History of Libya
The history of Libya in terms of human settlement can only be traced back over a period of a little more than 100,000 years, even if traces of up to 2 million years old exist in North West Africa.
Libya is the Greek word for the area west of Egypt inhabited by "Libyans". Later the name extended to the whole of North Africa between Egypt, Aithiopia and the Atlantic.
Prehistory and early history
Paleolithic
Based on fossil and tool finds, it is considered proven that some representatives of Homo erectus left Africa for the first time around 2 million years ago for the Levant , Black Sea region and Georgia, and possibly via northwest Africa to southern Spain. About 600,000 years ago there was probably a second wave of propagation. In Africa about 200,000 years ago the early or archaic anatomically modern man emerged from Homo erectus and from this the anatomically modern man emerged. In contrast to the coastal fringes and the oases, the Sahara was only habitable in phases if sufficient rainfall allowed sufficient flora and fauna.
The Sahara was often drier, but also wetter for a long time than it is today, so it expanded or shrank. Phases of the “green Sahara” with their maxima were mainly concentrated around 315,000, 215,000 and 115,000 years ago, maxima of extremely dry phases can be found 270,000, 150,000 and 45,000 years ago. Accordingly, apart from a few refugia, the Sahara was probably a place that was hardly habitable for people from 325,000 to 290,000 years ago and 280,000 to 225,000 years ago. If people lived in today's desert at that time, they must have withdrawn to the south, to the Red Sea or the Mediterranean. Under these conditions modern man could have emerged who was repeatedly isolated for a long enough time and was constantly exposed to new conditions.
For example, 125,000 years ago there was an adequate network of waterways to allow numerous animal species to spread northward, followed by human hunters. Huge lakes such as the mega-Fezzan lake (over 76,000 km²) contributed to this, and in wet phases over the last 380,000 years they extended far north several times. In contrast, the Sahara extended northward to the Jabal Gharbi 70,000 to 58,000 years ago . This was followed by a wetter phase, which in turn was followed by a drier one 20,000 years ago.
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The earliest traces of human settlement in what is now Libya do not only go back to the Atérien , when the more humid Sahara was crossed by hunters and gatherers . Remains from the Paleolithic were found in Tadrart Acacus in southwest Libya, in Jabal Uweinat in the southeast, but also 25 km northwest of it, in Jabal Gharbi 60 km south of the Mediterranean coast, as well as on the centrally located Shati Lake (100 to 110,000 years ago). Of the total of 56 sites (as of 2012), 25 are on the Jabal Gharbi (south of Tripoli) and 19 in the central Sahara on the Tadrart Acacus and in the Messak Settafet .
For a later wet phase, it is now assumed that Nilo-Saharan groups migrated from the east to the southern Sahara to stalk aquatic animals, while the northern Sahara was more likely to be visited by hunters of the steppe animals. So fishermen moved westward along rivers and lakes, some as far as northwest Africa, to hunt fish, crocodiles and hippos with their harpoons, while other hunters moved south to kill savannah dwellers such as elephants and giraffes with bows and arrows. The latter are probably assigned to the Epipalaeolithic and came around 8000 BC. From northwest Africa. Towards the end of the last Ice Age, Lake Shati became part of the much larger Lake Megafezzan , which, as recent studies show, were actually two lakes that were located 100,000 years ago over an area of 1350 and 1730 km², respectively stretched.
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from Algeria
In North Africa, the late hand ax complexes were followed by the teeing technique , which is very similar to the southern European and Near Eastern. There are also leaf tips that belong to the later Atérien tradition. It is considered the culture of nomadic desert hunters and ended about 32,000 years ago. The Atérien was long considered part of the Moustérien, but now as a specific archaeological culture of the Maghreb. She had reached a very high level of processing of her stone tools. The hunters developed a handle for tools, thus combining different materials into composite tools for the first time. In Libya, 56 Atérien sites are known (as of 2012), 25 of which were found in Jabal Gharbi in the north-west of the country. The hunters and gatherers preferred higher regions further south as they came closer to their demands on the ecological environment. 70,000 to 58,000 years ago the Sahara extended northward into the area of the Jabal Gharbi, the next dry phase only followed around 20,000 years ago. The finds, whose reliable dating is still pending, must therefore be classified in time between these dry phases.
Usually, temporal parallels with Egyptian cultures can only be deduced typologically. The blades of Nazlet Khater are similar to those of Haua Fteah in Libyan Kyrenaica .
Some sites are known from the late Paleolithic in Libya. They go back between 21,000 and 12,000 years. The climate remained extremely dry, but many animal species withstood the increasingly extreme climate for a long time. North African ostriches ( Struthio camelus camelus ), which lived in the northern Sahara, were still known to the Greeks. However, the warming after the end of the last glacial period resulted in further massive changes. The floods were extraordinarily productive and reached areas that had hardly seen any water for a long time. The rock paintings and engravings come from the younger inhabitants, dating from 9000 BC. Insert.
At the western Egyptian site Nabta settled around 6700 BC. Shepherds with their cattle on a shallow lake barely 100 km from Wadi Kubbaniya, on the eastern edge of the Sahara. There were 12 round and oval huts there. Artifacts from the time between 7000 and 6700 BC were found near Elkab. The Elkabian industry was microlithic, millstones existed, but red pigments were found on many of them, so that they cannot be taken as evidence of agriculture. The inhabitants were more likely nomads who moved to the desert in the rainier summer and hunted and fished in the Nile valley in winter.
Neolithic
The living conditions remained extremely fragile and slight reductions in the already low rainfall drove the people away. In the western desert of Egypt a distinction is made between an early (8800–6800 BC), a middle (6500–6100 BC) and a late Neolithic (5100–4700 BC). The times between these phases were caused by the aforementioned return of the drought, which made the area uninhabitable. Ceramics were rare, and ostrich eggs were preferred for water transport . Pottery, the decoration of which refers to the symbolic level, is probably an independent invention of Africa. The tools of the western desert are closely related to the Fayyum culture, which existed between 5450 and 4400 BC. Existed. For the first time, agriculture became the basis of life there, which finally set the ways of life apart, albeit less drastically than long assumed. For example, domesticated forms of barley and durum wheat were found at the coastal site of Hagfet al-Gama (8900-4500 BP), which indicates a mixed culture of livestock, small-scale cultivation of some types of grain and collecting, because the finds were made together with remains of sheep and goats and land snails. After 4900 BC The amount of rain decreased again, even more after 4400 BC. Chr.
With the increasing dehydration since 3000 BC The Sahara developed into the desert we know today , in the last centuries before the turn of the times the last representations of animal species that have disappeared today were made, the nomads brought more and more goats and fewer and fewer cattle with them. Long-range migrations ensued, bringing into the desert groups that the neighboring Egyptians referred to as "Libyans", about whom the earliest news comes from the east.
"Libyans" and Egyptians
At least since about 4000 BC. Cultures can be identified that today are addressed as Libyans or their ancestors and that have long been referred to as Berbers . However, this is not considered certain, which is why many authors prefer the old term "Libyan". The "Berbers" call themselves Imazighen (singular: Amazigh). It was the Greeks who first extended the term “Libyan” to all inhabitants of the Sahara.
The first historical reports about “Lebu” or “Rebu” come from Egypt , which has existed since the 3rd millennium BC. Repeatedly reported of fighting with Libyans. Since around 2300 BC BC Libyans invaded the Nile valley and settled in the oases. Many of them were later accepted into the Egyptian army and eventually even become pharaohs themselves. The Libyans were only Egyptized to a certain extent. There are signs that religious forms have been adopted. In addition, the horse, which came from the Middle East, was now used as a riding horse and to pull chariots, came to Libya via Egypt. Around 1000 BC One of the Libyan tribes, the Garamanten , succeeded in establishing an empire around the Fessan. Perhaps they brought the horse and ironwork with them.
We get the earliest information from Egyptian inscriptions from the Old Kingdom (approx. 2686–2160 BC). A campaign by the pharaoh Sneferu , who was the first pharaoh of the 4th dynasty, was directed against Libya and took place towards the end of his reign. 1,100 Libyans and 13,100 head of cattle were captured during this campaign. His successor Cheops had an expedition carried out to the Dachla oasis in the Libyan desert, which served to procure pigment . Inscriptions testify that his son Radjedef also sent an expedition to Dachla. The inscribed evidence for this comes from a camp site in the desert, about 60 km from Dachla. This lies at the foot of a sandstone rock and was apparently referred to as the “Radjedef water mountain”. Reliefs in the mortuary temple of the Sahure pyramid (5th dynasty) tell of a campaign against Libya . However, since an almost identical image was also found in the pyramid complex of Pepi II , it is unclear whether an event is really represented or rather a symbolic beating of the enemies of Egypt, which had to be repeated by every new king. There were not only routes between Egypt and Libya along the coast, but also through the Libyan desert. So from Kharga a route went west to Dachla, where at the time of Pepis II there was an important station near Ayn Asil. Finds from the extreme south-east of today's Libya at the triangle of Egypt / Libya / Sudan show that the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom also made their claim to power in the south of Libya. There, in the area of the over 1900 m high Jabal al-Awaynat , a cartridge of the Pharaoh Mentuhotep II was found.
In the Middle Kingdom we hear of further expeditions against Libya. Amenemhet I had walls built on the eastern edge of the delta to protect against Asian invasions. In the last year of Amenemhet I's reign, his son Senusret ( Sesostris I ) moved against the Libyans.
In the New Kingdom , the pharaohs resumed their aggressive foreign policy. Seti I led a campaign to Libya. He also deployed the army against the Libyans, who were advancing into the Nile Delta from the west, probably out of hunger. Ramses II made Avaris, which had long been the capital of the Hyksos coming from West Asia, into his great capital, which was named Piramesse, 'House of Ramses'. This gave Ramses the means to secure the western border against the Libyans through a chain of fortresses.
In his 5th year of reign, Pharaoh Merenptah was faced with an invasion by a coalition against Libyans and previously unknown peoples. The leader of the invaders was the Libyan king Mereye, who, in addition to Libyan Mešweš , Tjehenu and Tjemehu, also led "peoples from the north", namely Šardana , Turiša , Luka , Šekeleša and Ekweš or Akawaša, who are counted among the so-called sea peoples , who are the political and the ethnic situation in the entire Eastern Mediterranean. Their traces can be found in the Aegean, they destroyed the Hittite empire, attacked the Levantine empires. Between the Cyrenaica and Mersa Matruh they went ashore for the first time within the Egyptian sphere of influence in the west and allied themselves there with the Libyans, so that an army of 16,000 men was formed. Since they had brought their women and children, but also their property and cattle, they probably planned to settle in Egypt. Merenptah saw himself on behalf of Amun, who had given him the sword, with which he waged a kind of "holy war". Though thousands were killed in the battle that Pharaoh won, many were captured and resettled in the delta. Your offspring should become an important political factor.
Ramses III. (1184–1153 BC) was also confronted in his second and fifth year in office with incursions by the Libyans as far as the central Nile Delta, who had allied themselves with the Mešweš and Seped. They too were defeated, but a few years after defeating the Sea Peoples, Libyans attacked the Nile Delta again. Ramses III. She did strike back, but a serious crisis intensified under Ramses IX. by incursions from Libyans to Thebes.
Rule of the Libyans in Egypt (approx. 1075–727 BC)
Eventually, the Libyans managed to rule Egypt for more than three centuries. The 21st dynasty from Smendes I is considered the Libyan dynasty. Even if the 22nd dynasty is referred to as the "Libyan" in the older literature, both the lower Egyptian royal house and the high priests and military leaders in Thebes must have been (at least partially) of Libyan descent as early as the 21st dynasty.
In contrast to the Cushites , the Libyan rulers did not adapt to the Egyptian culture, which is why they are referred to as "foreign rulers" in Egyptology. Their ethnic basis was the Mešweš or Ma as well as the Libu, which probably had their focus in the Cyrenaica. As shepherds, they had already threatened the New Kingdom, but there are also indications of permanent settlements in their homeland. Their leaders wore a feather in their hair; long lines of ancestors, which can be interpreted as symbols of illiterate peoples, were of great importance to them. The contrast to the rural, literate, rural Egyptians could not be greater. Egyptian centralism also did not fit in with their family-oriented form of rule, which was stabilized by marriage alliances, in which one of them was recognized as the overlord, but was faced with a number of more or less independent local princes. The Mešweš, which probably infiltrated earlier, held the better land around Mendes , Bubastis and Tanis , the Libu areas around Imau, which came later, on the western edge of their core settlement area in the western Nile delta. The Mahasun, who were also Libyan, lived south of them. The opposition of the Egyptians in Thebes to the Libyans was so strong that they continued to date after them even after the expulsion of the Kushite monarchs. They held out until the time of Psammetich I (664-610).
The Libyans found the lordly recourse to ancient Egyptian traditions at least useful, but these traditions changed under their influence. So their idea that several kings could exist at the same time contradicted these traditions. In addition, non-royal persons now carried out actions that were previously reserved for the Pharaoh alone. A Libyan chief turns his gifts directly to a god. Even temple donations, until then only made by the Pharaoh, could now be handed over by any wealthy person. The pharaoh was now a kind of feudal overlord, in whose tomb complex even people who did not belong to the dynasty could receive a burial chamber, such as a general named Wendjebauendjed in the tomb complex Psusennes I.
The accession of Smendes I to the throne around 1069 BC BC can be seen as the beginning of the 21st dynasty. It is possible that he obtained his legitimacy by marrying one of the daughters of Ramses XI. attained. He moved his residence to Tanis. But the king resided (also) in Memphis.
In essence, a theocracy had now emerged, Amun himself gave instructions to the pharaohs via oracles. Under Smendes, who ruled in Tanis, Upper Egypt was politically and economically almost independent and was administered by the high priests of Amun. However, the pharaoh was recognized as the ruler, as evidenced by the inscription on a stele in the quarries of Dibabieh.
Pinudjem I became high priest of Amun in Thebes around the time of Semendes' accession to the throne and was perhaps his nephew. The relations between Tanis and Thebes remained friendly and they were probably closely related. These relationships were further strengthened through marriages. The most famous king of this dynasty is Psusennes I (1039–991 BC), whose gold mask is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
The 22nd dynasty founded by Scheschonq I (945–924 BC) is often referred to as the Bubastid dynasty . Manetho gives the royal lineage with the city of Bubastis in the eastern Nile Delta. Its founder was a Libyan. Although the Libyans had been defeated again and again by the pharaohs, more and more of them ended up in the Nile Delta. They may even make up the majority of the army. He himself was a nephew of the Tanite Osorkon the Elder; He married his son Osorkon (I.) to Maatkara, a daughter of the last pharaoh of the 21st dynasty Psusennes II. Through clever family policy, he managed to unite the empire under his power. He put family members such as his sons and his brother in high offices, etc. a. to the priesthood in Thebes. He conquered in a campaign around 925 BC. Parts of the Kingdom of Judah that paid him tribute, but that ended his offensive. After all, traditional trade contacts with Byblos were resumed. In the first four years, however, Sheshonq was only recognized as a pharaoh in Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt he still carried the title "Prince of Mešweš " before he was mentioned as Pharaoh in Thebes for the fifth year.
853 BC The Assyrians threatened under Shalmaneser III. the northeast, so that King Osorkon II felt compelled to enter into a brotherhood in arms with Byblos in order to repel the Assyrian army. This was achieved by the allies in the battle of Qarqar on the Orontes . Under Takelot II it came in 839 BC. To a revolt of the Theban priesthood, which was suppressed by him. But a few years later the uprising flared up again, and it lasted around ten years. After his death, the sons fought for the throne. The younger declared himself king. Scheschonq III. (825–773 BC) ruled for more than half a century. His older brother Osorkon IV was mentioned 20 years later as the high priest of Thebes.
Egypt now split up into several small states. The 24th Tefnachtes dynasty (727–720 BC) ruled simultaneously with the 22nd and 23rd dynasties in the Nile Delta. He ruled the western delta and Memphis. He succeeded in making an alliance with the other dynasties against the Nubians advancing in the south. However, he lost around 727 BC. At Herakleopolis of the armed forces of the Nubians under Pianchi . This ended Libyan rule on the Nile.
Phoenicians and Greeks
The homeland of the Mešweš and the other Libyan tribes took a completely different development, because settlers from Greece arrived in Cyrenaica and from Phenicia in Tripolitania.
Since the 7th century BC BC began the Greek colonization on the Libyan coast . The newcomers settled in the Cyrenaika (Cyrenaika), the eastern part of today's Libya, and founded u. a. Cyrene (631 BC), Taucheira , Ptolemais , Barke , Apollonia and Euhesperides ( Benghazi ). The later Berenike was originally founded in this phase as Euhesperides.
Already at the end of the 2nd millennium BC Chr. Were Phoenicians from Tire and Sidon in what is now Tunisia, middle of the 1st millennium dominated there Carthage , which according to tradition 814 v. Was founded. With the emergence of the Hellenistic states in the succession of Alexander the Great , Carthaginian trade expanded eastward, and the merchants there were located in every major Greek city. The Phoenicians probably brought with them the cultivation of olives , which still thrive in Tripolitania today, but also brought figs and wine . The Libyans there often adapted the Phoenician culture and language, and many of the nomads became farmers.
Long before that, the Phoenicians had founded three important cities. These were Sabrata (7th century, a permanent settlement may not have existed until the 5th century BC), which was also founded by the Phoenicians from Tire; then Ui'at, which later became Oea (now Tripoli) and finally Lpcy, which the Romans called Leptis Magna . It is unclear whether Sirte, about 300 km further east, was also a Phoenician foundation. Carthage judged in Sabrata in the 5th century BC. A trading base, the same was true for Lpcy. Trade routes led south to the areas beyond the Sahara , which probably brought goods to the coast through intermediaries. The Garamantenstrasse, the later Bornuweg, led from Oea and Lpcy via the Fessan oases to the Kaouar oasis chain to Lake Chad . A caravan route led from Oea to Ghadames , from where roads led to Sudan . Control of trade in the western and central Mediterranean was much more intense. Carthage banned all non-Carthaginian ships from entering the North African coast and heavily taxed the Tripolitan cities. They provided their own soldiers or mercenaries, whose costs they had to bear themselves.
With the Persian conquest of the mother cities, relations there became more complicated and they broke with the destruction of Tire by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. Chr. Finally from. After Carthage's defeat in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), the country came in 161 BC. Under the rule of Numidia . 46 BC BC Tripolitania came to Rome.
Developments in Cyrene, which was much more under Egyptian influence, took a completely different course. Pharaoh Apries (589-570 BC) led border battles against the Greek Cyrene, which led to his overthrow, because after a heavy defeat against the Greek colony, local soldiers rebelled, who should be put down by the general Amasis . After the return of Pharaoh Apries to the Nile Delta, the revolt escalated into an uprising against Greek supremacy. The uprising was now directed by Amasis himself and ended with Apries' fall and his escape. The victorious general ascended the throne. Amasis made an alliance with Cyrene that his predecessor had fought. In addition, he married a Cyrenian princess.
Persians (from 525 BC)
This alliance was still intact when 525 BC. The Persians attacked Egypt. Half a year after Psammetich III ascended the throne . there was a battle of Pelusion against the Persian attackers . Psammetich's army was defeated. After conquering Lower Egypt, Cambyses and his army moved further west. King Arkesilaos III. of Cyrene had to recognize the Persian suzerainty. He had been unwilling to accept the restriction of royal power imposed by Demonax under his father. After an attempted coup in around 530 he went to Samos , where he gathered an army with the tyrant Polycrates . With his help he broke the power of the large landowners in Cyrene and had the land redistributed. Most of his opponents fled to Barke.
