Marranas

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Marranen or Marranos also Conversos or Neuchristen ( Spanish cristianos nuevos , Portuguese cristãos-novos ), are Iberian Jews and their descendants who were converted to Christianity under duress or heavy pressure. They were often accused of continuing to practice Jewish rites as crypto Jews . The term first appeared in late medieval Spain.

A concise and much quoted definition of the Marranos comes from the philosopher Carl Gebhardt (1922): "The Marrane is a Catholic without faith and a Jew without knowledge, but a Jew in will."

Some researchers, such as Révah and Yerushalmi , limit the term Marrane to conversos who "Judaize" in secret and who intend to return to Judaism. Other researchers, such as Netanyahu , Yovel, C. Roth , N. Wachtel, and the French School, use the word as a generic term for all judeoconversos of Iberian descent. Quite a few historians avoid the term because of its vagueness and its origin in the anti-Jewish vulgar language , see below.

Muslims forced to convert to Christianity were also known as Marranos on the Iberian Peninsula .

Marranos under the Inquisition in Spain; Painting by Moshe Maimon, 1892–1893

etymology

In Spanish and Portuguese , marrano or marrão means " pig " and is used as an insult when referring to baptized Jews or Muslims. It is derived from the Latin verres ( boar , wild boar ). Marrane can also come from the Spanish verb marrar (to err, to miss) and then means renegade, renegade .

In other explanations, the term is derived from Arabic , either from the late Arabic wordبراني / barrānī for "stranger, outsider" or fromمحرم / maḥram or muḥarram (forbidden, forbidden thing), which refers to the prohibition of eating pork in Judaism or Islam. In addition, the word could also be derived from the Arabic verbمرن / marana (to be flexible).

Some attribute Marrane to the Hebrew word mar'it ayin (appearance, illusion), since the Marrans were apparently Christians, but remained Jews (or Muslims) in secret, or in Hebrew mochoram (banished, forbidden), the one with the above called Arabic muḥarram is related.

According to another interpretation, the term comes from the Aramaic maran atha (Our Lord has come) or mar anus and bar anus (forced lord or man or son of a forced man).

On the Balearic Islands , another name for the descendants of forcibly baptized Jews prevailed: Xuetes ( Mallorcan ) or Chuetas ( Spanish ). In this case too, the origin is uncertain. The word seems related to the Catalan xulla (bacon). According to another interpretation, it comes from juetó , a diminutive of jueo (Jew).

Marranos of Muslim origin were also referred to as tornadizos (reversible necks ), alboriques (after Buraq , the winged mount of the prophet Mohammed), impuros (unclean) and maculados (tainted).

In today's research, Marrane and Converso are the common names for Judeoconversos of Iberian origin and their descendants. In Hebrew , Jews who were forcibly baptized are called anussim (forced).

history

The history of the Marranos is part of the history of the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula , the Sephardim , and reflects the anti-Judaism of the Christian populations and rulers in various waves of forced conversions and persecutions of the Inquisition in Spain, Portugal and overseas . Further historical events for the Marranos are their worldwide emigration, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 and the mass baptism in Portugal in 1497.

Forced conversion among the Visigoths

Visigoth coin of Sisebut

There were Jewish settlements on the Iberian Peninsula early on. The presence of Jews has been archaeologically proven since the first centuries of our era. The time under Roman and Visigothic rule was initially marked by tolerance. This changed when the Visigoths converted from Arian to Catholic . After anti-Jewish resolutions were passed in the 3rd Council of Toledo , the first persecution of the Jews began. The Visigoth king Sisebut carried out forced baptisms for the first time in 613 . The persecutions continued under his successors. Many of the forcibly converted Jews continued to practice their religion in secret. Before the term Marrane existed, the first century of crypto-Judaism began .

