamed b. A. Benchekroun: La vie intellectuelle marocaine sous les Mérinides et les Waṭṭāsides , Imprimerie Mohammed-V, 1974.
- Chantal de La Véronne: Histoire sommaire des Saʼdiens au Maroc. La première dynastie Chérifienne, 1511–1659 , P. Geuthner, 1997.
- Auguste Cour: L'établissement des dynasties des Chérifs au Maroc et leur rivalité avec les Turcs de la Régence d'Alger. 1509–1830 , Paris 1904, reprint: Editions Bouchène, 2004.
- Bernard Rosenberger: Le Maroc au XVIe siècle. Au seuil de la modernité , Fondation des Trois Cultures, 2008.
- Mercedes García-Arenal: Ahmad al-Mansur. The Beginnings of Modern Marocco , Oxford 2009.
- Richard Lee Smith: Ahmad al-Mansur. Islamic Visionary , Longman Publishing Group, 2006.
- Jacques Benoist-Méchin: Histoire des Alaouites (1268–1971) , Perrin, 1994.
economy and trade
- Graziano Krätli, Ghislaine Lydon (Ed.): The Trans-Saharan Book Trade. Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa , Brill, Leiden 2011.
- Jacqueline Guiral: Les relations commerciales du Royaume de Valence avec la Berbérie au XVe siècle , in: Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, Vol. 10, 1974, pp. 99-131. doi: 10.3406 / casa.1974.897 accessed on August 7, 2013
Arabs and Berbers
- Maarten Kossmann: The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber , Brill, Leiden 2003 (linguistic work, from p. 51 on the origin of Berber).
- Mohand Tilmatine: L'image des Berbères chez les auteurs arabes de l'époque médiévale . In: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'études berbères 40-41 (2009-10) 171-183).
Jews
- Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Eds.): Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa , Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2011.
- Haïm Zafrani: Two Thousand Years of Jewish Life in Morocco , Jersey City 2005.
- Mabrouk Mansouri: The Image of the Jews among Ibadi Imazighen in North Africa before the Tenth Century . In: Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Eds.): Indiana University Press 2011, pp. 45–58.
- Abdellah Larhmaid: Jewish Identity and Landownership in the Sous Region of Morocco . In: Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Eds.): Indiana University Press 2011, pp. 59–72.
- Leila Maziane: Les juifs marocains sous les premiers sultans' alawites . In: Mercedes García-Arenal (ed.): Entre el Islam y occidente. Los judíos magrebíes en la edad moderna: seminario celebrado en la Casa de Velázquez, 16-17 de noviembre de 1998 Casa de Velázquez, Madrid 2003, pp. 303-316.
Religious Movements
- Mehdi Nabti: Les Aïssawa. Soufisme, musique et rituels de transe au Maroc , L'Harmattan, Paris 2011.
Colonial history
- Charles-André Julien : Le Maroc face aux impérialismes. 1415–1956 , Éditions JA, Paris 1971.
- Priscilla H. Roberts, Richard S. Roberts: Thomas Barclay (1728-1793). Consul in France, Diplomat in Barbary , Associated University Press, 2008.
- Gilles Lafuente: La politique berbère de la France et le nationalisme marocain , Harmattan, Paris 1999.
- Abdelkhaleq Berramdane: Le Maroc et l'Occident 1800–1974 , Éditions Khartala, Paris 1990.
- Jean Brignon, Guy Martinet, Bernard Rosenberg: Histoire du Maroc , Hatier, 1967.
- Driss Maghraoui: From “Tribal Anarchy” to “Military Order”. The Moroccan Troops in the Context of Colonial Morocco , in: Oriente Moderno, nuova serie 23 (84) (2004) 227–246. ( first page )
- Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria , New York University Press, 1994.
- Georges Oved: La gauche française et le nationalisme marocain 1905–1955. Tentations et limites du réformisme colonial , Harmattan, Paris 1984.