In 525 Arkesilaos sent tribute to the Persian king Cambyses II. Arkesilaos, however , found a violent death in Barke, the stronghold of the oligarchs . With the help of the Persian satrap Aryandes , his mother Pheretime took revenge on the barbeques, as Herodotus reports. Under Darius I there were also unrest in Egypt, which the satrap Aryandes also put down until 519/18.
The new King Battos IV. , Who lived until 465 BC. Ruled, it was possible to break away from Persian supremacy. His son and successor Arkesilaos IV tried to strengthen his position by enlarging the Euhesperides on the Great Syrte , which had existed since the end of the 6th century , where he called new colonists from the Greek motherland. Under the influence of Greek democracy, which gradually gained acceptance in the mother cities, it came around 440 BC. BC nevertheless to overthrow the king. Arkesilaos IV was driven out of Cyrene and fled to Euhesperides. Before he could arm himself from there to counterattack Cyrene, he was murdered.
This independence from the Persian great power is adequately explained by internal Persian conflicts, as a result of which Egypt tried to make itself independent. When during the Persian throne turmoil in 465 BC Chr. Xerxes I was assassinated, it came under the Libyan princes Inaros II. Of Heliopolis, a son of Psammetichus IV., And Amyrtaeus of Sais, again to an uprising. Achaimenes, satrap and prince of the Persian Achaemenid house , arrived with his entire army in Papremis near today's Port Said in a battle in 463 BC. Chr. Killed. Nevertheless, the Persian Empire initially retained the upper hand. Inaros was born in 454 BC. Executed after the suppression of the rebellion.
Relatively undisputed, the Achaemenids ruled Egypt for about half a century, until Amyrtaios settled in 404 BC. Chr. Renounced the Persian empire. At first he only ruled in Lower Egypt, in Upper Egypt he was only recognized four years later. Artaxerxes III. made no fewer than three attempts to conquer the country, because it played a dangerous role for Persia in the uprisings in the empire and in the fight with the Greeks. These, as well as Egyptian militias and Phoenicians, played an important role as kingmakers, as did Libyans, of whom Nectanebo II was able to muster 20,000. Egypt remained independent for more than 60 years.
Finally, Egypt was occupied for the last time by the Persians, which began in 341 BC. BC again subjugated Egypt, when the local rulers also offered fierce resistance. So there was an uprising under Chabbash , probably from 338 to 336 BC. He ruled as pharaoh and at times dominated considerable parts of the country. But the rule of the Persians ended only by the Macedonians under Alexander the Great .
Dareios III. was subject to 333 BC In the battle of Issus against Alexander. This could 332 BC. Take Egypt without a fight. The satrap Mazakes gave him the land and the treasury. 331 BC In BC, the Cyrenaica also came under the rule of Alexander. After the founding of the port city of Alexandria in the western Nile Delta in early 331 BC. BC Alexander moved east. He appointed Peukestas , his bodyguard, along with Balakros to command the troops left behind in Egypt.
Ptolemies, Jewish military settlements, phases of independence, Rome
After his death, the Ptolemies tore Egypt and the Cyrenaica in the course of the Diadoch fights . The satrap Ptolemaios seized Alexander's body and dragged him to the sanctuary in Siwa to have him buried there. Soon the proportion of the Egyptians and Libyans in the cavalry increased sharply, but soon they made up every second man in the infantry, the rest increasingly made up mercenaries. The proportion of the Macedonians fell sharply.
The early Ptolemies achieved a previously impossible integration with a view to the administration and the economy in the empire. At the same time, the Ptolemies built up a sea power that took part in the Diadoch battles in Syria, Asia Minor and Greece. Close trade relations existed with Athens and Cyprus, but the Ptolemies increasingly concentrated on Egypt. The closed currency system applied not only to Egypt, but also to Cyrene. This system of rule was by no means free from strong shocks. So there was an uprising of the soldiers in Lower Egypt from 217 to 197, and intra-dynastic disputes led to civil war-like conditions.
Ophellas (322-308 BC)
322 BC Ptolemy conquered Cyrene. Perdiccas , whom Alexander had installed, was defeated in a battle in the Nile Delta and was killed in 320 BC. Murdered by his own people. Ophellas , also a companion of Alexander the Great, was in the service of Ptolemy I. This commissioned Ophellas in 322 or 321 BC. To eliminate the mercenary leader Thibron, who had stolen the Babylonian tax revenue and established himself in the Cyrenaica. Thibron was defeated and executed in Cyrene. Now the city of Cyrene and the surrounding cities lost their independence after Ophellas smashed the democratic forces that had allied themselves with Thibron. Ptolemy appeared before the end of the conflict in Cyrene and made regulations on the status of the city. He made Ophellas his governor in Cyrenaica. 313/312 BC The Cyrenaica fell briefly from the Ptolemaic Empire, but was recaptured and then placed under its administration again. The uprising started by General Agis in 313 BC. Was suppressed, three more followed.
Apparently between 312 and 309, Ophellas finally made himself independent and sought the establishment of an independent rule. To this end, he allied himself with Agathocles , the tyrant of Syracuse , who was at war against Carthage. When the Carthaginians pressed him in Sicily, he had undertaken a relief offensive, but it had stalled. So he made an alliance with Ophellas. The two agreed to unite their forces against Carthage. After the destruction of the Carthaginian power, Agathocles was to return to Sicily, henceforth rule the island undisturbed and let Ophellas rule over the empire of the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians, on the other hand, not only had trade contacts and a rich hinterland, but they also controlled the Spanish silver deposits until the conquest by Rome in 202 BC. Chr.
Agathocles' son Herakleides remained hostage with Ophellas. As in numerous Diadoch Wars, the military leaders were able to fall back on enormous resources. Ophellas recruited mercenaries in Greece, especially in Athens , who intended to settle with their families in the empire to be conquered. He had a special relationship with Athens as he was married to a noble Athenian named Eurydice, who is said to be descended from Miltiades .
In the summer of 308 he set out with a force of more than 10,000 foot soldiers, 600 mounted soldiers, 100 chariots and 10,000 settlers. After two months they reached the Syracusan's army, but the latter soon accused Ophellas of treason. Ophellas died fighting the troops of Agathocles, his army, which had become leaderless, was integrated into his army. For his part, Agathocles had a good relationship with Ptolemy, whose stepdaughter he later married. The elimination of the ophellas was naturally in the interests of the Egyptian ruler. It is therefore possible that Agathocles, in agreement with Ptolemy, eliminated Ophellas.
Rebellions, expansion into Palestine, increased Jewish settlement
In 308, King Ptolemy easily ensured control of the Cyrenaica and was probably in the region himself. Maybe his son Magas had to put down another rebellion in 301. At the same time the empire expanded into Palestine. Ptolemy I attacked Judaea in 320, 312, 302 and 301 BC. Chr.
Related to this is the settlement of a strong Jewish community in both Egypt and Cyrene. The beginning of the Jewish communities in Libya cannot, however, be precisely defined. The oldest source is a seal, which, however, only roughly relates to the period between the 10th and 4th centuries BC. Can be dated BC. The settlement of Boreion on the border with Tripolitania even claimed to come from the Solomonic period. Even if this suggests Jewish settlers before the Ptolemies, they only came to the country in large numbers with the first rulers of this dynasty. Certainly in connection with the expansion into West Asia, especially after 302, considerable numbers of prisoners came to Egypt, but probably not yet to the likewise rebellious Libya. In addition, Jews came to Egypt because they had fled during the first Syrian war .
Flavius Josephus writes that the Jews were settled there under Ptolemy Lagos to secure the country. These settlers in turn came from Egypt, with Josephus claiming that 120,000 of them alone had been released from prisons there. Another 30,000, according to another source, came from Syrian prisons. So there were at least three waves of settlement, first before the Ptolemies, then around 300 and in the 2nd half of the 2nd century BC. When the first Ptolemaic settlement was analogous to that in Egypt, the Jews were settled as clergy , at least by the middle of the 3rd century at the latest there were Jewish villages of their own. In contrast to Judaea, where slavery was disappearing at that time, it apparently persisted in the diaspora .
As in the rest of the population, child mortality among the settlers was very high; It is striking that around 40% of those buried in cemeteries were under 20 years of age. The mortality rate was apparently particularly high between 16 and 20, with that of men being considerably higher. Getting married at the age of 15 was apparently nothing unusual. It seems that the Ptolemies subordinated the land of the previously free Greek cities to their purposes. In the course of time there was a clear assimilation of the Jews to the Greeks. There was also a Jewish community in Berenike.
Diadoch fights, King Magas of Cyrene (around 283 / 276–250 BC), intra-dynastic battles
The diadoch fights, especially the one with the Seleucids , had serious consequences for both Egypt and Cyrenaica. The Cyrenaica repeatedly achieved a status of independence from Alexandria. The Carthage march of 309/8 was related to the ambition of the tyrant of Syracuse, Agathokles, who took Theoxene, (perhaps) the sister of the governor of Cyrenaica, Magas , as his third wife around 308 . This move, like others by the tyrant, was unsuccessful for him.
Magas, the son of an otherwise unknown Macedonian named Philippos and von Berenike , who lived in 317 BC. In his second marriage Ptolemy I had married, was a half-brother of Ptolemy II. After he had succeeded in suppressing a five-year revolt in Cyrene, he became governor there through the strong intercession of his mother. After the death of his stepfather in 283 BC. He made himself largely independent and ventured around 276 BC. The open rift in which he made himself king of Cyrene.
Magas married Apame , the daughter of the Seleucid king Antiochus I, and used the marriage alliance to conclude an agreement to invade Egypt. He opened hostilities against his half-brother in 274 BC. BC, while Antiochus marched from Palestine . However, Magas had to abandon its activities due to an internal revolt by the Marmaridae, Libyan nomads. At least he managed to gain independence from Cyrene until his death around 250 BC. To maintain. 246 BC The kingdom became Egyptian again.
But the region continued to lead a political life of its own. Ptolemy VIII , the son of Ptolemy V and Cleopatra I , ruled from 170 BC. Together with his brother Ptolemy VI. and his sister Cleopatra II. When the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV , the uncle of the three kings, invaded Egypt, the Alexandrians proclaimed the young Ptolemy VIII together with Cleopatra II as king for a short time. After Antiochus in 169 BC After having withdrawn in the 3rd century BC, the Egyptian king agreed to a joint government with his older brother Philometor and his wife (and sister of both) Cleopatra II. In October 164 BC However, Philometor complained in Rome , threatening to leave Cyrenaica to the Romans, but the Roman Senate gave him no support.
A year later the brothers agreed on a division of power, with Ptolemy VIII receiving the Cyrenaica. But the brothers continued to fight in Cyprus, an attack was carried out on the ruler of Cyrenaica, who was finally captured. But his brother spared him, even offered him the hand of his daughter Cleopatra Thea and sent him back to the Cyrenaica. When Philometor 145 BC Died on a campaign, Cleopatra II proclaimed her son Ptolemy VII as his successor; Ptolemy VIII, however, returned to Egypt and proposed a joint government and marriage to his sister Cleopatra. He ascended the throne as Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II, a name that goes back to his ancestor Ptolemy III. should remember.
There were mass expulsions of Jews and intellectuals from Alexandria who had supported Philometor. Josephus mentions a failed massacre of Jews using fighting elephants. Polybios states that almost the entire Greek population is said to have been expelled from Alexandria. However, there is no evidence of a correspondingly brutal course of action against the Jews of Cyrenaica. From 146 BC. If one interprets the coins correctly, there were close trade contacts with Judaea, Libyan Jews can still be found in Jaffa in the 2nd century .
Further dynastic disputes led to 132/131 BC. To a civil war. Cleopatra II offered the Egyptian throne to Demetrios II to Nicator , who, however, only got as far as Pelusion with his army ; 127 BC Cleopatra fled to Syria, while Alexandria fought for another year.
Increasing dominance of Rome
But by this time Rome had already risen to guarantee the continued existence of the Ptolemaic Empire. After the Roman victory over Macedonia, Gaius Popillius Laenas went to Alexandria to deliver an ultimatum to the Seleucid Antiochus IV that demanded the immediate withdrawal from occupied Egypt. With his harsh manner, he induced the Seleucid king to accept the Roman demand (Polybios 29:27; day of Eleusis ).
The son of Ptolemy VIII, Ptolemy Apion could only be 105/101 BC. In his will, he left his kingdom of the Roman Republic as he died without an heir. 96 BC BC Rome acquired the Cyrenaica. 30 BC BC Egypt also became Roman.
Carthage and Tripolitania, Rome
In Tripolitania , the western part, the Phoenicians founded the cities of Sabratha , Oea ( Tripoli ) and Leptis Magna , but they were founded in the 6th century BC. Came under the control of Carthage and until 200 BC. Belonged to the Carthaginian province. Subsequently, this part of the country was incorporated into the Kingdom of Numidia , before it was 46 BC. Became a Roman province.
Guarantors
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Herodotus names the Makers, Gindans and Lotophages in Tripolitania . The Garamanten described by him lived mainly around the city of Garama in Fezzan . According to him, they used chariots, with their predominance in the 1st century BC. In northern Sudan. They raised cattle and sheep, but also planted wheat. They buried their dead in extensive necropolises, the tombs were often small pyramids. Everyday objects were added to the dead.
The Garamanten lived in tents, simple huts or in troglodytes , as in Tripolitania. Herodotus ( Historien 4.138) referred to the latter as Trogodytai Aithiopes (Τρωγοδύται Αἰθίοπες), with which he referred to a reptile-eating tribe in southern Libya, possibly the Tubu . From the incorrect derivation trogle (τρώγλη "cave") and dynai (δῦναι "immerse") the name was later transferred to all types of cave-dwelling peoples (Strabon Geographika 1.42). According to Herodotus, polygamy prevailed and the line of ancestors ran through the mothers. Metals were introduced, metalworking was not practiced, and the potter's wheel was not yet used in Herodotus' time. Offerings were made to the sun and moon. In the 6th century, the cult of Amun-Re, which came from Egypt, grew stronger.
20 BC The proconsul Lucius Cornelius Balbus Minor initiated a military expedition against the Garamanten, probably under the pretext that they were threatening the Roman coastal cities (the only source for this is Pliny nat. Hist. 5. 35-37). However, there was no submission, but an alliance with "Phazania", which from then on supplied olive oil and wine. Balbus received a triumphal procession for this on March 27 of the following year . It also later became apparent that the Garamanten led an independent policy towards Rome. When the Gaetuler Tacfarinas led an uprising against the Roman occupation in North Africa from 17 to 24 AD , which was supported by numerous Libyan tribes, the Garamante king kept the booty for him. The last time in AD 70 there was fighting between Rome and the Garamanten in Fessan. These interfered in border disputes between Oea and Leptis (minor).
Around 150 AD Garama (now Garma) had about 4,000 inhabitants. This was only possible on the basis of a complicated irrigation system that used the limited water resources sparingly. The Garamanten obtained the manpower they needed through slave hunts. The warriors are depicted in rock paintings on horse-drawn chariots, armed with shields, bows and spears. It is unclear whether they had adopted this chariot fighting technique from the eastern Mediterranean, for example by Hyksos . In any case, their forays extended into northern Chad and the Air region in northern Niger. However, the wagons were not only used for combat, they were also used in agriculture and for transporting people. Herodotus reports that the Greeks took over the chariot with four horses from the Garamanten.
The language is likely to have been related to that of the Tuareg, the Garamanten also developed their own script, which, however, has not been deciphered. The underground water reservoirs were tapped using water tunnels, the Foggara system or Qanat . This system possibly got there with the Persian conquest of Egypt (525 BC) and spread further west. Qanatsysteme passed around in the oasis Kharga , but also in Morocco.
The decline began in the 4th century, possibly as a result of the drying up of the waterholes that were necessary to maintain the horse and ox-farmed economy and to maintain the corresponding trade. In the second half of the 6th century the Garamanten adopted Christianity, in the 7th century Islam.
The coastal fringe as part of the Roman Empire
In the 1st century BC BC the Roman Empire conquered Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Only the Garamanten des Fezzan in the south could maintain their independence. The Roman rule intensified the exchange of goods, especially since piracy was fought by Rome. The cities in particular benefited from the flourishing agriculture, which was now part of a much larger market encompassing the entire Mediterranean region, and from the trans-Saharan trade with the Sahel . The high point of this development marked the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus (190-211), who expanded and adorned his native city Leptis Magna and the other cities in the region. This huge construction work brought lasting impulses to the local economy. Probably during his reign, a small military outpost, the Cidamus castle , was built to monitor the flow of goods beyond the borders of Rome. The fort can only be recorded in writing, however.
Division into provinces, Berber tribes, establishment and relocation of the Limes Tripolitanus
Under Augustus the double province of Creta et Cyrene was created, so that Cyrenaica was administered from the Cretan Gortyn . The province was headed by a proconsul who was chosen by the senate from among the former praetors .
During the provincial reform of Emperor Diocletian , Crete and Cyrene were divided into the three independent provinces Creta , Libya superior and Libya inferior . The Praefectus praetorio per Orientem were now subordinate to the dioceses of Oriens , which included Egypt, the Levant, Cilicia and Isauria , then Pontica (northern and eastern Anatolia) and Asiana (southern and western Anatolia). Around 380/395 Theodosius I divided the provinces Libya superior, Libya inferior, Thebais , Aegyptus , Arcadia and Augustamnica from the Dioecesis Orientis and established the Dioecesis Aegypti from these provinces . As vicarius of the new diocese, he installed his son Arcadius . The number of prefectures was increased to five.
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The inhabitants of Marmarica in Libya inferior called the Romans Marmaridae . According to Pseudo-Skylax , their settlement area extended westward from Apis in Egypt. According to Florus , they were subjugated by the Romans at the turn of the time by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius in the course of the campaign against the Garamanten . The Historia Augusta reports of successful battles of the Probus, whereby Tenagino Probus , then Praefectus Aegypti , and not the later Roman emperor Probus , should be meant. In late antiquity the area was also known as Libya Sicca , in contrast to the Cyrenaica called Libya superior.
At the end of the 2nd century Rome felt compelled to secure its southern border with a chain of fortresses. The legate Quintus Anicius Faustus was commissioned to do this . The Limes Tripolitanus was built between 197 and 201 and was continuously expanded. Ghirza became an important trading center. While the economy of Cyrenaica was based on wine, oil and horses, in Tripolitania it was also based on olive oil, but here the cultivation of wheat and the slave trade played a greater role.
When an uprising began in Upper Egypt in 292 and Alexandria rose against the Romans two years later, Emperor Diocletian recaptured the country in 295. South of Leptis Magna, it was the Nasamones, a Berber pastoral people who lived between the Great Syrte and Audschila in the time of Herodotus , who threatened the city. According to Pliny the Elder , they had driven the psylli from the Great Syrte (Nat. Hist. 7.14), where they grazed their cattle while they used the date palms of the southern oases. Herodotus (2.32-33) reports that they visited the Amun shrine in Siwa and maintained contacts as far as Sudan . According to him, the dead were buried seated.