See also:

Under Islamic rule

When the Moors in 711 in the battle of guadalete the kingdom of the Visigoths destroyed, the situation of forcibly baptized Jews changed decisively. Under Islamic rule they were allowed to practice their ancestral beliefs again. In addition, a wave of Jewish immigration from North Africa and the Middle East began. The newly emerged Spanish Judaism experienced a real heyday by the 10th century. The relationship with the Islamic population was not always unclouded. In 1066 the massacre of Granada took place in which several thousand Jews lost their lives. When the Almohads took power in Al-Andalus in the 12th century , the situation of the Jews changed suddenly. The new rulers represented an intolerant Islam. The Jews were given the choice of converting to Islam or emigrating. The second major forced conversion began. A large number of Jews temporarily adopted the Islamic faith. The most prominent victim was the religious philosopher Maimonides . Many found refuge in North Africa and especially in the Christian part of Spain.

See also:

Waves of conversion in Catholic Spain

Paul of Burgos , aka Pablo de Santa Maria, aka Shlomo Halevi

Convivencia

In the first centuries of the Reconquista (12th and 13th centuries) Spain was dominated by a climate of religious tolerance. The coexistence of the three Abrahamic religions is sometimes referred to as Convivencia . The thesis of convivencia , mainly advocated by Américo Castro , was, however, questioned by the historian Eduardo Manzano Moreno, who specializes in Andalusia .

Jews and Christians have always been concerned about a clear separation. The Jews lived in their own quarters, the Aljamas or Judérias , where they had their own jurisdiction and were directly under the crown. Some of the Jews gained prestigious positions at court, especially in the financial sector as tax collectors, moneylenders or financial overseers.

The pogroms of 1391

The situation of the Jews visibly worsened in the 14th century. As a result of internal Spanish turmoil, the legal and social situation of the Jews was eroded. The anti-Jewish sentiment in the population increased until the catastrophe occurred in 1391. Under the influence of anti-Semitic hate speech of the Archdeacon Ferran Martinez took place in June 1391 in Seville to pogroms , the soon to Spain and the Balearic Islands widened. Countless Jewish quarters were looted and destroyed, thousands of Jews killed and tens of thousands forced to Christian baptism. Historians speak of the greatest anti-Jewish excesses of the entire Middle Ages. It was a blow from which Spanish Judaism could never fully recover.

Paul of Burgos and Vincent Ferrer

There were further waves of conversions at the beginning of the 15th century. The Bishop of Burgos Pablo de Santa Maria , who was (voluntarily?) Baptized as Rabbi Shlomo Halevi in ​​1391, excelled by putting pressure on the Jewish communities and calling on them to convert. The Dominican Vincent Ferrer appeared with far more success . In the years 1412–1414 he went from town to town preaching and calling on Jews and Muslims to convert. Ferrer, who had condemned the forced conversions of 1391, penetrated synagogues and mosques as an eschatological penitential preacher with the cross in hand and urged those present to repent. He had some success with his sermons about the near end of the world and was at the same time the trigger for further persecution of the Jews.

Tortosa disputation

The culmination of the attempts at conversion was the disputation of Tortosa (1413-1414). The religious talks of Tortosa between Jews and Christians were initiated by the then antipope Benedict XIII (formerly Pedro de Luna). The main representative of the Christian side was the Converso Gerónimo de Santa Fe (Joshua Halorki); for the Jewish side he had called rabbis from all over Aragon to Tortosa. The main subject was the messiahship of Jesus. The Jewish representatives had no freedom of speech and were only allowed to answer Gerónimo's accusations. It was therefore clear from the start who would emerge from the disputation as the winner. The effects of the defeat were profound for the Jews. Thousands were baptized and there was great demoralization in the Jewish camp.

The activities of Paul of Burgos, Ferrer, Gerónimo and Benedict XIII. had the additional effect that anti-Jewish laws were passed. So that was segregation exacerbated and the Jews further marginalized socially. It is difficult to estimate how many Jews were baptized, half voluntarily and half compulsorily, between 1412 and 1415; it will have been tens of thousands.