- Jean Wolf: Maroc. La vérité sur le protectorat franco-expagnol. Ll'épopée d'Abd-el-Khaleq Torrès , Eddif, 1994.
- Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, Oldenbourg, Munich 2006.
- Yaron Tsur: Dating the Demise of the Western Sephardim Jewish Diaspora in the Mediterranean , in: Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Ed.): Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa , Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2011, p. 93– 104.
Recent history
- Susan Gilson Miller: A History of Modern Morocco , Cambridge University Press, 2013 (from around 1830).
- Tony Hodges: Sahara Occidental - Origines et enjeux d'une guerre du désert , L'Harmattan, Paris 1987 (1983).
- Bruce Maddy-Weitzman: The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States , University of Texas Press, 2011.
- Aomar Boum: Southern Moroccan Jewry between the Colonial Manufacture of Knowledge and the Postcolonial Historiographic Silence , in: Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Ed.): Rethinking Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa . Indiana University Press, 2011, pp. 73-92.
- Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria , New York University Press, 1994.
Web links
- Espace du Patrimoine , Ministère de la culture
- North Africa , Encyclopedia Britannica
- Field Projects - Jebel Irhoud , Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute
- Les juifs du Maroc, Tradition et Modernité , website of the Moroccan Jewish community
- Museums in Morocco - Musées au Maroc , Morocco at a glance, private website
Remarks
- ↑ Cf. Jean-Paul Raynal, Fatima-Zohra Sbihi Alaoui, Lionel Magoga, Abderrahim Mohib, Mehdi Zouak: The Lower Palaeolithic Sequence of Atlantic Morocco Revisited After Recent Excavations at Casablanca . In: Bulletin d'Archéologie marocaine , XX, 2004, pp. 44–76, halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr and Jean-Paul Raynal, Fatima-Zohra Sbihi Alaoui, Abderrahim Mohib, Mosshine El Graoui, David Lefèvre, Jean-Pierre Texier, Denis Geraads, Jean-Jacques Hublin, Tanya Smith, Paul Tafforeau, Mehdi Zouak, Rainer Grün, Edward J. Rhodes, Stephen Eggins, Camille Daujeard, Paul Fernandes, Rosalia Gallotti, Saïda Hossini, Alain Queffelec: Hominid Cave at Thomas Quarry I (Casablanca, Morocco): Recent findings and their context . In: Quaternary International , 223-224, 2010, pp. 369-382, sciencedirect.com
- ↑ Homo erectus (Atlanthropus mauritanicus) , photography at Scientificlib.com.
- ↑ Camille Arambourg: récentes découvertes de paléontologie humaine réalisées en Afrique du Nord française (L'Atlanthropus de Terni Fine - L'Hominien de Casablanca) . In: JD Clark, S. Cole (Eds.): Third Panafrican Congress on Prehistory. Livingstone 1955 . London 1957, pp. 186-194.
- ↑ D. Geraads: The Faunal Context of Human Evolution in the Late Middle / Late Pleistocene of North Western Africa . In: Jean-Jacques Hublin, Shannon P. McPherron (Eds.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective . Springer 2012, pp. 49–60, here: p. 54.
- ↑ 2011 Honorary Membership Award Recipient. Jean-Jacques Jaeger ( Memento of the original from September 16, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Society of Vertebrate Paleontology.
- ↑ Nick Barton, Francesco d'Errico: North African Origins of Symbolically Mediated Behavior and the Aterian . In: Scott Elias (Ed.): Origins of Human Innovation and Creativity , Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford 2012, pp. 23–34, here: p. 26.
- ↑ Figure of the skeleton
- ^ Jean-Jacques Hublin : Recent evolution in Northwestern Africa . In: M. Aitken, P. Mellars, CB Stringer (Eds.): The Origin of Modern Humans, the Impact of Science-Based Dating , Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 337, 1992, pp. 185-191.
- ^ John Donnelly Fage , Roland Anthony Oliver (Eds.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 266.