When the Roman collectors tried to collect taxes, they killed them. They first defeated the Legio III Augusta under the leadership of Gnaeus Suellius Flaccus in 285 or 286, but in return they were almost wiped out. This legion was dissolved in 238, but was re-established in 253 to repel attacks by the Quinquagentiani, the "five tribes", and the Fraxinenses, a federation of Berber tribes. The vexillations spread over the forts of the Limes Tripolitanus and various oases were concentrated until 290 and advanced outposts were given up as planned despite the victory. Ever since the Severans it was customary for recruitment to take place from the respective province and the “camp offspring”, so that about 95% of the III Augusta consisted of “Africans”. After 300 the legion was used against an insurgent governor, at which time it was moved from Lambaesis in what is now Algeria to an unknown camp in the region.
The last but also the most violent persecution of Christians took place during Diocletian's reign. According to Prokop, Audschila (Augila) remained true to the traditional beliefs until the 6th century. It was Christianized under Justinian I , after the reconquest of the Vandal Empire.
Legal relationships, municipality, colony
From 212 onwards, all cities in the empire had at least the rank of municipium , which, in addition to legal advantages, entailed considerable financial burdens. Every male resident between 14 and 60 had to pay an annual fee. The small group of Roman citizens was exempt from this, however, the upper classes (metropolites) paid a reduced tax.
The security of the residents, who were concentrated mainly in the cities, depended on the governors who were appropriately equipped. One of them, Romanus , who held the office of comes Africae from 364 to 373, was considered particularly corrupt. If one follows the late antique historian Ammianus Marcellinus , then he did not shy away from being paid by the population of the province of Africa Tripolitana, that is, above all from Leptis Magna, for taking action against tribes that attacked Roman cities from the hinterland. It was above all the Austoriani who raided the area around the city, which had around 80,000 inhabitants, as it is still often called today. However, the triggering process was different: under Jovian , one of their relatives named Stachao was executed, which the Austoriani viewed as injustice and therefore took revenge. Thereupon, at the request of the city Romanus, moved towards Leptis with an army, but he demanded 4,000 camels from the city, without which he could not advance. The city, which could not provide him with such a huge flock, had to endure his presence for 40 days before he left without a single blow of the sword. One complaint to the emperor led to nothing, as did another. A third delegation, which reached the emperor in Trier , had the consequence that the indignant emperor Valentinian sent a notary named Palladius, who should at least settle the arrears of the garrison. In the meantime the Austoriani besieged the metropolis, which had never been besieged before, in a third raid, albeit unsuccessfully, for eight days. Romanus gave Palladius larger sums of money, but when Palladius threatened to send a report on his corrupt and greedy behavior to the emperor, he in turn threatened to report him to court for bribery. So the notary was forced to write a positive report. Valentinian then had the complainants sentenced to death by the City of Leptis for making false accusations. Only years later did the discovery of a letter lead to the truth that Palladius had lied to the emperor. This committed suicide, Romanus had to appear in Milan . From this point on we don't hear from him anymore.
370 or 372 to 375, the Mauritanian prince's son Firmus , against whom Romanus had intrigued, rebelled . Against Romanus and the rebelling Firmus, Emperor Valentinian sent his general Flavius Theodosius , the father of the later Emperor Theodosius I. He refused the submission offered by Firmus. After the military defeat, Firmus took his own life.
These cases show that it was not mere predatory greed of nomads that drove them into the uprisings and raids, but the existential threat posed by corrupt representatives of imperial power, who were heard much more easily at the distant imperial court than even the envoys from the largest cities , let alone the representatives of the Berber tribes.
This system, which was geared towards Roman needs and was dominated by the Greco-Roman culture, especially in the cities, from which the headquarters, however, increasingly distanced itself, was opposed to a Berber system, which only had the option of complete autonomy. The state development of the Berbers, which began in the 5th century BC. Had begun, the Romans had interrupted several wars earlier. However, there were repeated uprisings, such as around 45 AD, which ended mainly because Africans gained influence in the highest circles. Lucius Quitus, a Berber, was a member of the Senate, and Septimius Severus from Tripolitania even became emperor. But then a reversal of the trend, accompanied by strong militarization, set in. When the Donatists emerged, especially in the 4th century, they also supported insurgent Berbers, such as 372 to 376 Firmus or 396 his brother Gildon.
As in the rest of the empire, the situation of farmers and landowners changed drastically in rural areas. Imperial laws, presumably on the initiative of the large landowners, created the prerequisites for transferring almost unlimited power of disposition and police power to local masters, whose growing economic units were thereby increasingly isolated from state influence. The rural population was initially forced to cultivate the land and taxes (tributum) to be paid. Until the 5th century, the people who worked the land were often tied to their land while their property belonged to their master, but after three decades in this legal status others could take their mobile property or their property into their own possession. Under Emperor Justinian I there was no longer any distinction between free and unfree colonies . Colons and unfree were now used identically to describe arable farmers who were tied to the clod and had no free property.
However, this development began in the 3rd century at the latest. Since Constantine the Great , gentlemen have been allowed to chain fugitive colonies who had disappeared less than 30 years ago. Since 365 it has been forbidden for the colonists to dispose of their actual possessions, probably primarily tools. Since 371 the gentlemen were allowed to collect the taxes from the colonies themselves. Finally, in 396, the farmers lost the right to sue their master.
Jewish community, uprising (115–118)
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The Jewish communities consisted primarily of farmers and soldiers, but there are also artisans, as well as limited trade. Parishes can be made probable in Berenike, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Apollonia, Teucheira and possibly Barka, but also outside the Pentapolis apparently parishes existed, which probably also included the surrounding area. Apparently there was a synagogue by the sea in Berenike . On special holidays the several hundred, perhaps even several thousand members of the community gathered in an “ amphitheater ” that probably belonged to it and that was built around 25 BC. Was built. You don't have to imagine an elliptical building, however, the 'ampho' means nothing other than 'on both sides'.
During the Roman campaign against the Garamanten in the years 20 to 2 BC. Apparently military settlers from Syria came to Cyrenaica, including some Jews; It should therefore come as no surprise that Flavius Josephus uses the military term syntagmata to describe the communities. These settlers sometimes transferred the name of their place of origin to the new settlement, such as in the case of Magdalis in the Martuba region, possibly also from Targhuna, which perhaps went back to Trachon in Auranitis , Syria . The largest community was probably in Cyrene, where in the year 73 AD alone 3,000 relatively wealthy and 2,000 residents were considered to be poor. According to Flavius Josephus, they had been striving for legal equality with the other townspeople since Augustus; the Alexandrians had already received this equality through Alexander the Great. However, the Jewish communities of Cyrenaica were separate bodies from the urban communities. But at least some Jews gained citizenship, around the turn of the century Jews obtained degrees from the Gymnasium of Cyrene. A few even got promoted to local administrations.
A separate internal organization of the communities goes back to Ptolemaic times, it is under the name politeuma for the years 8 BC. As well as 24/25 and 56 AD in Berenike. The Romans accepted such self-organization when it served no political ends. The Jewish communities ensured, for example, that collective contributions were collected for the Temple of Jerusalem and the cultivation of the faith, the establishment of their own cemeteries and the maintenance of an internal judiciary. When performing public duties, they neither had to appear in court on Jewish holidays, nor ritually honor the Roman gods or the emperor.
As early as the 3rd century BC Jews maintained contact with Libyans. So one of their kings took Arkesilaos III. , a man named Aladdeir, king of Barka, uses the Jewish name Eleazar. His descendants lived in Barka. In the Maghreb, entire tribes later confessed to the Jewish faith, but this has not been proven for the Libyan tribes. Arab traditions suggest that there were Jewish traditions in various villages, such as in Gubba , Negharnes or Messa, but also Ras e-Sabbat or Kaf e-Sabbat north of Barka.
During the civil war from 91 to 82 BC BC, which ended in Cyrene with an aristocratic government under Arataphila, there was a Jewish uprising or internal disputes (stasis), of which nothing is known. Perhaps there was a connection to the uprising of the lower social classes in the Egyptian Thebais from 88 BC. The wars of King Mithridates caused violent social uprisings in other places in the eastern Mediterranean as well, and civil wars in Rome. The piracy reached unprecedented proportions. At the same time, Roman rule brought an end to the control of the Ptolemaic Libyan Arch, so that a Libyan king named Anabus could ally himself with the Pentapolis. Perhaps as a result the Libyan nomads, who probably enjoyed greater freedom of movement with their herds, came into conflict with the Jewish farmers. The latter had already come under pressure from the Ptolemaic policy of expanding state goods at the expense of small and medium-sized peasants. With the Romans, the state became ager publicus , but possibly also just the personal property of the last Ptolemaic ruler. The Greek residents paid a levy, the Libyans a grazing levy.
The economic depression of the Cyrenaica took Rome as a pretext in 75/74 BC. To take full possession of the land and establish it as a province together with Crete. Apparently they wanted to put an end to conflicts that had led to the flight of peasants; to 2 v. BC Rome managed to break the alliance between the cities and the southern nomads for good. The land was redistributed, and publicani settled and collected taxes. A system of exploitation developed in an alliance with the Roman office holders in the cities, which Augustus 7/6 BC. Chr. To intervene. He allowed those concerned to go to court. The system of transhumance promoted by the publicani, who collected taxes on wool, for example, apparently destroyed the local economy, because the exploitation by the publicani was apparently no longer worthwhile from the middle of the 1st century. Lucius Acilius Strabo was used as a kind of mediator in 59, but in the end Emperor Nero personally decided on the question of whether the land belonged to Rome or to the inhabitants of Cyrenaica after the Senate was unable to decide. He left their land to the residents of the countryside as a concession, although the previous owners were probably turned away. This restoration of Roman state property can also be archaeologically proven by means of three boundary stones that expressly mention this. With this, the older settlers, including the Jews, had finally lost their protection from attacks by the Libyans, the protection of the Ptolemaic kings, and above all they were defenselessly exposed to the Roman conductores . This paved the way for the emergence of a landless proletariat. Perhaps under Emperor Trajan , Hyginus Gromaticus toured the country, a surveyor who did not miss the distribution of property.
In 115, while Trajan was waging his war of conquest in the east, a widespread Jewish rebellion broke out in the eastern diaspora countries . It soon developed into an open war that spread to Cyrenaica and Libya, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Cyprus. This war was preceded by skirmishes between Jews and Christians in Alexandria and Cyrene, but it was soon directed against Rome. The fighting was so intense that cities were devastated even after three decades. In addition, inscriptions from the time of Emperor Hadrian indicate that the road between Cyrene and Apollonia "was devastated and made unusable during the Jewish uprising". Even if Cassius Dio (Roman History, LXVIII, 32) 100 years later certainly tried to pile up every imaginable accusation of the inhumanity of the insurgents, as often happened between political-religious opponents, his description probably also reflects the memory of the brutality of the Disputes reflect: “In the meantime the Jews of Cyrenaica had made a certain Andrew their leader and destroyed both Romans and Greeks. They ate the flesh of their victims, made girdles of entrails, smeared themselves with blood, and clothed themselves in the skins; many saw them from top to bottom, others threw them before wild animals, and still others forced them to fight as gladiators. In total, two hundred and twenty thousand people died. ”In the end, the emperors saw themselves compelled to bring numerous colonists into the country to compensate for the human losses.
Apparently the non-Greek peasants supported the Jews against Rome, because where they did not, they were showered with praise. The Jewish armies moved to Egypt, but were eventually subject to the legions of Emperor Hadrian in 118. The leader of the uprising was a Jew named Andrew or Luke; he probably had both a Hebrew and a Greek name. Since he is referred to as a king, he will be seen as a messianic pretender , comparable to Simon bar Kochba , the leader in the last great uprising of the Jews from 132 to 135. In Cyrene, the Greek temples in particular seem to have been the target of destruction. The temples of Apollo , Zeus , Dioscuri , Demeter , Artemis and Isis , but also the symbols of Roman rule such as the Caesareum , the basilica and the thermal baths were destroyed or badly damaged. Newly erected buildings and milestones give the Jewish uprising ( tumultus Iudaicus ) as the reason for the renovation . The Jewish community did not disappear after the fighting, but the time of its great influence was over after Roman rule brought it a long period of economic decline and the loss of its land rights.
Christianization, religious conflicts
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With the relocation of the imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium, Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, and even the state religion in 380. It should have spread from Egypt, where the evangelist Mark was venerated with pilgrimages at the latest in the 4th century. According to Coptic tradition, Markus even came from Cyrene (or the Kairuan area in Tunisia), from where his Jewish parents fled to Palestine for fear of Berber attacks. Accordingly, he went from Palestine to Alexandria in AD 48. With the increasing privilege of the state, which included tax exemption, a steeper church hierarchy emerged. The bishops in the respective metropolis of the provinces became archbishops from 325, to whom the other bishops of the province owed obedience. Below the Bishop plane found deacons and deaconesses , elders and lecturers , were added gravedigger doorkeeper Protopresbyter and subdeacons. The clergy was the only class to which all social classes had access, even if not everyone could rise to the highest positions in the most important church centers and the higher classes probably did not strive for a diocese in less respected areas. The Clergy on the estates of the landlords put residents who are tenant farmers .
Synesius of Cyrene (around 370 to after 412), from 410 or 411 Bishop of Ptolemais , received his education in Alexandria. As a Neoplatonist, he worshiped Hypatia , the last pagan Neoplatonist. Synesios was made bishop of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria in 411. Since 325 the ecclesiastical province belonged to the capital of Egypt. The ecclesiastical province is still subordinate to the Coptic Pope in legal matters. As a Platonist, Synesios held fast to his conviction of the eternity of the world and the pre-existence of the soul . He rejected the resurrection of the flesh, ecclesiastical dogmas which he found unacceptable as a philosopher, he considered myths that were only intended for the foolish, he remained married. Against the praeses Andronicus, whom he accused of serious crimes, he went with excommunication before, Andronicus was deposed. Synesios stood up for the overthrown governor of the Patriarch Theophilos.
After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Tripolitania was annexed to the Western Roman Empire , Cyrenaica to the Eastern Roman Empire . Greek finally gained the upper hand over Latin as the official language in the east of the empire. Last pagan cult acts are documented under Justinian I.
The religious conflicts continued in the east of the empire, but now it was more a question of theological disputes within Christianity, revolving around Christological questions. Theophilus died in 412, his successor was Cyril , one of the most powerful churchmen of his time, who was able to enforce his theological positions bindingly for the imperial church at the ecumenical council of Ephesus in 431 and is still considered the most important founder figure of the Miaphysites . Cyrill's successor Dioskur , who took over the patriarchal office in 444, was initially able to assert himself with his Monophysite teaching at the so-called Synod of Robbers of Ephesus in 449 . But only two years later there was a split at the fourth ecumenical council in Chalcedon : Pope Leo the Great rejected the Monophysite doctrine, and the majority of the council and Emperor Markian endorsed this position. However, the majority of the Egyptians stuck to the rejection of the council resolutions, which repeatedly led to tensions between Egypt and Constantinople.
Monophysitism arose against the background of rivalries between the Patriarchate of Alexandria and that of Antioch . In addition to Egypt, monophysitism was also gaining ground in Syria. In the 480s, the emperors tried to implement a compromise solution formulated in the Henoticon , which ignored all disputes between “Orthodox” and “Monophysite” Christians and ignored the resolutions of Chalcedon; but this attempt failed and instead of an agreement with the Monophysites only led to the 30-year-long Akakian schism with the Roman church (until 519). The 2nd Council of Constantinople in 553 could not reach an agreement either. The same applied to the short-lived promotion of the Monophysitic special current of aphthartodocetism by Emperor Justinian I.
In the early 7th century, monotheleticism was developed as an attempt at a compromise solution . According to this, Jesus has a divine and a human nature. Divine and human nature, however, have only one common will in it. This attempt to bridge the gap between Monophysitism and the position of Chalcedon also failed. Monotheletism was rejected in the Reich Church after Maximus Confessor's objection . Already from around 640 AD he was polemic against monotheletism, which was often brought with them by refugees from the eastern Roman areas conquered by the Arabs. In 645 he was able to convince the former patriarch of Constantinople Pyrrhus of his dyotheletic teaching in a public disputation . The two doctrines agreed that Jesus Christ had two natures, namely a divine and a human, but in Constantinople at that time the belief in only one will or goal prevailed, while Carthage and Rome also believed in two separate wills represented.
While the religious conflicts alienated the Monophysites from Constantinople, the regional conflicts continued. Emperor Markian fought during his reign (450–457) Nubians and Blemmyes , from the west the (Arian) Vandals threatened Tripolitania and Cyrenaica with their fleet, in the first half of the 7th century it was Persians and Muslim Arabs.
Vandals in Tripolitania, reconquest by the East Current, expansion of the Berbers
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In the course of the Great Migration , 429 maybe 50,000 (Prokop) or 80,000 Vandals and Alans from southern Spain to Africa. This corresponded to a force of about 10,000 to 15,000 men. Some Berber tribes supported them, as did supporters of Donatism , who hoped for protection from persecution by the Roman state church. In 439 the Vandals conquered Carthage , with the fleet stationed there falling into their hands. With it the Vandals succeeded in conquering Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands and, above all, they sacked Rome in 455. For the first time , King Geiseric resorted to Moors, i.e. Berbers, of whom some groups in turn gained increasing independence in the border area to the Sahara.
Vandals invaded Tripolitania in 450, but the balance of power there is unclear. In 456 Rome attempted a counterattack, but it got stuck. A large-scale attempt by western and eastern Roman troops to retake Africa failed in 468. Another was made in 470, possibly by land via Tripolitania. But this also failed.
The Vandals hung the Arianism to, a faith that in the first Council of Nicaea to heresy had been declared. Property of the Catholic Church was confiscated in its sphere of influence. The relatively small group of conquerors sealed themselves off from the provincial Roman subjects. At the same time, the Vandal and Alan warriors received estates, for which part of the property of the provincial Roman population was divided. The colonies tied to the ground may only have changed the masters; the imperial goods were probably simply transformed into royal goods and served the now ruling dynasty.
The successor of the founder of the empire, Geiserich, his eldest son Hunerich , had around 5000 Catholic clergy arrested at the beginning of 483 and deported to the south of the Byzacena , then further south to the Moorish area. In two edicts , Hunerich closed all Catholic churches and called for a conversion to Arianism, similar to what earlier imperial edicts against heretics had done. He forced the bishops to take an oath on his son Hilderich as heir to the throne, but then made them colonists for violating the biblical ban on oaths. Those who refused to take the oath were exiled to Corsica and subjected to heavy physical labor. Despite some successes, the Vandals lost their reputation, mainly because they found no means against the Berbers, who occupied Vandal territory piece by piece. King Hilderic also distanced himself from Arianism. Moors under the leadership of a certain Antala defeated a vandal army in eastern Tunisia. On June 15, 530, a conspiracy in which a great-grandson of Geiseric named Gelimer played a central role, the king , overthrew . At first he tried to put down revolts, including in Sardinia and Tripolitania.
Gelimer was viewed by Ostrom as a usurper , prepared for his fall. In 533 16,000 men landed in Africa under the leadership of the Eastern Roman general Belisarius . The realm of the Vandals went under after the Battle of Tricamarum . King Gelimer fled to Bulla Regia, about 160 km west of Carthage. His brother Tzazon, the governor of Sardinia, joined him at the beginning of December 533, but he was killed together with 3,000 vandals in the said battle, Gelimer fled to the Berbers, but was soon captured. Carthage fell to Belisarius on September 15, 533, but it was not until 546 that the conquest could finally be completed.