See also: History of the Jews (Middle Ages) → Spain

The Converso Problem

Inquisition court. Francisco de Goya 1812-1819

In the last century of Jewish history (from 1391 to 1492) Spanish Judaism was divided into Old Believers and Marranos . However, the Conversos did not appear as a coherent group. The spectrum of views was broad; it ranged from the Judaizantes , who still practiced the Mosaic faith in secret, to strict Catholic Jews who hatred Jews. What they had in common was that they no longer had the opportunity to return to Judaism without becoming heretics.

The Conversos displayed astonishing mobility of upward mobility . The Marranos were now open to professions that were withheld from them as Jews. With a clever marriage policy, some conversos succeeded in advancing both professionally and socially. The envy and resentment of the Old Believers resulted in hostility towards Jews turning into hatred of the Marranos. The first anticonverso riots occurred in Toledo in 1449 and later in other cities in Andalusia.

Since the problem could not be solved by force, the " blood purity laws ", the estatutos de limpieza de sangre, were responded to. The aim was to use racist means to ensure that Christians with Jewish (or Moorish) ancestry were denied access to public office. The Old Believers tried to preserve the purity of blood with statutes and laws. For the purity of faith, another instrument was introduced from 1478: the inquisition . The aim of the activity were the "Judaizing" conversos , the crypto Jews. According to contemporary chroniclers, seven hundred judaizantes are said to have been handed over to the authorities and burned between 1481 and 1488 , and another 5,000 were "reconciled" with the church with penal conditions.

The "Converso problem" could only be solved in the long term, however, if the "Jewish problem" was also eliminated. The Catholic Kings Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon issued the Alhambra Edict in 1492 , which resolved to expel all Jews from Spain within a few months. One of the reasons for eviction was the conversation problem. This cannot be solved as long as Jews and new Christians lived so close together. Only by expelling all Jews could the new Christians be protected from the constant temptation to Judaize. In the same year that the Reconquista (with the help of Jews and Conversos ) was brought to an end, all Jews were expelled from Spain. Some of those affected decided to convert, a large number emigrated to Portugal, the rest mainly found refuge in the Ottoman Empire .

See also:

“Cristãos novos” in Portugal

Of the Christeliche / Streyt, recently happened / jm. M.CCCCC.vj Jar zu Lissbona / a haubt stat in Portigal between en christen and newen chri / sten or jews, because of the cross-crossed [sic] got. " Pamphlet 1506

The Jews until 1497

The coexistence of the Jewish minority with the Portuguese Christians was very problematic in the Middle Ages. A policy of segregation probably prevailed ; the Jews had their own quarters to stop the Judarias . They were under the protection of the king and had to pay special taxes and duties. They were largely spared from great waves of persecution and conversion. Persecuted Spanish Jews repeatedly found refuge in Portugal, for example after the persecution of 1391. After the introduction of the Inquisition of 1478, more and more Castilian conversos fled to the Portuguese cities. In 1488, the immigration of other Marranos was stopped and those who had already immigrated were asked to continue their journey. Portugal experienced a large influx of Spanish Jews after the expulsion edict of 1492 . Between 50,000 and 100,000 Jews emigrated to Portugal to avoid forced conversion. 600 wealthy Jewish families were given permanent admission for a substantial sum. The remaining refugees were initially allowed a limited entry. João II tried various coercive measures to persuade the Spanish Jews to convert or to move on. A particularly cruel act was the kidnapping and forced baptism of up to 2,000 children and young people and their deportation to São Tomé in 1493. Some of the Jews who were not admitted emigrated to North Africa or Italy, others converted and returned to Spain.