- ↑ Barbara Ann Kipfer (Ed.): Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archeology , Springer, 2000, p. 41.
- ↑ Harold L. Dibble , Vera Aldeias, Zenobia Jacobs, Deborah I. Olszewski, Zeljko Rezek, Sam C. Lin, Esteban Alvarez-Fernández, Carolyn C. Barshay-Szmidt, Emily Hallett-Desguez, Denné Reed, Kaye Reed, Daniel Richter , Teresa E. Steele, Anne Skinner, Bonnie Blackwell, Ekaterina Doronicheva, Mohamed El-Hajraoui: On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb . In: Journal of Human Evolution 64.3, 2013, pp. 194-210.
- ↑ John Donnelly Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 262.
- ^ Uan Tabu , About.com.
- ↑ Nick Barton, Francesco d'Errico: North African Origins of Symbolically Mediated Behavior and the Aterian . In: Scott Elias (Ed.): Origins of Human Innovation and Creativity , Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxfort 2012, pp. 23–34, here: p. 26.
- ^ Daniel Richter et al .: The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age. In: Nature . Volume 546, No. 7657, 2017, pp. 293-296, doi: 10.1038 / nature22335
- ↑ Abdeljalil Bouzouggar, Nick Barton, Marian Vanhaeren, Francesco d'Errico, Simon Collcutt, Tom Higham , Edward Hodge, Simon Parfitt, Edward Rhodes, Jean-Luc Schwenninger, Chris Stringer, Elaine Turner, Steven Ward, Abdelkrim Moutmir, Abdelhamid Stambouli: 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104 (2007) 1964-1969.
- ↑ Nick Barton, Francesco d'Errico: North African Origins of Symbolically Mediated Behavior and the Aterian . In: Scott Elias (Ed.): Origins of Human Innovation and Creativity , Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford 2012, pp. 23–34.
- ↑ I'm following Nick Barton, Abdeljalil Bouzouggar: Hunter-gatherers of the Maghreb 25,000 to 6,000 years ago . In: Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (Eds.): The Oxford Handbook of African Archeology . Oxford University Press, 2013 (ebook).
- ^ Marieke van de Loosdrecht et al .: Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations. In: Science . Volume 360, No. 6388, 2018, pp. 548-552. doi: 10.1126 / science.aar8380
- ^ Marcellin Boule, Henri V. Valois: L'homme fossile d'Asselar (Sahara) . In: Archives de L'Institut de Paléontologie humaine, Mémoire 9, 1932.
- ↑ LC Biggs: The Stone Age Races of Northwest Africa . In: American School of Prehistoric Research Bulletin 18 (1955), p. 28.
- ↑ Marie Claude Chamla: Les hommes de épipaléolithiques columnata (Algeri occidentale) , Arts et Métiers Graphiques., 1970
- ↑ Marie-Claude Chamla: The Settlement of Non-Saharan Algeria from the Epipaleolithic to Modern Times . In: Physical Anthropology of European Populations, Mouton, The Hague 1980. For discussion: PM Vermeersch: Palaeolithic Quarrying Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt , Leuven University Press, 2002, pp. 321f.
- ^ John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 38.
- ↑ Ginette Aumassip: Les Imazighen: Questions sur les origines. The données de la préhistoire . In: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'études berbères , 40-41, 2009-10, pp. 131-144).
- ↑ Jacob Morales, Guillem Pérez-Jordà, Leonor Peña-Chocarro, Lydia Zapata, Mónica Ruíz-Alonso, Jose Antonio López-Sáez, Jörg Linstädter: The origins of agriculture in North-West Africa: macro-botanical remains from Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic levels of Ifri Oudadane (Morocco) . In: Journal of Archaeological Science 40.6, 2013, pp. 2659–2669.