Tripolitania also became part of the Eastern Roman Empire again from 533. After the destruction by the vandals and after attacks by Laguatan (Lwatae) nomads, Olbia was re-founded as Polis Nea Theodorias by Emperor Justinian I in 539. The foundation was in honor of the imperial wife Theodora I , who was her youth in the near future Apollonia. The entire region belonged to the exarchate of Carthage at the end of the 6th century .
Carthage was initially the seat of an Eastern Roman governor, a Praetorian prefect who was responsible for civil affairs and to whom six governors were subordinate. For the military sector, a Magister militum was appointed for imperial North Africa, to which four generals were subordinate.
The North African Church achieved the renewal of its old privileges as early as 535 and at the same time resisted the increasing influence of the Church of Constantinople. The bishop of Carthage received the dignity of a metropolitan from the emperor in 535.
The binding of the peasants to the soil, which was already legal practice in the Eastern Roman Empire, was now transferred to the former Vandal Empire and therefore also to Tripolitania. For example, Emperor Justin II transferred a corresponding novella from Emperor Justinian from 540, which was valid for Illyricum , to Africa in 570 . 582 this transfer was confirmed. This amendment, which established the status of the children of colons and free, was transferred to the province on the initiative of the Bishop of Carthage Publianus and the landowners of the Proconsularis . The province was reorganized under Emperor Maurikios around 590 as the exarchate of Carthage, which, similar to Italy, combined military and civil powers, which was otherwise unusual in late antiquity .
Procopius reports that the residents of Ghadames were allies of Rome from ancient times and that they renewed their treaties during the reign of Emperor Justinian I. On the other hand, the Louata, nomads who came from Libya and repeatedly pushed far towards Carthage, presented a particular danger.
Brief Persian rule (618 / 619–630)
For centuries, the Romans and Persian Sassanids have repeatedly got into military conflicts, which mostly focused on border disputes. However, the Roman-Persian battles of the 7th century were ultimately characterized by the will to defeat the enemy completely, to conquer his country, no longer just to gain territories. Chosrau II (590–628) began between 603 and 627 to systematically occupy Eastern Roman territory. He proclaimed himself the avenger of Maurikios, murdered by Herakleios' predecessor Phocas, whose protégé he had become when he had stayed at the court in Constantinople for four years. He now opened a war of conquest against Ostrom, in which the Levant and parts of Asia Minor fell to him. 614 Jerusalem fell, 617 the Sassanids occupied Egypt, 618 Cyrenaica, 619 Tripolitania.
But after he had overthrown his predecessor from Carthage in Constantinople in 610, Emperor Herakleios went on the offensive. An embassy to Chosrau II received no answer; he was unwilling to give up the advantages he had already gained. In 617 Herakleios considered moving the capital of the empire from Constantinople to Carthage. However, he attacked the Persians in their heartland from 623 and was not distracted by attacks by the Avars and Slavs on the capital, which they besieged in 626. Herakleios gathered more troops in Lazika on the Black Sea and again made contact with the Turks, who in turn attacked the Persians. The Persian army was defeated at Niniveh, Herakleios approached the capital Ctesiphon. Ultimately, the great king in 629 or 630 was forced to sign a peace treaty and withdraw his troops from all conquered areas.
Arab conquest and Islamization (from 643), Berber resistance
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A few years after the end of the war between Eastern Byzantium and the Persian Empire, the slow triumphant advance of the new religion of Islam , which was based on the sword mission, came from the Arabian Peninsula, began . However, the individuals were not forced to evangelize, but they had to accept social disadvantages if they did not want to convert. They followed on from the religiously motivated readiness to fight, which had been sparked for almost two decades by the propaganda apparatus of the two great empires and which had increasingly spread to almost the entire Mediterranean and the areas bordering it to the east. At the same time, Islam encountered a rugged, often irreconcilably hostile Christian world, so that the Arabs could definitely be seen as liberators.
Shortly after the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-642), Cyrenaica was occupied between November / December 642 and March 643, and then, three months later at the earliest, Tripolitania was occupied. As Amr, the administrative director, wrote, his troops were only nine days' march from Ifrīqiya , what is now Tunisia. Oea withstood the siege for a month, and Sabrata was also stormed. Due to the forays of the Arabs into the Sahara, the empire of the Garamanten in Fezzan finally fell. The Berber resistance was broken in 670 and the country was Islamized. In contrast to Christians and Jews, the converts did not pay any additional levy as required by the Koran.
The Lawata paid their taxes to Misr (Egypt), apparently not needing a collector, as they did not pay their taxes personally but collectively. This took place in a form that was also controversial among Arab legal scholars, namely the sale of women and children to the conquerors. Such a case of collective taxes is only known in Armenia , so it could be a particularly brutal punishment, perhaps for an uprising. The most important sources on the phase of the subjugation of the Berbers and their conversion to Islam are the works of Ibn Lahi'a († 790) and Al-layth ibn Sa'd († 791). A few decades after the conquest, Greek was replaced by Arabic as the administrative language. Despite severe setbacks and internal disputes, the Maghreb was conquered from around 670 onwards , and until 705, like all areas of Islamic North Africa, it was under the governor of Egypt.
The ruling dynasty was initially that of the Umayyads , then (from 750) they were replaced by the Abbasids , while the Iberian peninsula split off from the empire that had emerged within a few decades under the only surviving Umayyad. But the conquest of the hinterland against the resistance of the Berbers made slow progress. Queen al-Kahina even managed to push the Arabs back as far as Tripolitania, and the governor there fled to Barka. It was not until 702 that she was defeated in a battle.
After stubborn resistance, most of the Berbers converted to Islam, mainly by joining the armed forces of the Arabs; culturally, however, they found no recognition, because the new masters viewed them with as much contempt as the Greeks and Romans once had of their neighbors, and they also adopted the Greek word barbaric for those who had not learned their language. Therefore the Imazighen (singular: Amazigh) are still called Berbers today . They were paid less in the army and their wives were sometimes enslaved, as with subjugated peoples. Only Umar II (717–720) forbade this practice and sent Muslim scholars to convert the Imazighen. In the Ribats Although religious schools have been set up, but there are numerous Berber joined the denomination of the Kharijites , which proclaimed the equality of all Muslims regardless of their race or social class.
Resentment against the Umayyad rule increased. As early as 740-742 there was a first uprising of the Kharijites near Tangier under the Berber Maysara . Some Berber groups made themselves independent, in 742 they controlled all of Algeria and threatened Kairuan in Tunisia. At the same time, a moderate branch of the Kharijites came to power in Tripolitania. The Lawata from the Kyrenaika migrated westward in 757/758 together with Nafusa and Nafzawa and joined the Ibāḍiyyah Tripolitania. Although the coastal cities were quickly subjugated, the resistance of the Berbers in Jabal Nafusa continued when the tribes under Abu l-Khattab al-Maafiri also joined the Kharijite Ibadis .
The end of the Umayyad rule in Tunisia had already begun in 747. The descendants of Uqbah ibn Nāfi, who had become a legendary hero and conqueror, the Fihrids , used the uprising of the Abbasids in the core kingdom to make Ifrīqiyyah independent. Although they now ruled the north of the country, the Warfajūma Berbers ruled the south in league with moderate Kharijites. They succeeded in conquering the north in 756. But another moderate Kharijite group, the Ibāḍiyyah from Tripolitania, proclaimed an imam who saw himself on the same level as the caliph and conquered Tunisia in 758. In the end, the Abbasids succeeded in conquering large parts of the rebellious territory in 761, if only in Tripolitania, Tunisia and Eastern Algeria. Once again in 771/772 the Berbers joined the rebellious Kharijites , their defeat in 772 led to the downfall of the Malzūza- Berbers. Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, who commanded the army in eastern Algeria and founded the Aghlabid dynasty , gradually made the country independent, but still formally recognized the rule of the Abbasids.
The Abbasids raised Oea to the new center of Tripolitania, which soon took the name of the Tripoli landscape . It was now the westernmost area still belonging to the great empire.
Dissolution of the Arab Empire, regional powers, Aghlabids in Tripolitania (740-800)
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Even before 750 a process began in which the peripheral areas gradually withdrew from the control of the gigantic Arab empire. Finally in 789 the Idrisids (789–985) broke away from the empire, followed by the Aghlabids in 800 , who soon controlled Tripolitania. In the year 800 the Abbasid caliph Hārūn ar-Raschīd handed over his power over Ifrīqiya to the Emir Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab and gave him the right to inherit his function. This founded the Aghlabid dynasty, which ruled eastern Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania and soon expanded to southern Italy.
In the following period, Tripolitania was ruled by the Fatimid , Almoravid , Almohad , Zirid and Hafsid dynasties in Ifrīqiya, while the Cyrenaica was more under the control of Egypt. In Egypt itself, the former Turkish slave Ahmad ibn Tulun (868-884) swung himself up as governor in 868 , then he proclaimed independence from the caliphate . His dynasty was followed by that of the Ichschidids . Turkish military slaves and soldiers played an essential role in the history of Egypt until very recently.
Fatimids (909-1171)
Origin, orientation towards Shiaism
After the division of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites , the latter were led by imams who were descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Fatimas , the daughter of the founder of the religion Mohammed († 632). However, there were further divisions among the Shiites as the transfer of leadership role was controversial. So the main Shiite branches of the Imamites (also twelve Shiites ), the Ismailites (also seven Shiites) and the Zaidites (also five Shiites) emerged until the 9th century . The Ismailis recognized as the rightful successor of Jafar al-Sadiq not Mūsā al-Kāzim , but Ismail ibn Jafar - hence their name. Ismail's son Muhammad plays the central role in the Ismaili teaching system: He was regarded by his followers as the seventh imam (hence the seventh Shiite) and is said not to have died, but to have gone into a concealment from which he as Qaim ("the rising one", "The rising one") or Mahdi would return.
In the middle of the 9th century, Abdallah al-Akbar († after 874) began to appear as a deputy for Mahdi Muhammad ibn Ismail. He announced the appearance of the hidden seventh imam, through whom the Abbasids should be overthrown, all religions of the law (besides Christianity and Judaism also Islam ) should be abolished and the cultless original religion should be established. The sect's founder first appeared in Askar Mukram in Chusistan , Iran , but then fled via Basra to Salamya in Syria. He gathered a growing community around him and sent missionaries ( Dais ) to all parts of the Islamic world , who spread the teachings of their grand master and built up a network of secret Ismailite cells.
After Abdallah's death, first his son Ahmad and then his grandson Abu sh-Schalaghlagh took over the leadership of the sect. Under the latter, the mission achieved considerable success, especially in the Maghreb , where Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī worked. Since Abu sh-Schalaghlagh had no son, he designated his nephew Said ibn al-Husain, who finally revealed himself to be the real Mahdi, as his successor. This in turn triggered a split in the Ismailis, as the Qarmatians and other groups continued to hold on to the expectation of the hidden Mahdi Muhammad ibn Ismail.
After the missionary Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī had spread the teachings of the Ismailis among the Berbers of the Maghreb, he overthrew the Aghlabid dynasty in Ifrīqiya , which had its power base in eastern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya. With this he paved the way for his Mr. Abdallah al-Mahdi , who fled Salamya , d. H. Said ibn al-Husain, who founded the Fatimid Empire in Ifriqiya. As a descendant of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, he traced his descent back to the daughter of the prophet Fatima.
Caliphate (909), conquest of the Maghreb, first attacks on Egypt (from 914), Jews
In 909 he proclaimed himself caliph and thus founded the Fatimid dynasty (until 1171). He regarded the Sunni Umayyads on the Iberian Peninsula and the Sunni Abbasids as usurpers . His missionaries made contact with opposition groups in the Abbasid Empire, they eliminated the power of the Aghlabids, in 911 they eliminated the Berbers, above all the Kutāma , as rivals for supremacy in Ifriqiya. However, the dynasty failed to introduce Sharia law .
Under al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah , the son of the dynasty's founder, the first attempts at expansion towards Egypt began, but they failed in 914–915 and 919–921. From 917 the conquest of the western Maghreb began, but real rule could only be said in Ifriqiya.
Already under the caliph Muawiya I (661-680), the founder of the Umayyad dynasty, the settlement of Jews in Tripoli was promoted. In Abbasid times, Jews were heavily involved in long-distance trade, and their settlements along the trade route through Libya were an advantage. Under the Fatimids, the Kairouan Jewish community rose to become an important center of the Jewish world. In the dispute between the yeshivot of Jerusalem and Baghdad for supremacy in North Africa, Rabbi Scherira Gaon , who was also a philosopher and Talmud interpreter (Gaon), wrote his historically significant letter to the Jews of Kairouan in 987. This Iggeret is a treatise-length letter that outlines the history and the authentic communication of the Mishnah and the Talmud, with biographical and genealogical information on the individual scholars. He genealogically proved the unadulterated and unbroken chain of doctrine and tradition . This had become necessary because the Karaites under the Fatimids rejected the Mishnah. A letter from Maimonides from the 12th century suggests that Jewish life in Libya did not flourish in the Golden Age as it did in the rest of the Maghreb and Spain . In it he recommended to his son that he should avoid contact with Jews west of Djerba . They are ignorant and have unusual customs. In fact, the frequently changing rule over the coast and nomadic raids from the hinterland may have hindered contact between the Jewish communities in Libya and their western neighbors. The Cairo Geniza contains documents on Jewish history, such as letters from the 11th century on the exchange of goods between Sicily and Tripoli.
Conquest of Egypt, relocation of the capital to Cairo (969/972), Banu Hillal (around 1050)
In 969, after several failed attempts, the conquest of Egypt and the overthrow of the Ichschididen there succeeded . In 972, Caliph al-Muizz moved the capital of the empire to Cairo and established the Zirids as viceroys in the Maghreb. Tripolitania and Cyrenaica went together again. Despite the Shiite-Ismaili creed of the Fatimids, Sunni Muslims were tolerated. Palestine and Syria subjugated the Fatimids by 978; they also gained control of Mecca and Medina . The most important shrines of Islam were under their control.
In 1004 a number of tribes arose in the western Nile Delta and Libya. On the Nile these were the Banu Qurra, in Libya the Luwata, Mazata and Zanata. Their leader was an alleged Iberian Umayyad prince named Abu Rakwa, who managed to conquer Barka. It was not until 1005, after several defeats by Egyptian armies, that the Fatimids were able to suppress the uprising.
The Fatimids under al-Mustansir (1036-1094) reached the height of power when Ismaili missionaries seized power in Yemen and the Abbasids in Baghdad were briefly overthrown in 1059. However, this extensive power politics led to the emaciation of the empire and the decline of the dynasty. Although the Zirids in Ifriqiya could be brought back under the rule of the Fatimids, Syria and Palestine were lost to the Seljuks in 1076 ; the establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem by crusaders in 1099 could no longer prevent the Fatimids.
With the invasion of the Bedouin tribe of the Banu Hilal around 1050, the last remnants of Roman urban culture were destroyed in the coastal areas of Libya, so that nomadism was the economic basis of the country until the 20th century. The immigration of the Bedouins also led to the Arabization of the Berber population.
In order to forestall a conquest of Egypt by the Crusaders, Nur ad-Din , the ruler of Damascus, led a campaign to Egypt as early as 1163 until his officer Saladin overthrew the Fatimids in 1171 and founded the Ayyubid dynasty.
The Fessan in early Islamic times
The Garamanten had already benefited from the emergence of permanent domains and urban centers in Sudan, but in particular from their trade. At the end of the 1st century the Roman Iulius Maternus traveled with the king of the Garamanten to Agisymba , which, according to Ptolemy, was south of Fessan, probably in the Lake Chad region. In Kanem, east of this lake, the dynasty of the Duguwa ruled , who from the 9th century onwards were referred to as Zaghawa by Arab geographers . After the destruction of the Garamanten Empire by the Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi around 666, the Duguwa expanded their dominance to the north. In the middle of the 11th century their empire extended into the Fessan. The pre-Islamic empire Kanem was characterized by its sacred kingship.
Until the middle of the 11th century, Islamization made little progress south of the Fessan. Only under Abd al-Jalil (approx. 1064-1068) and above all Hume al-Sayfi (1068-1080), the first Muslim king of Kanem, did the new religion advance. The Dīwān attributes 120,000 soldiers to King Dunama I (1080–1133). What is certain is that the rulers of Kanem-Bornu were a central power factor in the 12th century, and that from this time at the latest they were regarded as black Africans, despite their alleged Yemeni origin. Ibn Said al-Maghribi reports of the incorporation of the Berbers of the Aïr into the empire, in the north the empire extended beyond the Fezzan to the vicinity of the Mediterranean coast. In contrast, Islam made little progress in the south for centuries, because the peoples there were exposed to frequent slave raids from Kanem.
The Egyptian Cyrenaica
Ayyubids (1171-1250)
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Agriculture and trade were promoted under Saladin , while the Sunni dynasty replaced the Shiite Fatimids. Until 1181 the rule over Syria, Upper Mesopotamia, Yemen and Nubia was extended. After consolidating his rule, he defeated the Crusaders on July 4, 1187 in the battle of Hattin near Tiberias and conquered Jerusalem. In the Third Crusade that followed, the crusaders succeeded in retaking some coastal cities (including Acre ), but they were unable to retake Jerusalem.
After Saladin had divided the empire before his death, there were power struggles in which al-Adil I (1200–1218) fought against al-Mansur (1198–1200), al-Aziz's underage son (1193–1198) , was able to prevail. Although al-Adil also divided the empire before his death, his successor al-Kamil (1218-1238) was able to fend off the Damiette (1217-1221) crusade in Egypt and the crusade of Frederick II (1228-1229) through negotiations end to the emperor , in which the unfortified Jerusalem was ceded. Shortly before his death, al-Kamil was also able to prevail in Syria.
After the outbreak of renewed dynastic power struggles, as-Salih (1240–1249) succeeded in reuniting large parts of the Ayyubid Empire, even if Northern Syria, Upper Mesopotamia and Yemen were finally lost. He was also able to finally conquer Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1244.
Mamluken (1252-1517)
Turkish military slaves, defense against Mongols
Immediately after another crusade (1249-1254) had been repulsed, the last Ayyubide Turan Shah fell victim to a conspiracy of the Turkish Mamluks in the army when he wanted to limit their influence. Until 1257 his stepmother Shajar ad-Dur led the government as regent, where she married the Mamlukenführer Aybak . This rose as al-Malik al-Muizz to sultan in 1252 and founded the Mamluk Empire, which lasted until 1517.
Mamluks - white military slaves - were used in the Abbasid Empire especially since the 9th century. Saladin's bodyguard also consisted of soldiers, most of whom were bought in childhood and adolescence on the slave markets of northern Anatolia or the Caucasus and then prepared for their service through training to become horsemen and an Islamic education. They could gain freedom and then acquire mamluks in turn. Even if they formed a military elite, the Mamluks were neither noblemen nor did they have a special blessing through descent from the family of prophets.
Under Baibars they succeeded in defeating the Mongols in the Battle of ʿAin Jālūt in 1260. This made the Mamluk Empire the only state in the Middle East that could assert itself against them. The Abbasid caliph, who fled to them from Baghdad, served only to legitimize the rule of the Mamluks and had no political influence. Only al-Mustain (1406-1414) was able to achieve short-term political power in 1412 when he was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt.