The mass baptism

Under King Manuel I , the situation of the Jews eased somewhat. This changed when he wanted to marry Isabella , the daughter of the Catholic King of Spain. The application was only approved on the condition that all Jews from Portugal were also expelled. Manuel issued a decree in December 1496 that all Jews had to leave the country. For economic and social reasons, however, he could not afford such bloodletting. On the contrary: he prevented the Jews from leaving the country and in 1497 had the entire Jewish population forcibly baptized. In return, the king granted all new Christians an amnesty and in May 1497 issued an edict that they could not be charged with deviating religious practice for the next twenty years. He also banned the introduction of separate legislation for each of the Cristãos novos . This was one of the reasons that a strong crypto-Jewish tendency took off in Portugal. In addition, the Portuguese New Christians were a fairly compact group. As when they were still Jews, their position in society was quite influential. In addition to key positions in finance and wholesale, they were often leaders in science. Thanks to their influence, they were able to prevent the introduction of the Inquisition in Portugal for almost forty years.

The Lisbon massacre

Despite the protection granted to the Conversos by the king, it could not be prevented that the early Christians would riot. The worst unrest occurred around Easter in 1506. At a time when the king was staying outside of Lisbon because of the plague, the new Christians were persecuted, which went down in history as the “Lisbon massacre”. Almost two thousand Cristãos novos were killed. The massacre by the royal troops was only ended after three days. The main perpetrators were punished and the new Christians were given some concessions. Under certain restrictions, they were granted the right to emigrate to other Christian countries at times. Although the period of immunity from religious persecution was extended in 1512, efforts began again in 1515 to introduce the Inquisition in Portugal.

Introduction of the Inquisition

In 1536, João III. permission to establish the Inquisition in his country. Four years later, the first auto-da-fe took place in Lisbon . After violent protests on the part of the New Christians in Rome, the persecution was interrupted for some time, but began again from 1547 with a vehemence that exceeded the brutality and effectiveness of the Spanish model. The situation of the Marranos eased somewhat around 1580 when Portugal and Spain came to a personal union. Now it was possible for the Portuguese Marranos to move to the neighboring country in order to avoid persecution.

See also:

Worldwide diversion

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Marranos today

  • Crypto Jews in Belmonte (Portugal)
  • Jacques Derrida identified with his Marran roots. For him, it was not the religious bond to Judaism that was decisive, but its social and psychological significance, its place within a multi-story society. “[…] I belong, if I am a kind of Marran of the Catholic French culture, and I also have my Christian body, inherited in a more or less intertwined line from SA, condiebar euis sale [salted with my salt], to them Marranos who do not call themselves Jews in the secret of their hearts [...] because they doubt everything, never make confession and do not disclose the explanation, no matter what the cost, ready to be burned, almost, [...] "

Classification of Marranos and Conversos

Classification according to religious attitude (according to José Faur 1990)

  • Christian-minded Conversos : would like to remain Christian and do not want to have anything to do with Judaism
Examples: Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540), Luis de León (1527–1591)
  • Jewish-minded Conversos : want to return to Judaism as soon as possible and have nothing more to do with Christianity
Examples: Gracia Nasi (1510–1569), Menasse ben Israel (1604–1657)
  • ambivalent conversos : are familiar with both Judaism and Christianity
Examples: Pablo de Santa Maria (1351–1435), Isaac de La Peyrère (1596–1676)
  • skeptical conversos : reject both Christianity and Judaism
Examples: Uriel da Costa (1585–1640), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)

“Marrano Patterns” according to Yovel

Baruch de Spinoza , descendant of a Portuguese-Marran family

Yirmiyahu Yovel (1989) leads in his book Spinoza and other heretics (Spinoza and other heretics ) some of its opinion on by typical marra African patterns. His thesis comprises seven points:

Iberian Marranism leads to skepticism , secularism , neo-paganism , rationalist deism and, in most of the cases, an inarticulate confusion of symbols and traditions. New Jews in Holland therefore suffer from a new duality between desired Jewry and residual Christianity. Religious ambivalence leads (again) to heterodoxy (he cites as examples: Uriel da Costa , Juan de Prado , Spinoza). Heterodoxy can be traced back to the psycho-cultural milieu and the non-conformist potential of Marranism.
  • Ambiguity and dual language
According to Yovel, Spinoza was a master of ambiguity and double language. He adapted his language to the audience. Its double language has its roots partly in Maimonides , but mainly in the Marran language and culture. Examples are the picaresque novels of the Iberian Peninsula. This is well expressed in Rojas La Celestina , a masterpiece of Spanish literature written by a Marrane. Ambiguity, mask play and double language became a new stylistic element of the literature influenced by Marranen.
  • Double life
Yovel states a life on two levels: the inner and the outer, the hidden and the open. Spinoza lived this double life twice. As a critical Jew in the Jewish community and after the ban as a free thinker and atheist in a Calvinist environment. His double life is comparable to the double life of the Marranos in Portugal. This double life made Spinoza (and Uriel da Costa) lonely thinkers. Spinoza's motto was caute , be careful . A wise person therefore does not try to impose his truths on others.
  • Double career
Yovel argues further: Spinoza's father left the Iberian Peninsula to find peace. Spinoza himself never found this calm, neither as a Christian nor as a Jew. Fighting his reputation as an atheist, he was considered a Jew by everyone. It is typical of many Marranos that their life was divided into two completely separate periods. He mentions as examples:
Isaac Cardoso made a career as a Catholic doctor at the Spanish court and later was a Jewish scholar in Venice.
Uriel da Costa was treasurer at the collegiate church in Porto and later a trader and Jewish freethinker in Amsterdam .
Spinoza radically changed his life after the Herem . He became a dealer and glass grinder.
  • Tolerance versus Inquisition
According to Yovel, Spinoza's philosophy of tolerance states that everyone is free to make mistakes. Truth is absolute, but Spinoza tolerates error. This attitude leads to a universal religion. Since the majority are incapable of a rational life, conformity is appropriate. Yovel also considers this ambiguity to be typically Marran.
As Yovel explains, Spinoza spoke of an individual path to salvation. The goal is not only knowledge, but also bliss (beatitudo), contentment and happiness. The pursuit of rationality should end in bliss, eternity and a love of reason. Spinoza has a certain affinity for mysticism , as can also be observed with the Alumbrados in Spain. Alumbrados, enlightened, Erasmians were members of a mystical reform movement in Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries; a striking number of members were Marranos.