- ↑ Emilie Campmas, Véronique Laroulandie, Patrick Michel, Fethi Amani, Roland Nespoulet, Abdeljallil El Hajraoui Mohammed: A great auk (Pinguinus impennis) in North Africa: discovery of a bone remain in a Neolithic layer of El Harhoura 2 Cave (Temara, Morocco ) . In: W. Prummel, JT Zeiler, DC Brinkhuizen (Ed.): Birds in Archeology. Proceedings of the 6th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group in Groningen ( 23.8-27.8.2008 ) , Barkhuis, 2010, pp. 233-240.
- ^ Ian Turek: Origin of the Bell Beaker phenomenon. The Moroccan connection . In: Harry Fokkens, Franco Nicolis: Background to Beakers. Inquiries Into the Regional Cultural Background to the Bell Beaker Complex . Sidestone Press, Leiden 2012, pp. 191-203, here: pp. 195-199.
- ↑ G. Bailoud, P. Mieg de Boofzheim, H. Balfer, C. Kiefer: La Nécropole Néolithique D'El-Kiffen, Prés des Tamaris (Province de la Casablanca, Maroc) . In: Libyca XII, 1964, pp. 95-171.
- ^ Robert Turcan, Nicole Blanc, André Buisson: Religions et iconographie du monde romain . Universite de Lyon, Lyon 1974, p. 374.
- ↑ J. Bokbot: La civilization du vase Campaniforme au Maroc et la question du substrate Chalcolithique précampaniforme . In: Manuel Angel Rojo-Guerra, Rafael Garrido-Pena, Iñigo García-Martínez de Lagrán: (Ed.): El campaniforme en la Peninsual ibérica y su contexto Europeo / Bell Beakers in the Iberian Peninsula and their European context , Universidad de Valladolid 2005, pp. 161-173.
- ↑ Alain Rodrigue: Nadlor Klalcha (Gharb). Nouvelle Station du campaniforme au Maroc / Nador Klalcha (Gharb), a new Bell-Beakers station in Morocco . In: Bulletin du Musée d'anthropologie préhistorique de Monaco , 52, 2012, pp. 69–79.
- ↑ Alain Rodrigue: Découverte fortuite d'une céramique campaniforme près de Sidi Cherkaoui (Gharb, Maroc) . In: Sahara , 20, 2009, pp. 193f.
- ^ Maarten Kossmann: The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber . Brill, Leiden 2003, p. 58f.
- ↑ Alessandra Bravin: Les gravures rupestres libyco-berbères de la région de Tiznit (Maroc) , L'Harmattan, Paris 2009, p. 9.
- ↑ Ahmed Taoufik Zainabi (coord.): Gravures, peintures et tumuli d'un énigmatique passé . In: der .: Trésors et Merveilles de la vallée du Drâa . Marsam Editions, Rabat 2004, pp. 32–42, here: p. 33.
- ↑ Alessandra Bravin: Les gravures rupestres libyco-berbères de la region de Tiznit (Maroc) . L'Harmattan, Paris 2009.
- ↑ On rock paintings in Morocco cf. R. Eckendorf, A. Salih: Les peintures rupestres au Maroc: État des connaissances . In: Contributions to general and comparative archeology , 19, 1999, pp. 233-257.
- ↑ To what extent the Libyan script influenced Latin, discussed: Mebarek Slaouti Taklit: L'alphabet latin serait-il d'origine berbère? , L'Harmattan, Paris 2004.
- ↑ Phoenician research on the Moroccan Atlantic island of Mogador and in its hinterland ( Memento of the original from September 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , DAI.
- ↑ Serge Lancel: Carthage , Fayard, Paris 1992, reprint Cérès, Tunis 2000, pp. 134-136.
- ↑ Werner Huss: History of the Carthaginians , Beck, Munich 1985, p. 70.
- ^ Amy McKenna (Ed.): The History of Northern Africa , The Rosen Publishing Group, New York 2010, p. 13.
- ↑ Walter Ameling: A Carthaginian Numidic War in 237 . In: Klaus Geus, Klaus Zimmermann (eds.): Punica, Libyca, Ptolemaica. Festschrift for Werner Huss for his 65th birthday presented by students, friends and colleagues , Peeters 2001, pp. 265–276.