Expulsion of the Crusaders (until 1291), Bahri dynasty (from 1279)
Baibars (1260–1277) used the victory over the Mongols to gain power in Egypt. He began to drive out the Franks. But his son was overthrown in 1279 by Qalawun , the founder of the Bahri dynasty . Qalawun (1279–1290) and his son Chalil (1290–1293) finally conquered the Crusader states . In the period that followed, the Mamluks gradually destroyed almost all of the old sea towns on the Syrian coast. Since Egypt did not have any wood stocks suitable for shipbuilding and the overall seafaring status did not have a high status, the Mamluks rarely undertook maritime activities.
Qalawun was keen to promote economic ties with Europe. The crusaders, however, were "natural" allies of the real enemies of the Mamluks, namely the Mongolian Il-Chane in the east. The successful military successes against crusader states and Il-Chane were made possible by Caucasian mercenaries who were recruited on a large scale; they were to overthrow the Bahri dynasty 100 years later and take power themselves.
When an-Nasir finally succeeded in taking power in 1309, he forced the emirs to swear to only use Bahris as sultans. In the following years the economy was able to flourish again. The tax burden was transferred from the poor and middle classes to the big landowners, corruption was fought, and large-scale construction projects created work.
Burjiyya dynasty (1382-1517)
After an-Nasir's death, the Bahri dynasty provided rulers for another 40 years, albeit only formally - in fact the Mamluk emirs ruled again. During this phase, the Mamluks succeeded in transforming themselves into a caste of large landowners, thereby bringing both politics and the economy under control. Peter I of Cyprus attacked Alexandria in 1365 with an army and a fleet of 115 ships, which were provided by Venice, the Hospitallers and Cyprus. The city was plundered and 5,000 people were taken as slaves. Venice and Genoa seem to have eventually forced Peter to make peace in order to be able to pursue their commercial interests in Egypt again.
Tripolitania
Dominance of the Christian sea powers (until 1551)
After the piracy of the corsairs of Tripoli had increased sharply in the 14th century , there were repeated attacks by the Christian sea powers Genoa and Aragon . In 1509 Tripoli was finally conquered by the Spaniards under Count Pietro of Navarre . Emperor Charles V left the city to the Order of St. John as a fief in 1530 .
Turgut rice
In 1551 it was conquered by the Ottomans under Turgut Reis (Dragut), who was then appointed Bey of Tripoli by Sultan Suleyman I. Andrea Doria had received the order from Emperor Charles V in 1540 to eliminate him. In 1546, however, Sultan Suleyman had ordered all Ottoman naval forces to recognize Turgut Reis as their admiral. He attacked southern Italy, in 1548 attacked the Spanish possessions of Susa, Sfax and Monastir on the Tunisian coast, and in 1549 captured the city of Mahdia there . Now the Ottoman province of Tarabalus al-Gharb arose.
Ottomans
A political unity emerges between Tunisia-Algeria and Egypt
With the conquest of Egypt by Selim I (1512-1520) in 1517, the caliphate passed to the Ottomans, making Constantinople the seat of the caliph. The system of rule of the military slaves continued to exist under Ottoman rule. But Syria was withdrawn from the administration of Egypt, and Cyrenaica was also separated from Egypt. It formed its own eyâlet . In 1551 the Eyâlet Trablus-ı Garb, Tripolitania, was created, but it also included the Cyrenaica and reached far into the Sahara. Like the rest of Libya, Tripoli was under Ottoman suzerainty, although Fessan only paid temporary tribute and Kyrenaica was not finally under Istanbul until 1640. Ahmad Qaramanli (1711–1745) gained power in Tripoli and founded the Qaramanli dynasty (1711–1835). He also gained control of the Cyrenaica and the Fezzan.
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After Egypt had made itself largely independent, the Ottomans in Africa only had direct access to Tripolitania. During the Tanzimat period, the Vilâyet Tripolitania was established in 1864 , replacing the Eyalet Tripolitania .
Settlement of Jewish refugees from the Iberian Peninsula
After the Reconquista, Tripolitania was an important refuge for the Jews, who had to leave Spain at the same time as numerous Moors due to the Alhambra Edict of 1492. Among them were the ancestors of Shimon ibn Lavi. He reorganized the religious life of the Jews in Libya in the 16th century and is still considered the father of the Libyan tradition in Judaism. When the Spaniards arrived in Tripoli in 1510, 800 Jewish families fled, some of them went to the Nafusa Mountains near Gharyan to the Troglodyte Jews there. Many returned after the Turks , who appeared in Cyrenaica from 1517, conquered Tripoli in 1551.
Jews often acted as mediators when it came to extorting ransom for captured Christians. But you were also involved in the defense of Tripoli in 1705, when the Bey of Tunis, Ibrahim el-Sherif, besieged the city in a punitive action against pirates. The surprising termination of the siege and thus the rescue of the Jews was the reason for their traditional festival of Purim Sherif . Another regional Purim festival, Purim Burghol , commemorates the redemption of the city from the reign of terror of the corsair Ali Burghol.
Piracy and Barbarian Wars
In the 18th and early 19th centuries, piracy continued to be an important economic factor, which is why Tripoli was shelled several times by the fleets of Britain and France, which led to the destruction of the city in 1728 . The Venice fleet also operated off Tripoli in 1778.
When Thomas Jefferson became President of the United States in 1801, Pasha Yussif Qaramanli of Tripoli, a grandson of Ahmad Qaramanli, demanded $ 225,000 in tribute from the new government. When Jefferson refused to pay, the pasha declared war on the United States in May 1801 by cutting the flagpole in front of the American consulate. Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia followed suit. Although Congress did not return the declaration of war, it did authorize the President to authorize warships to confiscate ships and goods belonging to the Pasha, as well as "any other countermeasures or attacks, as the war situation requires."
In 1802 Jefferson dispatched the ships Constituion , Constellation , Philadelphia , Chesapeake , Argus , Syren and Intrepid under the command of Edward Preble. In 1803 Preble established a blockade and attacked the cities' navy; on July 14, 1804 he attacked Tripoli. The turning point of the war was the Battle of Derna in April and May 1805, which was initiated by an attack by land that included marines and Arab, Greek and Berber mercenaries. Concerned that his deposed older brother Hamet could be reinstated as ruler, Yussif Qaramanli signed an armistice on June 10, 1805. A prisoner exchange was agreed in the contract, in which about 300 Americans were offset against about 100 Tripolitans and $ 60,000. Until 1812, however, corsairs repeatedly captured the crews of American merchant ships and demanded ransom. When the US was at war with Great Britain from 1812 to 1815, London drove US ships out of the Mediterranean; the US was forced to pay a ransom. In 1815 and 1816, both an American and a British-Dutch fleet attacked Algiers ( Second Barbarian War), the latter bombarded the city for days and destroyed the fleet. This ended piracy, but also dealt a heavy blow to trade. In 1830 France occupied Algiers.
Ottoman Vilayet Tripolitania (1835–1911), Sanussiya in Kyrenaica (from 1843)
From June 27, 1835, the country was again placed under Ottoman rule with direct administration (Wilayat) by Mustafa Negib Pascha, from September 1835 by Mehmed Reis Pascha. The area was now called Vilayet Tripolitania . However, the Ottomans had a weak garrison in Tripolitania. In 1841 the city of Murzuq became the administrative seat of the Ottomans in Fezzan. Arab tribes resisted the rule of the Turks, which also prevailed in Fessan and the Cyrenaica.
In addition to the Ottoman governors, the Sanussiya Brotherhood also ruled Cyrenaica from 1843 and took control of the caravan trade through the desert to the south and through the Islamic Senussi Brotherhood founded by Mohammed as-Senussi. Muhammad al-Sanussi founded the religious center (Zawiya) of the Sanussiya brotherhood in Al-Baida in 1840 , but had to leave the city on the instructions of Turkish suzerainty.
In 1857 the slave trade was abolished, which was one of the most important sources of income in the country on the caravan routes and which was still operated undercover until 1890.
From 1835, Istanbul repealed all existing discriminatory regulations against Jews. Moldovan-born Israel Joseph Benjamin , who traveled to Libya in addition to many other countries in the mid-19th century, reported on almost 1,000 Jewish families with eight synagogues in Tripoli, 400 families with two synagogues in Benghazi and eight other small communities - some in Troglodytes . The total of 2200 families lived from trade, peddling, handicrafts (especially weaving and locksmithing) and agriculture. Despite their legal rights, they suffered from the intolerance of Muslims.
The Fessan and the Ottomans
The Ottoman power initially only extended to the edge of the desert, further south the period of Bornus' domination ended earlier , especially under Idris Alooma (1580–1617) wars with the Tubu. Bornu controlled the trade between Sudan and Fezzan under his rule from N'gazargamu. The Ottomans sent a large embassy to his capital. Awlad Muhammad ruled in Fessan, who as a descendant of Muhammad claimed the status of a sherif . One of his ancestors came from Fez in Morocco. This Muhammad al-Fasi and his descendants ruled Fezzan from around 1550. This profited from the trade caravans that crossed his territory and from the caravans organized in Fezzan. This created the largest market between Morocco and Egypt as well as Sudan.
There were disputes with the Ottomans over control of trade, so they sent armies south from Tripolitania. But Awlad Muhammad was able to avoid Lake Chad and return after the Ottomans withdrew. In 1639 the Ulama des Fessan reached a compromise with the Ottomans. In return for an annual tribute from gold and slaves, Istanbul recognized the state. But in 1682 Sultan Najib M. Jhaym refused to pay the tribute, whereupon the Ottomans under Murad al-Malti attacked Murzwaq and killed the sultan. His son Muhammad al-Nasir agreed to pay tribute until 1689. The renewed suspension of the tribute caused Governor Muhammad to attack Sha'ib al 'Ain, but he lost, so that the Sultan did not pay tributes until 1715. That year, Ahmad al-Qaramanli founded an independent state in Tunisia.
Colony of Italy
Italo-Turkish War
On September 29, 1911, Italian troops invaded Ottoman Libya. The Italian government under Giovanni Giolitti justified this step with restrictions on the freedom of trade for Italian merchants there. In addition, the consolidation of the French position in Morocco had raised fears that France might try to incorporate the last not yet colonized area of North Africa. An ultimatum to the Ottoman Empire on September 28, 1911, in which the Kingdom of Italy demanded a free hand in the occupation of Libya, was rejected by the Sultan. Italy then declared war on the Ottoman Empire and began bombarding the Fort of Tripoli on September 30, 1911.
On October 5, 1911, the capital Tripoli and the coastal strip of the Kyrenaica were occupied by the Italians. The Ottoman divisions stationed there offered unexpectedly fierce resistance, so that the Italian Foreign Minister Antonio di San Giuliano ordered tough measures against the defenders. Italy responded on November 11 with the first air bombing in history. After several days of bombardment on Tripoli, the Italian invaders caused a bloodbath among the population. The Turkish resistance to the Italian invasion was directed from the desert. The section of Darna was assigned to the later state founder of Turkey Mustafa Kemal Ataturk and Enver Pascha . They gathered their troops from the Muslims of the Sahara oases. The Italians could no longer be expelled from the coastal towns of Libya. In October 1912 the Sultan had to cede Libya to Italy in the Peace of Ouchy . In the interior of Libya, the desert sheikhs waged a successful guerrilla war. The inland and the Kufra oases were conquered by Mussolini in the early 1930s.
World War I and Italian colony
On November 5, 1911, the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III signed. a decree annexing Tripoli and Cyrenaica. The state of war between Italy and the Ottoman Empire remained. The Italian governor Raffaele Borea Ricci D'Olmo (1857-1911) was installed for Tripolitania on October 5, 1911 and replaced a week later by Carlo Francesco Giovanni Battista. As early as the following year, a first section of the railway was put into operation, in the hope of accelerating the warfare that relied on camels. The first line connected Tripoli and Ain Zara, 11 km away, from March 17, 1912, the 21 km long line to Tajoura was completed on July 13, then the 6 km to Gargaresh on April 20, and that on September 5 Zanzur (12 km) could be extended. The latter route proved to be particularly important for the battle with the Ottoman units. It was initially under the military, like the entire railroad in the country, but from May 1, 1913, it took over the state railroad, the 117 km long route to Zuara, west of Tripoli, was built. At the end of 1915, the small network covered a total of 180 km. The region could not be finally pacified until 1925, the railway line to Henschir el-Abiad was destroyed several times. The first railway line was inaugurated around Benghasi in September 1914.
In Libya, the Italians used aerial bombs and military aircraft for the first time in history. The Italian troops met fierce resistance from the Bedouins under Sheikh al-Baruni in Tripolitania and the Senussi order under Umar al-Muchtar in Cyrenaica. The increasing tensions in the Balkans weakened the position of the Ottomans considerably. The government in Istanbul was forced to sign a peace treaty with Italian government representatives on October 18, 1912 in the castle of Ouchy near Lausanne . The war in Libya ended with the Treaty of Lausanne . Under the pressure of the impending Balkan crisis, the Ottoman Empire gave up its territorial claims and ceded Tripoli and the Cyrenaica with Benghazi to Italy. After a peace agreement that led to the recognition of local governments in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1917 (with recognition of Italian sovereignty), the situation calmed down. On October 15, 1912, the Italian Ottavio Briccolo became Governor General of Kyrenaica.
Ahmad al-Sharif (1902-1916) supported the Ottomans from 1911 in the fight against the Italian troops that had landed in Libya. During the First World War , from 1915 onwards, the Italians had gradually pushed them back to the north and west right to the coast, only five port cities were now controlled by Italy. In the east, the Senussi from Jaghbub were supposed to invade Egypt via the Siwa oasis and there help to reinstate the viceroy Abbas Hilmi , who was overthrown by the British in 1914 and who was supposed to cross the Sinai with the German-Turkish army . But already at Sollum in 1916 the Senussi were decisively defeated by Anglo-Egyptian troops. The only thing left for the German and Ottoman Empire was the support of the Senussi across the Mediterranean. For this purpose, German submarines operated between the ports of the Central Powers and the Libyan coast from November 1915 to October 1918 . In 1917 the Siwa oasis was also taken by a motorized division of the British and Australians, the fighters of the Senussi brotherhood had to give way here too. Ahmad's power waned, and after his followers were able to take the port city of Misrata in 1918 , all that was left for him was to flee to Turkey on a German submarine that landed there. Sidi Muhammad Idris al-Mahdi al-Senussi (1916-1983), one of the founder's grandsons, was recognized in 1918 as regent in Cyrenaica and in 1922 as Emir of Tripolitania, recognizing Italian sovereignty .
The Republic of Tripolitania , proclaimed on November 8 and 16, 1918 , was only of a provisional nature and was more of a satellite state of the Italians. On May 17, 1919, Kyrenaica became an Italian colony and on September 12, 1919, Italy signed a treaty with France that provided for the inclusion of some Algerian and West African oases and border strips with Libya.
The peace treaty of Sèvres , concluded on August 10, 1920, set harsh conditions for peace: the treaty drastically reduced the former Ottoman Empire, considerably restricted its armed forces and divided the country into spheres of interest. According to Article 121 of the treaty, Turkey renounced all rights in Libya. Italy had Tripolitania and Cyrenaica firmly in hand again from 1922.
After Mussolini came to power , Idris was driven into exile in Cairo in 1923 and the republic was dissolved. From May 1, 1923, war broke out between the Italians and the Senussi Brotherhood. The military governor of Kyrenaica, Luigi Bongiovanni (1866–1941), denied the Senussi all rights.
Emilio De Bono (1866-1944) was from July 1925 to January 24, 1929 Governor General of Tripolitania. Under his leadership Italy conquered until 1925 and the southern Fezzan and acquired in 1926 the headquarters of the Senussi, the oasis Jaghbub . In 1927 and 1928 Italy used poison gas in fighting with insurgents . On March 9, 1927, the Italians forbade any local self-determination by administrations in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by Libyans. In 1926, the construction of the railroad ended for the time being, as Mussolini relied on the expansion of the road network; only a few kilometers of the railway line were completed in 1941–1942. In the meantime, 5000 kilometers of road were created.
Marshal Pietro Badoglio became the new governor of Libya on January 24, 1929 (until 1933). Lieutenant Governor u. a. In January 1929 Dominico Siciliani (1879–1938) was responsible for the Cyrenaica, who was replaced in March 1930 by Vice Governor Rodolfo Graziani . The resistance of the tribes under Umar al-Muchtar was crushed by the Italians until 1932 in a violent and loss-making war. After his capture in Salwenta by the 7th Italian Regiment, Umar Mukhtar was sentenced to death by a military tribunal in Benghazi on September 15, 1931 , and executed one day later . About 100,000 Italians settled in northern Libya. They drove out the local Libyan farmers.
The new governor general was Italo Balbo on November 6, 1933 , who also opened the Autodromo della Mellaha car racing circuit in Tripoli. From 1933 the Grand Prix races (now Formula 1) were also held in Libya. The approximately 13 km long route was considered to be the fastest course up to then with speeds of up to 220 km / h and was held over 40 laps. German drivers like Rudolf Caracciola and Hermann Lang also won the car races in Tripoli. A few months earlier, the Lotteria di Tripoli was launched, where bets were accepted on Grand Prix events.
It was not until 1931 that the last resistance was broken with the capture of the Kufra oases , and in 1934 the Italian colony of Libia was formed from the conquests . On January 1, 1935, Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica were united to form the Italian colony of Libya. With France, the demarcation between the colony of Libya and the French-controlled area of today's Chad was agreed. But the treaty was not ratified.
The soldiers in the Italian colonies who were stationed in the country for a long time often entered into relationships with women who lived there. Mussolini's party suppressed contacts between Italian soldiers and African women (madamato).
Fascist settlement program, World War II
In 1931 the first 5,000 Italian colonists were settled in Tripolitania. But it was not until the new governor Italo Balbo, who had the new coastal road Litoranea Libica built, that an intensified settlement program began, especially in Cyrenaica. In 1938, 15,000 colonists came to the country, and another 10,000 followed in 1939. A total of 500,000 were planned by 1951. This is how the villages of Beda Littoria, Luigi di Savoia, Primavera (later Luigi Razza) and Giovanni Berta were created until 1934, then followed from 1936 to 1939 by the villages of Baracca, Oberdan, D'Annunzio, Battisti, Mameli, Filzi, Giordani, Micca, Oliveti (the name was reminiscent of the pilot Ivo Oliveti, who perished in the Ethiopian War), Gioda, Breviglieri, Crispi, Marconi, Garibaldi, Corradini, Tazzoli, Michele Bianchi and Maddalena. Replacement villages were planned for the expropriated Libyans who had to give way to the colonies, but this project got stuck at the start of the war. It was only started because the number of the landless and displaced was constantly increasing and the colonial order was endangered.
During the Second World War , the Axis powers and the Allies faced each other in North Africa. On September 13, 1940, the Italian leader and Prime Minister Benito Mussolini ordered the attack on Egypt, which was defended by British forces . The attack of the Italian 10th Army got stuck because of the strong British resistance, they only succeeded in conquering the Egyptian city of Sidi Barrani . On December 9, 1940, the British XIII. Corps under Lieutenant General Richard O'Connor with the British 7th Panzer Division and the Indian 4th Infantry Division launched a counter-offensive with only 36,000 soldiers, which quickly developed into a disaster for the Italian troops. Sidi Barrani was retaken and the British continued to advance into Libya. In response to an Italian call for help on December 19, 1940, the leader of the German Reich, Adolf Hitler , dispatched the first German “Sperrverband” to Libya on January 9, 1941. German troops, including soldiers of the 5th Light Division and later the 15th Armored Division under the command of Lieutenant-General Erwin Rommel , met as part of the company's Sunflower on 11 and 12 February 1941 in Tripoli weak with the command, with associations, the German Afrikakorps to support the unsuccessful ally Italy in its defense.