See also

literature

Scientific literature

  • Ulrich Horst : The Spanish Dominicans and the problem of the Jewish Christians (“conversos”). In: Dominicans and Jews. People, Conflicts and Perspectives from the 13th to the 20th Century / Dominicans and Jews. Personalities, Conflicts, and Perspectives from the 13th to the 20th Century. Edited by Elias H. Füllenbach OP and Gianfranco Miletto, Berlin / Munich / Boston 2015 (= sources and research on the history of the Dominican Order, New Series, vol. 14), p. 273 ff.
  • Yirmiyahu Yovel: The Other Within. The Marranos. Split Identity and Emerging Modernity. Princeton 2009, ISBN 978-0-691-13571-7 .
  • Miriam Bodian: Dying in the law of Moses. Crypto-Jewish martyrdom in the Iberian world. Bloomington 2007, ISBN 978-0-253-34861-6 .
  • Hering Torres, Max Sebastián: Racism in the premodern. The “purity of blood” in early modern Spain. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 3-593-38204-0 .
  • Norman Toby Simms: Masks in the mirror. Marranism in Jewish experience. New York 2006, ISBN 978-0-8204-8120-3 .
  • Julio Valdeón Baruque: Judíos y Conversos en la Castilla medieval. Valladolid 2004, ISBN 84-8183-134-4 .
  • Maurice Kriegel: Le marranisme. Histoire intelligible et mémoire vivante. In: Annales , 2002 (2) pp. 323-334. Online .
  • Natan Wachtel: La Foi du Souvenir: Labyrinthes marranes. Paris 2001, ISBN 2-02-015964-3 .
  • António José Saraiva , HP Salomon and ISD Sassoon: The Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and its New Christians, 1536–176. Leiden 2001, ISBN 90-04-12080-7 .
  • Renée Levine Melammed: Heretics or daughters of Israel? The crypto-Jewish women of Castile. New York 1999, ISBN 978-0-19-515167-1 .
  • Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi : Sefardica. Essais sur l'histoire des Juifs, des marranes & des nouveaux-chretiens d'origine hispano-portugaise. Paris 1998, ISBN 2-906462-36-5 .
  • Miriam Bodian: Hebrews of the Portuguese nation. Conversos and community in early modern Amsterdam. Bloomington, etc. 1997, ISBN 0-253-33292-3 .
  • David Martin Gitlitz: Secrecy and deceit: the religion of the Crypto-Jews. Albuquerque, NM (1996) 2002, ISBN 978-0-8263-2813-7 .
  • Norman Roth: Conversos, Inquisition, and the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Wisconsin (1995) 2002, ISBN 0-299-14230-2 .
  • Markus Schreiber: Marranas in Madrid. 1600-1670. Stuttgart 1994, ISBN 3-515-06559-8 .
  • José Faur: In the shadow of history. Jews and "Conversos" at the dawn of modernity. Albany (NY) 1992, ISBN 978-0-7914-0801-8 .
  • José Faur: Four Classes of Conversos: A Typological Study. In: Revue des Etudes Juives. Paris 1990, 149, pp. 26-34. Online (PDF; 1.2 MB).
  • Yirmiyahu Yovel: Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Marrano of Reason. Princeton 1989, ISBN 0-691-02078-7 .
  • Yosef Kaplan: Jews and conversos. Studies in society and inquisiton. Jerusalem 1985.
  • Richard D. Barnett, WM Schwab (Ed.): The Sephardi Heritage. Essays on the history and cultural contribution of the Jews of Spain and Portugal. 2 vols. Gibraltar Books, Grendon / Northants / London 1971, 1989, ISBN 0-948466-11-1 .
  • António José Saraiva: The Marrano Factory: the Portuguese Inquisition and its New Christians 1536-1765. (Portuguese first edition 1969) Leiden 2001, ISBN 90-04-12080-7 .
  • Antonio Domínguez Ortiz : Los Judeoconversos en España y América. Madrid 1971.
  • Benzion Netanyahu: The Marranos of Spain. From the Late 14th to the Early 16th Century, According to Contemporary Hebrew Sources. Ithaca NY 1966 (reprint 1999), ISBN 0-8014-8568-1 .
  • Francisco Márquez Villanueva: The converso problem: an assessment. In: Hornik, Marcel Paul (Ed.): Collected studies in honor of Américo Castro's eightieth year. Oxford 1965, pp. 317-333.
  • Israël S. Révah: Les Marranes. In: Revue des Études Juives. Paris 1959, 118, pp. 29-77, ISSN  0484-8616 .
  • Cecil Roth : A history of the Marranos. Philadelphia 1932 (5th ed. New York 1992), ISBN 0-87203-040-7 .
  • Cecil Roth: The Religion of the Marranos. In: Jewish Quarterly Review. 22 (1931-1932), pp. 1-33.
  • Léon Poliakov : History of Anti-Semitism, Vol. IV: The Marranos in the Shadow of the Inquisition. Frankfurt am Main 1981 (new edition), ISBN 3-921333-98-9 .
  • Fritz Heymann : death or baptism. Expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal in the Age of the Inquisition. Frankfurt am Main 1988, ed. by Julius H. Schoeps , (2nd edition 1992), ISBN 3-610-00409-6 .
  • Frédéric Brenner : Exiles de l'exil. (With a contribution by Yoseph H. Yerushalmi: Les Derniers Marranes. Le temps, la peur, la mémoire. ) Paris 1992, ISBN 2-7291-0809-2 .
  • Markus Schreiber: Marranas. A family in the shadow of the Inquisition 1497–1688 , Munich 2013, ISBN 978-3-944334-19-6 .
  • Donatella Di Cesare : Marrani. L'altro dell'altro. Torino 2018, ISBN 978-88-06-23588-8 .
  • Florian Krobb: collective autobiographies, desired autobiographies . The fate of Marran in the German-Jewish historical novel. Wurzburg 2002.