- ↑ On this war cf. B. Dexter Hoyos: Truceless War. Carthage's Fight for Survival, 241 to 237 BC , Leiden 2007.
- ↑ Christine Hamdoune: Ptolémée et la localization des tribus de Tingitane . In: Mélanges de l'Ecole française de Rome. Antiquité , 105,1, 1993, pp. 241-289, persee.fr
- ↑ This and the following according to Elfriede Storm: Massinissa. Numidia on the move , Steiner, Stuttgart 2001.
- ↑ Hans Volkmann : Tacfarinas . In: Der Kleine Pauly , Volume 5, 1975, Col. 481f.
- ↑ Chellah , Megalithic Portal.
- ↑ M. Rebuffat: Inscriptions militaires au génie du lieu d'Ain Schkour et de Sidi Moussa bou Fri . In: Bulletin d'Archéologie Marocaine , 10, 1976, pp. 151-160.
- ↑ M. Euzennat: La frontière romaine d'Afrique . In: CRAI (1990) 565-580.
- ^ Anthony R. Birley: Septimius Severus. The African Emperor . Routledge, 2002, p. 148.
- ^ M. Euzennat: Le limes de Tingitane. La frontière méridionaie . In: Études d'Antiquités africaines , CNRS, Paris 1989, pp. 9-19.
- ^ M. Euzennat: Le milliaire d'Arbaoua et le camp de l'Oued Fouarat . In: Bulletin Archéologique du Comité des Travaux Historiques et Scientifiques , 23B, 1990-1992, pp. 211-213; M. Lenoir: Ad Mercuri templum. Voies et occupation antiques du nord du Maroc , communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Rome 100 (1993) 507-520.
- ↑ R. Rebuffat: L'implantation militaire romaine en Mauritania Tingitane . In: Africa Romana , 4, 1986, pp. 31-78; M. Euzennat: Remarques sur la description de la Maurétanie tingitane dans Pline, HN, V, 2-18 . In: Antiquités Africaines 25 (1989) 95-109, 288-92; H. Limane, R. Rebuffat: Les confins sud de la présence romaine en Tingitane dans la région de Volubilis , Actes du V e colloque international sur l'histoire et l'archéologie de l'Afrique du Nord, Avignon 1990, p. 459 -480 and Dies: Voie romaine et système de surveillance militaire sur la carte d'Arbaoua , Actes du VI colloque international sur l'histoire et l'archéologie de l'Afrique du Nord, Pau 1993, Paris 1995, pp. 299-342 .
- ^ M. Euzennat: Les Zegrenses . In: Melanges d'histoire ancienne offerts a William Seston , Paris 1974, pp. 175–186.
- ^ Anthony R. Birley: Septimius Severus. The African Emperor , Routledge, 2002, p. 55 is somewhat imprecise here. More precisely: The Cambridge Ancient History , Volume 11, p. 524.
- ↑ Apuleius, De magia 24. Cf. Jürgen Hammerstaedt u. a .: Apuleius: De magia . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2002 (translation with the Latin text and interpretive essays)
- ↑ Gerald Kreucher: The Emperor Marcus Aurelius Probus and his time , Steiner, Wiesbaden, 2003, p. 144f.
- ↑ Gerald Kreucher: The Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus and his time , Steiner, Wiesbaden, 2003, p. 145.
- ^ Archaeological Site of Volubilis , UNESCO World Heritage List.
- ^ Peter Brown: Through the Eye of a Needle. Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD . Princeton University Press, 2012, p. 6.
- ^ Peter Brown: Through the Eye of a Needle. Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD , Princeton University Press 2012, p. 12.
- ^ Peter Brown: Through the Eye of a Needle. Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD , Princeton University Press 2012, pp. 13f.