British troops of the 'Western Desert Force' captured the city of Benghazi on February 6, 1941 . In the Allied (British) counter-offensive, ten Italian divisions were completely unexpectedly destroyed and 130,000 soldiers were taken prisoners of war. The Allies had only 600 dead in the offensive. On March 2, 1941, the southeastern Kufra oases were occupied by French troops of the "Groupe Lorraine" from Chad under Colonel Jacques-Philippe Leclerc and together with a British unit. Leclerc was also the French military governor in Chad from November 22, 1940.
Rommel found a defensive stance inappropriate and wanted to attack instead. Contrary to Hitler's orders, Rommel attacked the Allied (British) troops at El Agheila with the Africa Corps on March 31, 1941 , thus initiating the reconquest of Cyrenaica by German and Italian troops. His main thrust was directed at Mersa Brega in order to open the gateway to the Cyrenaica. The Axis offensive was successful, so that on April 4th Benghazi could be occupied. On April 10, 1941, German tanks were standing in front of the east Libyan port and fortress of Tobruk , which had been expanded by the Italians shortly before and then evacuated almost without a fight. By April 13th, the German and Italian troops had made three attacks on the fortress, but all of them failed. Further advances by the Axis powers could not be carried out due to supply bottlenecks, so that both sides went into a positional war.
On November 18, 1941, the Allies began a counter-offensive with Operation Crusader and the British 8th Army . A second attack took place on November 26, 1941, and the crew of Tobruk finally managed to break out of the siege ring. On December 7, the Africa Corps withdrew to the Gazala line. After Tobruk was apparently safe from being conquered by the Africa Corps, General Rommel attacked again in January 1942.
On May 26, 1942, the Africa Corps began the Theseus operation with the aim of conquering Tobruk. After heavy tank battles, the Axis powers succeeded in taking Bir Hacheim on June 10th, in order to then initiate the advance on Tobruk. On June 20, the city and fortress were occupied, and Rommel was promoted to field marshal . The further advance should now take place through Egypt. The city of Alexandria was to fall and the Suez Canal was to be occupied. Shortly before El Alamein , the Allies had built a 65-kilometer defense belt. The German offensive got stuck. The new British commander, Bernard Montgomery, began a counterattack on October 23, 1942. The Africa Corps was outnumbered and had to retreat.
In a ten-minute air raid by five American B-17 bombers and ten Free French Forces fighters on Italian troops on January 11, 1943, parts of Ghadames - including the two medieval mosques - were destroyed. 44 civilians died; however, the enemy soldiers and their military equipment were not hit.
On January 23, 1943, the Allies occupied Tripoli. In March and April 1943, the Axis powers were finally included ( Battle of Tunisia ). Only at the Mareth line was bitter resistance still offered. On May 13, 1943, the surrender of the German-Italian Army Group Africa with the remnants of eleven German and six Italian divisions by Colonel General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim . 130,000 German and 120,000 Italian soldiers were taken prisoner by the Allies. In total, over 96,000 soldiers died on both sides in North Africa during World War II. The number of civilian victims is unknown.
After the invasion of the Allied troops, together with the Senussi Liberation Army founded by Idris as-Senussi , Cyrenaica and Tripolitania were placed under British administration and the southern part of Fezzan under free French administration from September 1, 1943 .
Jewish community and fascism
The Italian occupation began in 1911 and initially focused on Tripolitania. The Fessan was not fully brought under control until 1924 and the Cyrenaica only in 1932. In Tripolitania in 1931 21,000 Jews lived in 15 places, which corresponded to about 4% of the population, 15,000 of them in Tripoli alone. Over 3000 Jews were counted in Cyrenaica, 2236 of them in Benghazi. The chief rabbi in Tripoli and many rabbis came from Italy, as did many of the believers who often immigrated from Livorno . In 1936 there were 28,299 Jews in Libya, in 1940 around 38,000 lived there.
After a period of recognition of the cultural and economic boom, Italy's alliance with the Third Reich led to renewed discrimination. After the invasion of the German Africa Corps , which intervened against the Allies in support of the Italian troops in 1941, anti-Semitic measures were tightened from April 1942. Because of sympathy with the enemy, the Benghazi Jews were deported to the Nafusa Mountains. In the main camp in Jado , almost a quarter of the 2,600 inmates died of hunger and typhus within 14 months before the survivors were liberated by the British in January 1943. The others had been deported to Gharyan and Jefren. It was not until April 1943 that the schools, which had been closed for more than two years, were allowed to reopen. But as early as November 1945 there were attacks by Muslim citizens, instigated by the exiled Mufti of Palestine. The acts of violence began in Tripoli and spread to other places without British countermeasures. 135 dead and over 300 injured were counted.
UN Trust Territory, British Occupation (1945–1951)
Pressure on the minorities: Italians, Jews
While the approximately 60,000 Italian farmers from Cyrenaica were immediately driven out by the British occupiers, the approximately 40,000 Italians in Tripolitania were able to stay. The British military governor of Tripolitania, Travers Robert Blackley , was appointed administrator of the United Nations from 1946 until Libya's independence . On May 17, 1945, the former Italian air force base near Tripoli from Mellaha was renamed Wheelus Air Force Base in honor of US Air Force soldier Richard Wheelus, who was killed in a plane crash in Iran. As of May 15, 1947, the base was no longer used by the USA; it was not used until June 1948.
The situation of the Jewish Libyans initially changed little. With the end of the Second World War, there were large immigration of refugees from Yugoslavia, Greece and Malta. However, there were a number of pogroms, such as the 1945 pogrom in which 100 Jews were murdered in Tripoli and other cities and five synagogues were destroyed. Another pogrom took place in November 1945, with more than 140 Jews murdered and almost all synagogues looted. In 1947, around 38,000 Jews lived in Libya, around 20,000 of them in the vicinity of the capital Tripoli. In 1948 there were renewed pogroms . After the establishment of the State of Israel , around 2,500 Jews left the country in May 1948. Further emigrations followed, so that in 1951 only around 8,000 Jews remained in the country. Most of them went to Israel, some went to Rome and other Italian cities.
Union of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, preparation for independence
The Libyan Liberation Committee in Cairo under the leadership of Bashir al-Sa`dawi (Bashir es Sadawi) spoke out in March 1947 for a "Union of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica" under the leadership of the Senussi. The Fezzan region was headed by the French Maurice Sarazac from 1947 until the region became independent .
On May 17, 1949, the Bevin Sforza Plan for Libya's future failed to achieve the necessary two-thirds majority at the United Nations. The decisive factor was the vote of Haiti , whose ambassador voted against the plan despite instructions from his government to the contrary. The Anglo-Italian plan, named after Foreign Ministers Ernest Bevin and Carlo Sforza , would have divided Libya into three UN trust territories: Cyrenaica under British administration, Tripolitania under Italian and Fezzan under French administration. On June 1, 1949, the emirate in Kyrenaica was reorganized under Emir Sayyid Muhammad Idris as-Senussi with the consent of the British UN administrators. As-Senussi traveled to Great Britain in July 1949 to discuss the future of Libya. On November 9, Umar Mansur Kikhia (1901-1958) became Prime Minister of the Emirate of Cyrenaica .
On November 21, 1949, the United Nations passed a resolution providing for Libya to become independent by 1952. In the peace treaty with Italy in February 1947, the victorious powers of World War II left the judgment on the future of the former Italian colonies to the United Nations. The resolution was adopted with 48 votes against 1 ( Haile Selassie from Ethiopia voted against) and nine abstentions (including France and the Soviet Union). The former colony was to become a sovereign, federal state by January 1, 1952. A UN commissioner and an international body supporting him were appointed who were to hand over the business of government to the Emir of Kyrenaica, later King Idris I. On November 21, 1949, the Emirate of Kyrenaica under Emir Sayyid Muhammed Idris as-Senussi received autonomy rights until the country became independent. The Dutchman Adrian Pelt was appointed as the United Nations High Commissioner for Libya on December 10, 1949 . On March 17, 1950, he temporarily took over the state affairs of Libya until independence on December 24, 1951.
On February 12, 1950, Ahmad Sayf an-Nasr became Chef du territoire over the Fezzan and cooperated with the French resident Maurice Sarazac to ensure a smooth transition to independence.
During the Cold War, on November 16, 1950 , the US Strategic Air Command ordered the transfer of B-50 , B-36 , B-47 and KC-97 tanker aircraft to Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli. The long-haul aircraft offered the Luftwaffe the opportunity to undertake spy flights on the Soviet southern border.
The Libyan National Assembly, whose members came in equal parts from Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan, met in Tripoli on December 2, 1950 and appointed the head of government of Cyrenaica and leader of the Senussi, Emir Idris as-Senussi, as the future king. A government formed under Idris as-Sanussi gradually took over the administration of the country from mid-March 1951 after deliberations of the National Assembly. The National Assembly passed a constitution on October 7, 1951.
United Kingdom of Libya
monarchy
Libya was declared a monarchy on December 24, 1951 under Idris I , the religious head of the Senussi order . The federal character of the state should ensure the representation of the three provinces Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan with the provincial seats Tripoli, Benghazi and Murzuq, which each received their own parliaments. The colonial policy of Great Britain, which always tried to keep local potentates willing to cooperate in power, thus resulted in the royal rule of the Senussi. At the same time, Libya signed a military agreement with the USA, which enabled the further use of the Wheelus Air Base near Tripoli. Around 4,600 soldiers were stationed there in 1951. The Kingdom of Egypt under Faruq , which had been independent since 1922 , provided the new state with development aid in order to gain influence.
The first head of government was on December 25, 1951, Mahmud al-Muntasir (1903-1970), who also took over the office of Minister of Education and Justice. Defense Minister was Omar Faiek Shennib , Finance Minister Mansour Qadara , Information Minister Ibrahim Bin Sha'ban and Foreign Minister Muhammad Uthman as-Said . At that time the country, which lived mainly from agriculture and the leasing of military bases, was one of the poorest countries in the world. Over 90% of the local population was illiterate . As a result, the Italians who remained after the war inevitably rose to the political and economic upper class, of which around 52,000 remained. The first parliamentary elections took place on February 19, 1952. Parliament met for the first time in March. Because of the victory of the ruling party, which was mainly recruited from members of the Senussi and from foreigners, there were clashes with the xenophobic "National Congress Party" and riots. Thereupon King Idris forbade the establishment of political parties and trade unions. On February 5, 1952, a court sentenced members of the Ba'ath Party to 87 and banned the organization.
On March 28, 1952, Libya joined the Arab League , which was founded in 1945, and became a full member in February 1953. On July 29, 1953, a friendship and assistance treaty was signed with Great Britain. 3,000 British soldiers were stationed at the British base at El Adam near Tobruk. In addition, the British Air Force had rights of disposal over Idris International Airport in Tripoli. In Benghazi, a new military agreement was signed with the USA on September 9, 1954, on the use of the Wheelus air base near Tripoli until 1971. Around 14,000 soldiers and their relatives lived on the base. Relations with France developed differently. In 1952 there were disputes over the length of time French troops would remain in Fezzan. It was not until 1956 that France withdrew its last troops.
On October 5, 1954, the palace minister Ibrahim al-Shalhi , whom the king regarded as a kind of son, was assassinated by Muhyi al-Din , a prince of the royal family. In response, Idris withdrew their privileges from the royal relatives, with the exception of his brother and the queen, and excluded them from the line of succession, as he had already excluded them from the cabinet in 1949/50 and under the Cyrenaica constitution. At the time, Abu Qasim, a son of his older brother who had led the government for some time during the war, tried to find support from the tribes. In consultation with the British, he was overthrown, and since 1950 a family law has excluded the entire family from administrative and political tasks. The six branches of the Sanussi have since pushed into the most important economic positions, especially since the family law granted them a befitting livelihood. In 1954 Ibrahim al-Shalbi had to die, who was believed to be the main cause of his exclusion from all positions of power. The heirless king threatened to expel the entire Sanussi branch, disempowered the Ahmad-al-Sharif branch, but finally appointed the murdered man's son as his successor as court minister. On April 20, 1955, Mohammed ar-Ridha , brother of Idris I and heir to the throne, died, whereupon Mustafa ben-Halim, the prime minister, asked the king to proclaim a republic with the king as lifelong president. Idris agreed, but had to give in when the tribes of Cyrenaica signaled that they would not accept this. The new heir to the throne was Hassan ar-Ridha on November 26, 1955, but it became apparent that the monarchy would not long outlast the death of the king.
During the Suez Crisis in 1956 there were rallies in front of the Royal Palace against the occupation of the Suez Canal and the bombing of airfields in Egypt by the British armed forces, especially since British warplanes also used Libyan air bases for their operations.
In 1955, the first oil exploration rights were granted. The Libyans divided the exploration areas into many small concessions and gave them preferentially to smaller, independent oil companies. The reason for this was their consideration that small oil companies had fewer alternatives and would therefore search more intensively for Libyan oil. This strategy paid off. In January 1958, the first oil wells were discovered in the country in the Great Syrte . With the start of oil production and the construction of the first 167 km long pipeline from the oil fields inland to the Mediterranean coast, the country's economic situation could be improved considerably from 1961 onwards. On September 12, 1961, the first shipment of crude oil took place in Marsa el Brega . In 1969, Libya exported as much oil as Saudi Arabia. On March 26, 1962, Libya agreed with the states of the Casablanca Group , i.e. Algeria, Ghana , Guinea , Mali , Morocco and the United Arab Republic (Egypt, Syria), a tariff reduction of 25% as a first step towards a common African market . On March 21st, the federal states signed an agreement on technical, scientific and administrative cooperation. On December 14, 1955, Libya became a full member of the United Nations.
The state and the upper classes became wealthy through increasing oil production. From 1963, King Idris I centralized the state administration. In 1962, the US administration under John F. Kennedy had information about large-scale corruption. The Libyan government is said to have transferred a significant amount of income from the oil business to bank accounts in Switzerland. Serious unrest broke out in the country on January 13-14, 1963. The occasion was u. a. the policy towards Israel and the fact that King Idris had not attended the summit of the Arab League in Cairo in July 1962, where measures to ensure the independence of the future Algeria were discussed.
On February 21, 1963, Libya recorded an earthquake with the epicenter near Al Maraj ( Barca ). 320 people were killed. The earthquake measuring 5.3 on the Richter scale also destroyed the Al Maraj Al Qadim psychiatric clinic. Six US planes from Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli provided on-site assistance and medical personnel were flown in. 12,000 citizens were left homeless.
Unified state, new capital, women's suffrage
On April 27, 1963 there was an amendment to the constitution. Libya with its 1,474,000 inhabitants, including 40,000 Italians and 3,000 Jews, became a unitary state and the federal structures (federalism) were abolished. Instead, ten new administrative districts were created. The city of Al-Baida between Tobruk and Benghazi, which is currently under construction, was to become the new capital . Tripoli with 200,000 inhabitants was initially the new and permanent capital. On October 7, 1963, the right to vote for women was introduced.
The Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser called on Libya on February 22, 1964 to liquidate the foreign military bases in the country. Libya asked the US to provide more technical support for the oil industry and better equipment for the armed forces. Great Britain and France agreed to increase their financial support provided they were given the right to continue operating their military facilities on Libyan soil. After Nasser condemned the Libyan base policy, serious unrest broke out again in the cities of Tripoli and Benghazi. On March 16, 1964, Parliament unanimously decided to terminate the base contracts. The agreement with Great Britain was to expire in 1973 and that with the USA in 1971.
From 1965 onwards, the government carried out intensified repressive measures against opposition groups (trade unions, small supporters of the Baath Party, Nasserism and the Muslim Brotherhood). The country employed up to 20,000 secret police, roughly as many as were employed in the oil industry. Even under King Idris , the police tortured prisoners, e. B. with the bastinado .
During the Six Day War , the government refused to allow Algerian troops to enter Egypt. Although it later approved generous financial support for Jordan and Egypt to rebuild their economies after the Six Day War, on June 5 there were renewed demonstrations and attacks against American facilities. On June 6, 1967, the USA evacuated 3,346 soldiers and 3,835 civilians and workers as well as some Europeans from the Wheelus Air Force Base in Operation Creek Haven. On June 10 and 11, 1967, the "Operation Creek Dipper" was followed by another evacuation of 812 US citizens and an indefinite number of Jordanians from the Wheelus Air Force Base. On June 11, there were 38 US F-100 Super Saber fighter planes at the base. On August 15, 1968, an inspection team (Survey Team on Expansion) of the United States Air Forces in Europe was in Libya to introduce the new Northrop F-5 A and F-5B Freedom fighter aircraft Accompany fighter for the Libyan Air Force and develop it into a tactical air force. They also began building a second air base in Benina near Benghazi.
Arab Republic (1969-2011)
Coup
On September 1, 1969, King Idris I, who was staying with Queen Fatima on a spa stay in Bursa , Turkey, was overthrown by a group of pan-Arab officers. With troop carriers and tanks of the British type Centurion and only around 200 men, they ended the monarchy in Libya without encountering major resistance from the population. The putschists occupied all strategically important places in Tripoli, u. a. the building of the security police, the royal palace and the national radio stations and ministries. Only in Al-Baida did the royal “White Guard” resist.
On September 1, 1969 , Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi proclaimed the "Arab Republic of Libya" on the local radio broadcaster Etha'at al-Mamlaka al-Libya . He announced to the people that he had taken control of Libya without bloodshed. King Idris was declared deposed. He stayed in Turkey with his nephew, Crown Prince Hassan Rida (* 1940), later went to Greece and then into exile in Egypt, where he died in 1983 at the age of 94.
In its first speeches to the population, the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Gaddafi, demanded a say in problems in the Middle East and North Africa. He wanted to act as a new leader in the Arab world and clean up the corruption and nepotism of the royal family. He called for more effectiveness in the state apparatus. Contrary to many other African putschists, according to Western intelligence circles, Gaddafi should not be interested in personal wealth and was considered incorruptible. The US, it was suspected, tolerated the coup in order to keep the option of maintaining military bases in the country.
The members of the Revolutionary Command Council ( Majlis Kyiadat Ath-thawra ) in 1969 were next to Muammar al-Gaddafi: Abdussalam Jalloud, Abu Bakr Yunis Jaber , Awad Hamza, Basheer Hawwadi, Mukhtar al-Gherwi, Abdel-Monem al-Houni, Emhemfmed al-Mghouni , Mohammad Najm, Mustafa al-Kharoubi, Al-Khwaildi al-Hmaidi and Omar al-Amhaishi. The Libyan revolutionary government was recognized first by neighboring Egypt and Iraq. The European states hesitated.
Authoritarian governance, nationalization, end of the Jewish communities
On December 11, 1969, a new constitution was declared, which also prescribed the establishment of the revolutionary command council as the highest state organ. A decree to protect the revolution was also passed: Any citizen who questioned the foundations of the revolution could be punished with imprisonment or even with death. All foreign banks, insurance companies and the oil industry were gradually nationalized. By order of the revolutionary government on November 13, 1969, the foreign banks had to cede 51% of their capital to the Libyan state and convert their branches into Arabic names. Those affected were: Barclays Bank (in the future: Aljomhorya Bank), Banco di Roma (Omma Bank), The Arab Bank (Oroba Bank) and Banco di Napoli (Al Istikal Bank). A new state bank, the Alkafila Domestic Bank, was founded. The Zletin oil field , which was only developed by Esso Libya in 1960 , was also nationalized on July 21, 1970.