Fiction

Movie

  • Frédéric Brenner, Stan Neumann: Les derniers Marranes . Documentary film 1990 ( excerpt ).

Web links

Wiktionary: Marrane  - explanations of meanings, origins of words, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ First written mention around 1380. Norman Roth 2002. P. 3 f.
  2. ^ Carl Gebhardt: The writings of Uriel da Costa , (Bibliotheca Spinozana, 1, Volume II), Amsterdam 1922, p. Xix.
  3. ↑ See foreword in: Yirmiyahu Yovel 2009.
  4. ↑ On the variety of etymological attempts at interpretation cf. Davíd Conzálo Maeso: Sobre la etimología de la voz “marrano” (criptojudío) . In. Sefarad , 15/2 (1955), pp. 373-385.
  5. ↑ See Yakov Malkiel: Hispano-Arabic marrano and Its Hispano-Latin Homophone . In: Journal of the American Oriental Society , (68) 1948.
  6. ↑ Norman Roth 2002. p. 3 f.
  7. ↑ See MA Cohen: Marrano . In: Encyclopaedia Judaica 1972, Vol. 11. Col. 1018.
  8. ↑ For the etymological interpretation see Dictionary of Jewish Usage: A Guide to the Use of Jewish Terms , Maryland 2005. pp. 104 f.
  9. ↑ Yirmiyahu Yovel in 2009.
  10. ↑ The Granada massacre is considered the first pogrom on European soil.
  11. ↑ See Sephardic Judaism between the Cross and the Crescent , Yerushalmi 1993.
  12. ↑ See Baruque 2004.
  13. ↑ See Theologische Realenzyklopädie Vol. 28. (1997) pp. 652 ff.
  14. ↑ Y. Yowel believed that the Jewish communities 50,000 or more members had lost. Yowel 2009. p. 53.
  15. ^ Assimilation and racial anti-Semitism , Yerushalmi 1993. p. 57.
  16. ↑ John Edwards: The Spanish Inquisition . Düsseldorf 2008. P. 74 f.
  17. ↑ On the numbers see: Jewish and Converso Population in Fifteenth-Century Spain , Roth 1995 and The Number of the Marranos in Spain , Netanyahu 1966.
  18. ↑ The term Marranos first appeared in a royal decree in 1487. Soyer 2007. p. 99.
  19. ↑ See Soyer 2007. Castilian Conversos and Jews in Portugal , pp. 84-138.
  20. ↑ Miriam Bodian 2007, p. 21.
  21. ↑ Cf. Alexandre Herculano : Historia da origim e establiacao da inquisiciao em Portugal . Lisbon 1854-1859. (New York 1972).
  22. ^ Geoffrey Bennington and Jacques Derrida: Jacques Derrida . Paris, Seuil 1991. p. 160: "Je suis de ces marranes qui ne se disent même pas juifs dans le secret de leur cœur, non pour être des marranes authentifiés de part et d'autre de la frontière publique, mais parce qu ' ils doutent de tout, jamais ne se confessent ni ne renoncent aux lumières, quoi qu'il en coûte, prêts à se faire brûler ... “The German passage can be found in Compulsion No. 33 on pp. 182-183 (from the French. by Stefan Lorenzer, Suhrkamp 1994).
  23. ^ José Faur: Four Classes of Conversos , 1990.
  24. ↑ Yirmiyahu Yovel 1989, Marrano Patterns pp. 28–39 digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.ch%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDOFwnubVDncC%26pg%3DPA28%26dq%3Dmarrano%2Bpatterns%26cd%3D2%23v%3Donepage%26q% 2520patterns% 26f% 3Dfalse ~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D