- ↑ Codex Theodosianus 5, 18, 1; Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto : The social structure of late antiquity. In: Alexander Demandt, Josef Engemann (ed.): Konstantin der Große. Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus. von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2007, p. 188.
- ↑ Peter Sarris: Empires of Faith. The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011, p. 31.
- ↑ Hans-Georg Beck: The Byzantine Millennium , CH Beck, Munich 1994, p. 47.
- ^ E.g. Jean-Michel Carrié: Les églises doubles et les familles d'églises , Brepols 1996.
- ^ Peter Brown: Through the Eye of a Needle. Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350-550 AD , Princeton University Press 2012, p. 43.
- ↑ Jakob Haury: About the strength of the vandals in Africa . In: Byzantinische Zeitschrift , 14, 1905, p. 527f.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius : The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 79.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 96.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 100-102.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 128–130.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, map on p. 111.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 131.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 135.
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws , CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 105-107.
- ^ Berthold Rubin : The Age of Justinian , Vol. 2, de Gruyter, Berlin 1995, pp. 38-47. The work was only published posthumously and comes from the time when he was still taken seriously as a scientist.
- ^ Andy H. Merrills: Vandals, Romans and Berbers. Understanding Late Antique North Africa . In: Ders .: (Ed.): Vandals, Romans and Berbers. New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa , Aldershot 2004, p. 6.
- ↑ Yves moderan: Les Maures et l'Afrique romaine (IVe au VIIe siècle) , Rome of 2003.
- ↑ Peter Riedlberger: Philological, historical and liturgical commentary on the 8th book of the Johannis des Goripp along with a critical edition and translation , Egbert Forsten, Groningen 2010, p. 49.
- ↑ Yves moderan: Les Laguatan: le problème des migrations of neo-Berbères . In: Encyclopédie Berbère , Vol. 28/29, Edisud, 2008, pp. 4318-4321.
- ↑ Abdelmajid Hannoum: Historiography, mythology and memory in modern North Africa: the story of the Kahina . In: Studia Islamica , 85, 1997, pp. 85-130.
- ↑ Ibn Khaldoun: Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique septentrionale , translated by William McGuckin de Slane , edited by Paul Geuthner, Paris, 1978, vol. 1, pp. 208f. Dt .: Ibn Khaldun: The Muqaddima: Reflections on world history. Transferred and with an introduction by Alma Giese with the participation of Wolfhart Heinrichs , Beck, Munich 2011. Cf. Shlomo Sand: The Invention of the Jewish People (first 2008) Verso, 2009, p. 202.
- ^ Elli Kohen: History of the Byzantine Jews. A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire , University Press of America, 2007, p. 39.
- ↑ Hsain Ilahiane: Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen) , Scarecrow Press 2006, pp 71st
- ^ Marie-France Dartois: Agadir et le sud marocain. À la recherche du temps passé, des origines au tremblement de terre du 29 février 1960 , Editions de Courcelles, 2008, p. 75.
- ^ Moshe Gil : Jews in Islamic Countries in the Middle Ages , Brill, Leiden 2004.
- ^ Dale R. Lightfoot, James A. Miller: Sijilmassa: The Rise and Fall of a Walled Oasis in Medieval Morocco . In: Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 86.1, 1996, pp. 78-101, here: p. 90.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 284.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p.
- ↑ Vincent J. Cornell: Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism , University of Texas Press 1998, p. 40.
- ↑ Ahmed Tahiri: Proceso de urbanización en el Rif. Situación actual y perspectivas de investigación (Siglos VIII-X) . In: II Congreso Internacional La Ciudad en al-Andalus y el Magreb , Fundación El legado andalusì, 2002, pp. 37–47, here: p. 46.
- ↑ See Josef van Ess : Theology and Society in the 2nd and 3rd Century of the Hijra. A history of religious thinking in early Islam , 6 vol., De Gruyter, Berlin 1991–1997, vol. 2, pp. 193–196.