For his oil policy, Gaddafi took advice from the Saudi oil expert Abdullah Al-Tariki . In 1970 he demanded from all oil companies operating in the country a considerable increase in production prices and the share of the producer state in oil profits, which had been 50% up to that point. Because many oil companies had no other oil wells because of the Libyan strategy of giving preference to smaller companies when awarding concessions, they gradually had to respond to the demands. Libya was the first Arab country to have its share of oil profits increased to 55%. Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia followed suit.
During the Six Day War from June 5 to 10, 1967, the Libyan government brought Jews to safety in a camp in Tripoli or Benghazi. Nevertheless there were several murders and numerous pillages of synagogues, shops and houses - also in the new Jewish quarters. Italy helped evacuate the refugees. Gaddafi tightened the residence regulations and had the property of emigrated or absent Jews carried out. Synagogues were converted into mosques or closed. In addition to the British and US Americans, all 25,000 Italians and Jews had to leave the country by October 1970, and their property in Libya was expropriated. The last Jew left the country on October 10, 2003: Rina Debash moved to Rome to live with her nephew at the age of 81. Around 120,000 descendants of Libyan Jews live in Israel today, and perhaps 4,500 in Italy . A museum was built in Or Yehuda , Israel . Before the expulsion there were 62 synagogues in Tripoli. The Sla El Kebira Synagogue, built in 1628, is now a mosque, the building of the former Dar E Serousi Synagogue houses a city archive after the restoration in 1994, and the Dar Bishi Synagogue, at the inauguration of which the Italian King Victor Emanuel III. had participated should be restored after the end of the regime. But the initiator had to give up because he was threatened.
Regardless, the regime enjoyed increasing international recognition. From February 25 to 27, 1970, the Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito was the first European head of state to make a state visit to Libya. From September 5 to 9, 1973, the country took part in the Conference of Non-Aligned States in Algiers . On June 29, 1973, Libya established diplomatic relations with the German Democratic Republic .
On September 1, 1973, and at the same time on the 5th anniversary of the revolution, all concessions of the oil companies that had not yet been nationalized were nationalized, including ExxonMobil (Esso / Mobil Oil), Shell , Gelsenberg , Texaco , SoCal , Grace Petroleum and Libyan- American ARCO . The oil companies continued to be very influential until 1969 and partly until 1972. State concessions gave them exclusive rights and extraterritoriality . The corporations determined the price and output of the crude oil.
On March 28, 1970, the US air force base, which had existed since 1948, was closed, and on June 11, 1970, the British base, which had been in use since 1955, was closed. The Libyan armed forces received more modern equipment from France from September 1970, including 57 Mirage 5 fighter jets , 53 Mirage 5D fighter- bombers, 32 Mirage 5DE reconnaissance aircraft, nine SA.321M Super Frelon helicopters and ten SA.316B Alouette II helicopters. The Soviet Union also began delivering T-55 battle tanks and BMP-1 armored personnel carriers. In addition, Libya planned to purchase 16 C-130H Hercules transport aircraft from the USA.
Pan-Arabism, party bans, "Völkische Revolution"
Gaddafi's pan-Arab policy and merger plans with other Islamic states such as the Federation of Arab Republics with Egypt and Syria proclaimed in 1971 and the establishment of a pan-Arab unity party, the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), on June 11, 1971, failed until 1977. This remained equally unsuccessful 1974 founded Arab Islamic Republic with Tunisia . Libya received a new state coat of arms and a new national flag on January 1, 1972. Gamal Abdel Nasser , whom Gaddafi described as his role model, made no secret of his disdain for him and after the first meeting of the two clearly distanced himself. The allure of Gaddafi's attempts to assume Nasser's role as pan-Arab leader was based solely on money.
The first General People's Congress (Al-Ittihad Al-Ishtiraki Al-Arabi) met on March 28, 1972 in Tripoli. Law No. 71 on the prohibition of party activities was passed. All parties except the Arab Socialist Union (ASU) were banned.
On February 21, 1973, two Israeli F-4E Phantom II fighter planes shot down a Boeing 727-224 (registration number: 5A-DAH ) passenger aircraft operated by Libyan Arab Airlines (flight LN 114, Benghazi-Cairo) over the Israeli-occupied Sinai near the city of Ismailia . On board were u. a. the French captain Jacques Berjes, the Libyan copilot Almahdi Younis Ay-Yad and the Libyan flight engineer Naudin. 108 inmates were killed; the copilot and four passengers survived the downing. Due to navigation errors by the pilots, the aircraft came across the Sinai Peninsula.
After the Libyan aircraft had penetrated their airspace, the pilots of the Israeli interceptors repeatedly tried to induce the pilots to follow them with hand signals as well as the internationally established signals during interception maneuvers for aircraft and finally warning shots in front of the bow to follow them and at the nearby military airfield Bir Gifgafa to land. Instead, the pilots of the Boeing 727 started climbing.
One of the Israeli machines finally fired shots at the right wing root of the Boeing 727. Thereupon a fire broke out there and two of the three engines were shut down or failed at a height of about 1000 meters. During the emergency landing in the desert, the machine collided with a sand dune, turned on its back and slid a little further. The Israeli General Mordechai Hod and commander of the Israeli Air Force defended the mission in a press conference on February 22, 1973.
In April 1973, Muammar al-Gaddafi proclaimed the “People's Revolution” (“the people have the right and the task to assume power and responsibility”) and Islam as the social revolutionary path. As a result, numerous so-called “people's committees” were formed. These executive people's committees should be elected every two years and be responsible to the people's conferences. The party cells of the Arab Socialist Union were transformed into open “grassroots people's conferences”, which then had legislative tasks.
Chad War, "Arab Unity March" (1973), border war with Egypt (1977)
Large parts of the Aouzou strip in the north of the country, which belongs to Chad , were occupied by Libyan troops in June 1973 and annexed in August 1973, probably also because of the suspected occurrence of uranium in this area. The approximately 350,000 Tubu living there live on a total area of 1,300,000 km². In the conflict between Libya and Chad over the Aouzou Strip (1973-1994) the Tubu supported the Libyans. In the east of the Republic of Niger, they joined forces in the 1990s to form the paramilitary organization Front démocratique pour le renouveau . In Libya, on the other hand, the government pursued a policy from 2007 of denying the Tubu citizenship rights.
With over 50,000 participants, the “Arab Unity March” started on July 18, 1973 from the Tunisian border to Cairo in order to accelerate the agreed union with Egypt. The protesters delivered a message of unity written in blood on the 2,000 km walk. In the Mosque of Tripoli, Gaddafi declared, “Egypt has the Nile, while we have the oil and the land” and “Egypt has the workforce, and both countries need and complement each other.” But the mass protest failed, and instead Gaddafi shouted later the Egyptians to the "people's revolution" against Anwar as-Sadat , after he had stopped the "March to Cairo" east of Marsa Matruh . Gaddafi had previously announced that he would resign so as not to be an obstacle to the union with Egypt. In this case, however, he planned to take over the supreme command of the Egyptian armed forces.
On October 6, 1973, the Yom Kippur War , the fourth Middle East War , broke out. Libya supported Egypt with the dispatch of Mirage II and Mirage 5 fighter jets , which were flown by Egyptian pilots contrary to an arms control agreement with France. Obviously, the planes did not come into combat. In October 1973, Gaddafi declared the entire Gulf of Sidra (Great Syrte) to be the sovereign waters of the Arab Republic of Libya, as well as the airspace of 100 nautical miles off the coast.
In July 1977 the Libyan-Egyptian border war broke out . On March 26, 1979 was Washington a peace with Israel have been closed. However, this equalization led to the isolation of Egypt in the Islamic world; so the expulsion from the Arab League took place .
"State of the masses" (Jamahiriya), "revolutionary leader" Gaddafi
With the “proclamation of popular rule” on March 2, 1977, Libya was transformed into a state with direct popular rule and henceforth called itself Socialist Libyan-Arab People's Jamahiriya . The Koran was declared the legal basis, 1200 people's committees took over the administration of all political, social and many economic matters.
In March 1979, Muammar al-Gaddafi resigned from all state offices, but remained a leader of the revolution - a designation without powers - and was able to rely on loyal sections of the population. A “General People's Conference” that emerged from the People's Committees formed the legislature . In the first Gulf War Libya supported from 1985 to Iran against Iraq .
Chad War (1980–1987 / 94), terrorist attacks, embargo (until 1999/2003)
In Chad, Libyan soldiers advanced to the north during the civil war in 1980. After consolidating their influence, they withdrew seven years later. In 1989 the two countries signed a peace treaty. Following a ruling by the International Court of Justice in The Hague , Libya vacated the disputed Aouzou strip in Chad in 1994 .
In the 1980s and 1990s, Libya supported terrorist organizations and in particular their attacks against the United States and Israel. After a series of attacks, including on the West Berlin discotheque “La Belle” , the USA imposed an economic embargo on the North African country in 1986 and carried out air raids on Tripoli and Benghazi ( Operation El Dorado Canyon ). Because of its support for terrorism and involvement in the Lockerbie attack in 1988, under pressure from the USA, the United Nations Security Council decided in 1992 to embargo the " rogue state " of Libya. In late 1993, a military revolt in Tripoli was put down.
The UN sanctions were suspended again in 1999 after Gaddafi relented on the terrorism issue and two suspects in the Lockerbie attack were transferred to an international court in the Netherlands. In the Second Gulf War , Libya sided with Iraq. After Libya admitted the Lockerbie attack and paid compensation for the relatives of the latter and the 170 victims of the bomb attack on a French airliner in September 1989 ( UTA flight 772 ), the embargo measures were completely lifted in September 2003.
In all of the bomb attacks that Libya was accused of, there were also doubts about the Libyan perpetrators. In the case of the La Belle discotheque, the results of the investigation indicated Syrian involvement , as the West Berlin police and the State Department announced in 1988. In the Lockerbie and UTA flight 772 cases, there are also indications that Syria, Iran or the Palestinian PFLP-GC were responsible . Libya was then charged because the USA, Great Britain and France shied away from a confrontation with these two states before the Second Gulf War
Try to break the isolation, privatization
Libya tried to gain trust among western states by mediating with Islamic terrorists in the Philippines in August 2000 , which led to the release of western hostages. After the terrorist attacks on the New York World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, Gaddafi condemned the acts of violence and expressly accepted a US right to self-defense. In December 2003 he declared Libya to renounce weapons of mass destruction and in early 2004 had numerous components for chemical weapons destroyed.
Despite temporary political rapprochement, Libya never signed a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union; Gaddafi only announced this in 1981.
In 2000, at the suggestion of Gaddafi, parliament largely dissolved the country's central administration and passed legislation and governance to regional parliaments and committees. However, the domestic human rights situation did not change despite the opening up of foreign policy. Freedom of the press and freedom of expression did not exist, all media continued to be dominated by Gaddafi's personality cult . There were numerous arbitrary arrests, enforced disappearances , torture and arbitrary executions, particularly in the 1970s to 1990s . The victims came from all political and social groups. The domestic intelligence service ISA, which was responsible for the persecution of political opponents, had two prisons of its own in Abu Salim and Ain Zara . In 1996, up to 1,200 prisoners were executed without trial in Abu Salim prison, presumably after prisoners revolted against the conditions. Only in 2004 did Gaddafi admit this to Amnesty International. Oppositionists were also persecuted and murdered abroad. In September 2000 there were pogroms by the Libyan unemployed against African guest workers, for which 331 alleged perpetrators were charged in January 2001.
After the end of the economic sanctions in 2003/2004, Libya pursued a privatization policy . It was part of a forced integration into the world market. The government planned to privatize half of all state-owned companies by 2020. To this end, a stock exchange was founded in 2006 . The leeway for expressing opinions and criticism increased somewhat in the last few years before the beginning of the civil war, but criticism of Gaddafi or the Third Universal Theory remained forbidden. In the case of theft and adultery, the courts sometimes ordered hadd punishments such as B. flogging. The consequence of the privatization policy was a massive rise in unemployment to over 20%. This development, together with the expansion of education, urbanization and the high proportion of young people in the population, were cited as decisive causes for the outbreak of the civil war in 2011 .
Civil war and fall of Gaddafi in 2011
The first rallies took place in mid-January 2011. At the end of January, the prominent Libyan writer and opposition activist Jamal al-Hajji called for protests against the regime and was arrested a little later. The opposition around Abdul Hakim Ghoga proclaimed a day of anger for February 17 ; There were demonstrations in all the major Libyan cities, which the security forces tried to smother by force. Now there was a split in the country's political leadership, analogous to the regime changes in Egypt and Tunisia in the wake of the “ Arab Spring ”.
In Benghazi, armed opposition members took control on February 20, and parts of the diplomatic corps and the armed forces joined them. However, the regime used heavy weapons against the opposition, so that it came to military intervention by NATO and a number of Arab states to enforce the no-fly zone established by UN Resolution 1973 . The militias united in the Libyan National Liberation Army succeeded in defeating the units of the regular armed forces of Libya , as the air force was destroyed .
According to the new Libyan government, around 10,000 people were killed during the civil war in Libya, around 5,000 each of Gaddafi supporters and rebels. The Ministry of Health assumed 30,000 deaths on the part of the rebels alone. Around 60,000 Libyans were injured and require medical treatment. The civil war ended with the violent death of Gaddafi on October 20, 2011. The fortunes of the Gaddafi family were estimated at 80 to 150 billion US dollars at the time of their rule. On the other hand, the preference for other tribes and the associated unequal distribution of oil wealth led to dissatisfaction in Cyrenaica, which manifested itself in violent conflicts. Since the 1990s there have been distribution struggles and coup attempts. The extremist organization Libyan Islamic Combat Group carried out an armed uprising in the east of the country from June 1995. According to a former agent of the British secret service, the British MI6 is said to have supported the group in the attempted assassination on Gaddafi in 1996. According to media reports, members of this group joined the armed struggle against Gaddafi's government. NATO General James Stavridis stated in a hearing in the US Senate that, according to intelligence information available, militant groups did not play a significant role in the uprising. US Chief of Staff Mike Mullen also stated that he did not see any Al-Qaeda presence among the insurgents.
After six months of civil war, most of the country, with the exception of Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte , Bani Walid and Fessan, was in the hands of the rebels, who, with their institutions National Transitional Council and Executive Council, were internationally regarded as the only legitimate representative of the Libyan people. The regions of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania in particular were controlled by troops of the National Transitional Council. On March 5, he formed an executive council that took over government duties; and chaired by Mahmoud Jibril held.
On July 26, 2011, the special envoy of the United Nations, Abdul Ilah al-Khatib , proposed a presidential council to the conflicting parties in order to come to a ceasefire. This should have been filled with two representatives from the east and two from the west of the divided country. The holder of the fifth seat should have been chosen by the four others. However, Khatib's proposal was rejected by the National Transitional Council.
After the military leader Abdel Fattah Yunis and former interior minister under Gaddafi were shot from within their own ranks on July 28, the president of the National Transitional Council, Mustafa Abdul Jalil , dissolved the executive council in early August 2011.
On August 20, 2011, a long-prepared uprising began in Tripoli under the code name "Operation Mermaid Dawn"; at the same time, rebel troops advanced from the Nafusa Mountains towards Tripoli. On August 21, they entered Tripoli. On August 29th, Ghadames on the Tunisian border was captured, on September 22nd, the desert city of Sabha, on October 17th, Bani Walid, and the last city on October 20th, after weeks of fighting, Gaddafi's native city of Sirte. Gaddafi was caught and killed on October 20 near the city he was born in, which he had declared the new capital after the National Transitional Council had captured Tripoli. More than 6,000 people had been arrested by the end of January 2012.
In 2011, the Tubu fought on the side of the rebels against Gaddafi's troops and the mercenaries he had brought into the country from neighboring countries in the south. In addition to smugglers of weapons, drugs and refugees, Al-Qaida supporters were the main opponents. In February 2012, fighting broke out in Kufra between Tubu and the Arab Suwaja . The consequences of the civil war for northern Africa cannot be overlooked.
In August 2011, elections to a constituent assembly were announced and would take place in June 2012. At the beginning of March 2012, tribal leaders and militias declared the Barqa or Kyrenaika region to be semi-autonomous against the opposition of the central government. In addition to restoring the original Greater Province, they claimed parts of the Fezzan oil region. Benghazi is said to become the country's economic metropolis in the future, which would weaken the concentration on the Tripoli metropolitan region. The finance and oil ministries are to be moved there.
Fighting broke out between revolutionary brigades from different parts of the country, against which the government did not intervene, such as at the beginning of February 2012 in Tripoli between brigades from Misrata in the east and Sintan in the west of the country. The reason is disputes about areas of influence. Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens and three other US citizens were killed in a terrorist attack on the US consulate in Benghazi on September 11, 2012 . Stevens was a member of the Chinook and had been the US ambassador since May 2012. The "Yemeni al-Qaeda branch" describes the attack on the consulate as an act of revenge for the killing of Abu Yahya al-Libi , who died on June 4, 2012 in Pakistan.
Since the end of the civil war
On October 23, the Transitional Council declared Libya liberated. At the beginning of November, representatives of the brigades announced that they would keep their weapons until there was a new, legitimate government that emerged from elections.
On October 31, 2011, Abdel Rahim el-Kib was elected the new head of the transitional government and thus Prime Minister of Libya with 26 out of 51 votes. On November 22, 2011, el-Kib presented a new provisional government designed to reconcile regional and ideological interests. Key positions in this cabinet went to former rebel commanders. For example, the militia leader from Az-Zintan Usama al-Juwaili became the new defense minister and Fausi Abdelali, the leader of the Revolutionary Brigade in Misrata, became interior minister. This government reshuffle was seen as a setback for the secular liberals and a success for the Islamists.
On January 21, 2012, demonstrators stormed and ransacked the headquarters of the Transitional Council in Benghazi. In the preceding weeks, there had been sustained protests and allegations of a lack of transparency and criticism of the continued employment of members of the overthrown Libyan leadership under Gaddafi in the provisional government. Abdul Hafiz Ghoga announced his resignation. Mustafa Abdul Jalil, Justice Minister under Gaddafi, who had also been attacked, declared that he himself would not resign because otherwise a new civil war would threaten. The protests in Benghazi sparked after a draft electoral law for the constituent assembly was published on the Internet.
On January 29, 2012, the electoral law for a constituent assembly was passed in Tripoli. The elections were announced for June 2012. A president should then be elected within a year.
On February 13, 2012, around a hundred militias from western Libya formed a federation. The aim of the union is to end the fighting between the militias. They also wanted to put pressure on the government to advance further reforms. The merger was seen as a challenge for the National Transitional Council. The next day, several thousand members of these militias held a military parade in Tripoli to demonstrate their strength. A commander of a brigade that joined the federation said the fighters would not hand over their weapons to a corrupt government. They did not fight against Gaddafi, but against a corrupt regime and will not lay down their arms until they are sure that the revolution is going in the right direction. He also criticized the Fighters Integration Committee created by the Transitional Council, accusing it of taking in too many who fought for Gaddafi. This committee is an attempt to hijack the revolution.