- ^ Josef van Ess: Theology and society in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijra. A history of religious thought in early Islam , 6 vols., De Gruyter, Berlin 1991–1997, vol. 2, p. 195.
- ^ Josef van Ess: Theology and society in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Hijra. A History of Religious Thought in Early Islam . 6 vols. Berlin: De Gruyter 1991–1997, vol. 2, 198f.
- ^ Mahmood Ahmad Ghazi : The Sansūsiyyah movement of North Africa , Shariʼah Academy, International Islamic University, 2001, p. 312.
- ↑ G. Camps: Essai de cartographie culturelle: A propos de la frontière de Numidie et de Maurétanie . In: Claude Lepelley, Xavier Dupuis (eds.): Frontières et limites géographiques de l'Afrique du Nord antique. Hommage à Pierre Salama , Paris 1999, pp. 43–70, here: p. 55.
- ↑ Jami 'al-Kutubiyya ( Memento of the original dated December 23, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , ArchNet.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 306.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 309.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, p. 112.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, p. 141.
- ↑ This and the following according to Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, here: p. 146. Peter von Sivers: Nordafrika offers an overview of the history of North Africa up to 1985 in modern times . In: Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, pp. 502–603.
- ^ II Congreso Internacional La Ciudad en al-Andalus y el Magreb , 2002, p. 526, Algeciras. Excmo. Ayuntamiento
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , p. 211 ( online )
- ^ Nabil Mouline : L'idéologie califale du sultan Aḥmad al-Manṣûr al-Dhahabî (1578–1603) , in Studia Islamica 102/103 (2006) 91-156, here: pp. 148f.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987, pp. 221f.
- ^ Peter Lamborn Wilson : Pirate Utopias: Moorish Corsairs & European Renegadoes , Autonomedia, Williamsburg (Brooklyn) 2004, pp. 97f.
- ^ William Henry Roll: Jan Janszoon Van Haarlem, aka Murad Reis. The Pirate King of the Barbary Coast. ( Memento of the original from May 11, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. rootsweb.ancestry.com
- ↑ G. Moratti, L. Piccardi, G. Vannucci, ME Belardinelli, M. Dahmani, A. Bendkik, M. Chenakeb: The 1755 “Meknes” earthquake (Morocco): field data and geodynamic implications , in: Journal of Geodynamics 36 , 1-2 (2003) 305-322.
- ↑ Jillali El Adnani: La Tijaniyya, from 1781 to 1881. Les origines d'une confrérie religieuse au Maghreb , Diss., Marsam Editions, Rabat 2007, p. 11.
- ↑ Leila Maziane: Les juifs marocains sous les premiers sultans' Alawites, in: Mercedes García-Arenal (ed.): Entre el Islam y occidente. Los judíos magrebíes en la edad moderna: seminario celebrado en la Casa de Velázquez, 16-17 de noviembre de 1998 Casa de Velázquez , Madrid 2003, pp. 303-316, here: p. 303.
- ↑ Jane S. Gerber: Jewish Society in Fez. 1450-1700. Studies in Communal and Economic Life , Brill, Leiden 1980, p. 19.
- ↑ Bettina Marx: Jews of Morocco and Europe, Moroccan Judaism in the 19th Century and its Representation in the Contemporary Jewish Press in Germany, France and Great Britain , Peter Lang, Frankfurt 1991, p. 89.
- ↑ Jane S. Gerber: Jewish Society in Fez 1450-1700. Studies in Communal and Economic Life , Brill, Leiden 1980, p. 24.
- ↑ Bernard Lewis: The Jews in the Islamic World. From the early Middle Ages to the 20th century , Beck, Munich 2004, p. 136.
- ^ Mercedes García-Arenal, Gerard Wiegers: A Man of Three Worlds. Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe . french 1993, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007, p. 127.
- ^ Charles A. Lewis, Charles Lee Lewis: Admiral de Grasse and American independence , United States Naval Institute, Annapolis 1945, pp. 41ff.
- ^ Nabil I. Matar: In the Lands of the Christians. Arabic travel writing in the seventeenth century , Routledge 2003, p. 191, note 4.
- ↑ Senhaja Berber , Ethnologue.
- ↑ Luciano Canfora : August 1914. Or: Do you make war because of an assassination attempt? , Cologne 2010, p. 36.
- ^ Telegram from the Admiralty dated June 26, 1911 .
- ^ Telegram from the Admiralty dated June 28, 1911
- ^ Sonja Klinker: Maghrebians in France, Turks in Germany. A comparative study on the identity and integration of Muslim immigrant groups in European majority societies , Diss. Hildesheim 2009, Peter Lang 2010, p. 85.
- ↑ Bojan Kveder: Reviving the last Pasha of Marrakech. In: BBC News. June 28, 2010, accessed December 8, 2012 .
- ↑ This and the following from: Dirk Sasse: French, British and German in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, Oldenbourg, Munich 2006.
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 40.
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 199.
- ↑ L'histoire oubliée des surréalistes et la guerre du Rif ( Memento of February 12, 2008 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 58f.
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 59.
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 62.
- ^ Weider History Group: Rif War
- ↑ Rudibert Kunz, Rolf-Dieter Müller: Poison gas against Abd el Krim. Germany, Spain and the gas war in Spanish-Morocco 1922–1927 , Rombach, Freiburg 1990, p. 72.
- ^ Dirk Sasse: French, British and Germans in the Rif War 1921–1926. Speculators and sympathizers, deserters and gamblers in the service of Abdelkrim , Diss. Münster 2003, p. 56.
- ^ Convention relative à l'Organisation du Statut de la Zone de Tanger, avec Protocole relatif à deux Dahirs concernant l'Administration de la Zone et à l'Organisation d'une Juridiction internationale à Tanger, signed à Paris on December 18, 1923 ( Memento from December 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) PDF file 1.08 MB of the United Nations Treaty Collection.
- ^ League of Nations Archives, Chronology 1928 League of Nations Archives, Geneva (accessed July 23, 2008)
- ↑ Hans Peter Bull (August 11, 1967): The city between the fronts , in: The time.
- ^ Agreement for the re-establishment of the International Administration of Tangier. Signed at Paris, on August 31, 1945 ( Memento from December 25, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) PDF file 115 KB of the United Nations Treaty Collection.
- ↑ Marc Van Daele: Spanish Morocco ( Memento of the original from October 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. collectornetwork.com.
- ^ Tangier, Business as usual . In: Der Spiegel . No. 17 , 1952 ( online ).
- ^ Alfred Hackensberger: Protected, suppressed, tolerated - Jewish life in Islamic countries - a tradition at risk , in: Neue Zürcher Zeitung, February 25, 2008.
- ↑ Gerhard Schulz (ed.): Secret services and resistance movements in World War II , Göttingen 1982, pp. 84ff.
- ^ Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria , New York University Press 1994, pp. 91-113.
- ^ Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria . New York University Press 1994, p. 105.
- ^ Susan Gilson Miller: A History of Modern Morocco , Cambridge University Press 2013, p. 154.
- ^ Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. New York University Press 1994, p. 225.
- ^ Michael M. Laskier: North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century. The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. New York University Press 1994, p. 249.
- ↑ To summarize from the point of view of decolonization: Jean Jolly: Décolonisation. Crimes sans châtiments , L'Harmattan, Paris 2012, pp. 55–76.
- ^ SF Tagesschau : West Sahara: UN mediation overshadowed by bloodbath , November 9, 2010.
- ↑ BBC News : 'Eleven dead' in clashes in Western Sahara camp , November 9, 2010.
- ^ The situation regarding Western Sahara. United Nations
- ↑ Morocco withdraws ambassador because of the trip of the Spanish king . In: Die Welt , November 5, 2007.
- ↑ In Morocco the real Islamists are left out . In: Zeit Online , November 28, 2011
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