By February 18, 2012, around 200,000 revolutionaries had registered with the Warriors Committee established by Defense Minister Usama al-Juwaili . The fact that many members of Gaddafi units were among them caused dissatisfaction - an attempt to reconcile the country. A commander of a militia operating in Tripoli from Misrata spoke out in favor of only accepting fighters against Gaddafi in the new army.
In February 2012 there was fighting between Tubu and Suwaja in Kufra , in which several people died. A spokesman for Suwaja said that fighters from the neighboring countries of Chad and Sudan had been resisted.
On March 6, 2012, the east of Libya unilaterally declared itself autonomous. Sheikh Ahmed Subair al-Senussi, who was appointed leader of the "Autonomous Region of Cyrenaica" at a meeting of tribal representatives from the region in Benghazi, pointed out, however, that the transitional government in Tripoli is "as a symbol of the unity of the country and a legitimate representative in international circles Summit meeting ”. The Transitional Council, however, continues to adhere to the abolition of federalism , which only took place in 1963 .
In the elections on July 7, 2012 , the liberal Alliance of National Forces headed by former Prime Minister Mahmud Jibril won more than twice as many seats as the religious parties. The majority in parliament are unclear (as of July 18, 2012).
In internment camps that were not controlled by the state and operated by militias, suspects were held as supporters of Gaddafi and often tortured. The black population in particular was the target of reprisals by the rebels. According to a report by the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), around 8,000 people were still detained in September 2013, mostly in detention centers without government control. Often the only reason for detention is membership of an ethnic group or a tribe that is assumed to be loyal to Gaddafi without examining the individual case.
Since 2014, two governments have faced each other in a new civil war . After the conquest of Tripoli by the militia alliance Fajr Libya in August 2014, the government and the council of representatives fled to al-Baida and Tobruk in the east. The New General National Congress has been meeting in Tripoli since then .
See also
literature
Overview works
- John Wright: A History of Libya , Columbia University Press 2012.
- Ronald Bruce St John: Historical dictionary of Libya , Scarecrow Press, Lanham, 2006.
- Pierre Pinta: Libye. Des cités antiques aux oasis du Sahara , Editions Olizane, 2007.
Prehistory and early history
- MA Geyh, F. Tiedig: The Middle Pleistocene Al Mahrúqah Formation in the Murzuq Basin, northern Sahara, Libya; evidence for orbitally-forced humid episodes during the last 500,000 years , in: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257 (2008) 1-21.
- Barbara Barich, Elena Garcea: Ecological Patterns in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene in the Jebel Gharbi, Northern Libya: Chronology, Climate and Human Occupation , in: African Archaeological Review 25 (2008) 87-97.
- Barbara E. Barich, Thierry Tillet: Hunters vs. Pastoralists in the Sahara. Material Culture and Symbolic Aspects , Archaeopress, 2005.
- Linda Olmi, Anna Maria Mercuri, M. Thomas P. Gilbert, Stefano Biagetti, Sarah Fordyce, Enrico Cappellini, Isabella Massamba N'siala, Savino di Lernia: Morphological and Genetic Analyzes of Early and Mid Holocene Wild Cereals from the Takarkori Rockshelter (Central Sahara, Libya): First Results and Prospects , in: Ahmed G. Fahmy, Stefanie Kahlheber, A. Catherine D'Andrea (Eds.): Windows on the African Past. Current approaches to African archaeobotany , Africa Magna Verlag, 2011, pp. 175-184.
- Erwin Maria Ruprechtsberger: The guarantors. History and culture of a Libyan people in the Sahara , Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1997.
- E. Bellini, Sophie Arié: Segnalazione di pitture rupestri in località Carcur Dris nel Gebel Auenat (Libia) , in: Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche 17 (1962) 261-267.
- András Zboray: New rock art findings at Jebel Uweinat and the Gilf Kebir , in: Sahara: preistoria e storia del Sahara 14 (2003) 111-127.
- András Zboray: Rock Art of the Libyan Desert , Fliegel Jezerniczky Expeditions, Newbury, 2005. (DVD documentation of the around 500 sites in the area of Gilf Kebir and Jebel Uweinat)
Greco-Roman antiquity, Judaism, Christianity
- François Baratte: The Romans in Tunisia and Libya. North Africa in Roman times . Zabern's illustrated books on archeology, Darmstadt / Mainz 2012, ISBN 978-3-8053-4459-3
- Klaus Zimmermann: Libya. The country south of the Mediterranean in the worldview of the Greeks , Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-44556-X .
- Noel Robertson: Religion and Reconciliation in Greek Cities. The Sacred Laws of Selinus and Cyrene , Oxford University Press 2009.
- Ignazio Tantillo: Un Principalis Alessandrino a Leptis Magna: Aurelius Sempronius Serenus signo Dulcitius , in: Rita Lizzi Testa (ed.): Le trasformazioni delle élites in età tardoantica , Atti del convegno internazionale, Perugia, 15.-16. March 2004, L'erma di Bretschneider, Rome 2006, pp. 405-436.
- Erwin M. Ruprechtsberger : The Roman Limes Zone in Tripolitania and the Cyrenaica, Tunisia - Libya , writings of the Limes Museum Aalen 47th Society for Prehistory and Early History in Württemberg and Hohenzollern, Stuttgart 1993.
- Antonino Di Vita, Ginette di Vita-Evrard, Lidiano Bacchielli, Robert Polidori: Libya. The Lost Cities of the Roman Empire , Koenemann, 1999.
- Shimon Applebaum : Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979.
- Thomas C. Oden: Early Libyan Christianity. Uncovering a North African Tradition , InterVarsity Press 2011.
- André Laronde: Construction des églises et christianisation de la Cyrénaïque , in: Detlev Kreikenbom , Karl-Uwe Mahler, Patrick Schollmeyer , Thomas M. Weber (ed.): Crisis and Cult. The Middle East and North Africa from Aurelian to Justinian , de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, pp. 255–278.
- JB Ward-Perkins, RG Goodchild: Christian Monuments of Cyrenaica , Society for Libyan Studies, London 2003.
- Karl-Uwe Mahler: Christianity in Leptis Magna , in: Detlev Kreikenbom, Karl-Uwe Mahler, Patrick Schollmeyer, Thomas M. Weber (Ed.): Crisis and Cult. The Middle East and North Africa from Aurelian to Justinian , de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, pp. 317–361.
- Detlev Kreikenbom: Churches at Prokop: Leptis Magna in comparison with other cities , in: Detlev Kreikenbom, Karl-Uwe Mahler, Patrick Schollmeyer, Thomas M. Weber (ed.): Crisis and Cult. The Middle East and North Africa from Aurelian to Justinian , de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, pp. 363–378.
Libya as part of the Muslim empires
- Jacques Thiry: Le Sahara Libya dans l'Afrique du Nord médiévale , Peeters, Löwen 1995.
Younger story
- Ali Abdullatif Ahmida: The Making of Modern Libya. State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance , University of New York Press, 2009.
- Isabella Nardi, Sandro Gentili: La grande illusione. Opinione pubblica e mass media al tempo della Guerra di Libia , Morlacchi Editore, Perugia 2009.
- Vittoria Capresi: The Built Utopia. The Italian Rural Centers Founded in Colonial Libya (1934–1940) , Bologna 2009.
- Ercole Tuccimei: La Banca d'Italia in Africa , Laterza, Bari 1999.
- Ali Abdullatif Ahmida: Forgotten Voices: Power and Agency in Colonial and Postcolonial Libya , Routledge, 2005.
History of science
David Mattingly: Farming the Desert: the UNESCO Libyan Valleys Archaeological Survey. Paris 1996 ( abstract ).
Web links
- Libia , entry at treccani, begins with colonial history
- The Palaeohydrology and Palaeoclimate of Lake Megafezzan: A Giant Palaeolake in the Fezzan Basin, Libyan Sahara
- The Cyrenaica prehistory project, Libya , Department of Archeology, University of Cambridge
- Inscriptions of Roman Cyrenaica , King's College London
- Gerd Bedszent: Libya: 42 Years of People's Jamahiriya - An Analysis from a Socio-Economic Perspective
- Site of the Polish Archaeological Mission in Ptolemais
- Libya , worldstatesmen.org
Remarks
- ^ Friedemann Schrenk, Stephanie Müller: Die Neandertaler , CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 42.
- ↑ Carl Zimmer: Where do we come from? The origins of man. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, 2006, p. 90.
- ↑ John G. Fleagle , Zelalem Assefa, Francis H. Brown, and John J. Shea : Paleoanthropology of the Kibish Formation, southern Ethiopia: Introduction. In: Journal of Human Evolution 55.3 (2008) 360-365, doi: 10.1016 / j.jhevol.2008.05.007 .
- ↑ Kathryn Ann Bard, Steven Blake Shubert (eds.): Encyclopedia of the Archeology of Ancient Egypt , Psychology Press, 1999, p. 6.
- ↑ JC Larascaña: A Northeast Saharan Perspective on Environmental Variability in North Africa and its Implications for Modern Human Origins. In: Jean-Jacques Hublin , Shannon P. McPherron (Eds.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective. Springer 2012, pp. 19–34, here: p. 29. ()
- ^ SJ Armitage, NA Drake, S. Stokes, A. El-Hawat, MJ Salem, K. White, P. Turner, SJ McLaren: Multiple phases of North African humidity recorded in lacustrine sediments from the Fazzan Basin, Libyan Sahara , in : Quaternary Geochronology 2,1-4 (2007) 181-186.
- ↑ This section follows EEA Garcea: Modern Human Desert Adaptations: A Libyan Perspective on the Aterian Complex. In: Jean-Jacques Hublin, Shannon P. McPherron (Eds.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective , Springer 2012, p. 126-.
- ↑ Western Uweinat rock art sites .
- ↑ Rock art sites of Jebel Arkenu, Jebel Kissu and Yerguehda Hill .
- ^ Jean-Jacques Hublin, Shannon P. McPherron: Modern Origins. A North African Perspective , Springer 2012, p. 130.
- ↑ Nick A. Drakea, Roger M. Blenchb, Simon J. Armitagec, Charlie S. Bristowd, Kevin H. White: Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert , in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 , 2 (2011) 458-462.
- ^ John Donnelly Fage , Roland Anthony Oliver (Eds.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 266.
- ↑ JD Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (Ed.): The Cambridge History of Africa , Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 262.
- ↑ This section follows EEA Garcea: Modern Human Desert Adaptations: A Libyan Perspective on the Aterian Complex. In: Jean-Jacques Hublin , Shannon P. McPherron (Eds.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective , Springer 2012, p. 126-, here: p. 130.
- ↑ Isabelle Crevecoeur: The Upper Paleolithic Human Remains of Nazlet Khater 2 (Egypt) and Past Modern Human Diversity , in: Modern Origins. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology 2012 (205-219) and L. Bouchneb, Isabelle Crevecoeur: The inner ear of Nazlet Khater 2 (Upper Paleolithic, Egypt) , in: Journal of Human Evolution 56 (2009) 257-262. Overall presentation by Isabelle Crevecoeur: Etude anthropologique du squelette du Paléolithique supérieur de Nazlet Khater 2 (Egypte). Apport à la compréhension de la variabilité passée des hommes modern , Leuven University Press 2009.
- ↑ Haua Fteah Cave
- ^ Aristotle , Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2007, p. 759.
- ^ Steven Mithen: After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000-5000 BC , p. 494.
- ↑ Hugo R. Oliveira, Diane L. Lister, Martin K. Jones: Phylogeography of Cereal Landraces and the Spread of Agriculture in Northwest Africa: Review and Prospects , in: Ahmed G. Fahmy, Stephanie Kahlhub, A. Catherine D'Andrea ( Ed.): Windows on the African Past. Current Approaches to African Archaeobotany - Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on African Archeology held June13-15, 2009, at Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt , Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt 2011, pp. 167-174, here: p. 169.
- ↑ In dating I follow Ian Shaw (ed.): The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt , Oxford 2003.
- ↑ Wilkinson's second zerzura, carlo-bergmann.de.
- ↑ Klaus Peter Kuhlmann: The "water mountain of Djedefre" (Chufu 01/1): A camp site with expedition inscriptions of the 4th dynasty in the area of the Dachla oasis , communications from the German Archaeological Institute, Cairo Department 61 (2005) 243–289 ( online ) .
- ↑ Wolfgang Helck: History of ancient Egypt . Handbuch des Orients I 1/3, Leiden 1981, p. 65.
- ↑ Joseph Clayton, Aloisia de Trafford, Mark Borda: A hieroglyphic inscription found at Jebel Uweinat mentioning Yam and Tekhebet , in: Sahara. Preistoria e storia del Sahara 19 (2008) 129-134.
- ^ KA Kitchen : The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt. 1100-650 BC . 4th ed., Aris & Phillips, Warminster 2009, p. 256 and RK Ritner: Inscriptions from Egypt's Third Intermediate Period , p. 101.
- ^ RK Ritner: Inscriptions from Egypt's Third Intermediate Period. P. 101 ff.
- ^ KA Kitchen: The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt. 1100-650 BC . 4th ed., Aris & Phillips, Warminster 2009, p. 256.
- ↑ Hilmar Klinkott : The Satrap. An Achaimenid officer and his room for maneuver , Verlag Antike, Frankfurt 2005.
- ↑ Herodotus, Historien, 4, 162-165, 167, 200.
- ↑ Joachim Friedrich Quack : Inaros, Held von Athribis , in: Robert Rollinger : Ancient and Mediterranean: The ancient world here and beyond the Levant (Festschrift for Peter W. Haider on his 60th birthday) , Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, p. 499– 506.
- ↑ Herodotus : Histories . German complete edition, translated by A. Horneffer , re-edited and explained by HW Haussig . Alfred Kröner, Stuttgart 1971, p. 672 f. and p. 743; see. Herodotus 3:12 and 7,7.
- ↑ Werner Huss : The enigmatic Pharaoh Chababasch , in: Studi epigraphici e linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico 11 (1994) 97-112.
- ↑ Werner Huss: Egypt in the Hellenistic Period, 332-30 BC. Chr. , Munich 2001, p. 65.
- ↑ Arrian , Anabasis 3, 5, 5.
- ↑ Helmut Kyrieleis: Ptolemaic portraits on seal impressions from Nea Paphos (Cyprus) , in: Marie-Françoise Boussac, Antonio Invernizzi (ed.): Archives et sceaux du monde hellénistique = Archivi e sigilli nel mondo ellenistico , congress volume 1993, Turin 1996, p 315-320.
- ↑ Sitta von Reden: Cultural encounter and economic transformation in the first generations of Ptolemaic rule , in: Gregor Weber (ed.): Alexandreia and Ptolemaic Egypt. Cultural encounters in Hellenistic times , Verlag Antike 2010, pp. 30–54, here: p. 34.
- ^ Peter Green: Alexander to Actium. The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , University of California Press, 1990, p. 13.
- ^ The Fragments of the Greek Historians 239 B 10.
- ↑ Diodorus 18: 21, 7-9.
- ↑ Diodorus 19, 79, 1-3.
- ↑ There are different statements on the degree of independence from Suda delta, 431; Diodorus 20,40,1; Iustin 22,7,4; Orosius 4, 6, 29.
- ^ The State Treaties of Antiquity III, 432.
- ↑ Polyainos , Strategika 5,3,4.
- ↑ Plutarch , Demetrios 14,1; Diodorus 20.40.5.
- ↑ Theophrastus , Natural history of plants 4,3,2.
- ↑ Diodorus 20.40-44.
- ↑ Werner Huss, Geschichte der Karthager , p. 194 suspects that Agathocles had planned this process from the beginning, while Sebastiana Nerina Consolo Langher, Agatocle. Since capoparte a monarca fondatore di un regno tra Cartagine ei Diadochi , Messina 2000, p. 189 rejects this interpretation and Berve, RE XVIII, 1, col. 634 does not want to prefer any of the possibilities.
- ↑ I am following Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 130.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130–200, here: p. 156.
- ↑ Pausanias : Helládos Periégésis I 6.8.
- ^ Peter Green: Alexander to Actium. The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , University of California Press, 1990, p. 148.
- ^ Peter Green: Alexander to Actium. The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , University of California Press, 1990, pp. 429f.
- ^ Peter Green: Alexander to Actium. The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age , University of California Press, 1990, p. 442.
- ↑ Polybios : Historíai 34, 14, 1-7.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 144.
- ^ A. Di Vita: Gli Emporia di Tripolitania dall'etä di Massinissa a Diocleziano: un profilo storico-istituzionale , in: Rise and Decline of the Roman World, Vol. 2, Berlin, New York 1982, pp. 515-595.
- ^ Erwin Maria Ruprechtsberger: The Garamanten. History and culture of a Libyan people in the Sahara , 2nd, revised edition, Mainz 1997, pp. 18–24.
- ^ Tacitus Annales 4, 23, 2.
- ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4, 50, 4; Plin. nat. hist. 5. 38.
- ↑ On the writings in the western Sahara, cf. LBI. Libyco-Berber inscriptions online database ( memento of the original from September 15, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .
- ^ Franz Altheim : Christian Garamanten and Blemyer , in: Ders., Ruth Stiehl (Ed.): Christianity on the Red Sea , Volume 2, Berlin, New York a. a. 1973, pp. 322-332, here: p. 329.
- ^ David J. Mattingly: Farmers and frontiers. Exploiting and defending the countryside of Roman Tripolitania , in: David J. Mattingly, John A. Lloyd (Eds.): Libyan Studies 20 (1989) 139.
- ↑ CIL 08, 10990 .
- ^ Christian Marek: Geschichte Kleinasiens in der Antike , Beck, Munich 2010, p. 487.
- ↑ Pseudo-Skylax Periplus 108.
- ↑ Florus Epitoma de Tito Livio 2,31
- ↑ Scriptores Historiae Augustae Probus 9.1
- ↑ Olwen Brogan, David Smith: The Roman Frontier Settlement at Ghirza: An Interim Report , in: The Journal of Roman Studies 47,1 / 2 (1957) 173-184, here: p. 184.
- ↑ Quaderni di archeologia della Libia, Vol. 1–3, L'Erma di Bretschneider 1950, p. 58. Cassius Dio, Röm. History, 67.4.6.
- ↑ On this border wall cf. Erwin M. Ruprechtsberger : The Roman Limes Zone in Tripolitania and the Cyrenaica. Tunisia Libya. A line of defense like the Limes between the Rhine and the Danube ( Schriften des Limesmuseums Aalen , 47), Stuttgart 1993.
- ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne, p. 150.
- ↑ Gabriele Wesch-Klein : Social aspects of the Roman army in the imperial era , Steiner, Stuttgart 1998, p. 116.
- ↑ The Buildings of Procopius 6.2.14 .
- ↑ See Jan den Boeft, Jan Willem Drijvers, Hans Teitler: Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXVIII , Brill, Leiden 2011, pp. 254-256.
- ↑ Hsain Ilahiane: Historical dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen) , Scarecrow Press, 2006, p XVIII.
- ↑ Dominique Borne, Benoît Falaize: Religions et colonization. Afrique-Asie-Océanie-Amériques XVIe-XXe siècle , Editions de l'Atelier, Paris 2009, p. 129.
- ↑ Codex Theodosianus 5, 18, 1; Elisabeth Herrmann-Otto : The social structure of late antiquity. In: Alexander Demandt, Josef Engemann (ed.): Konstantin der Große. Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus. von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2007, p. 188.
- ↑ Peter Sarris: Empires of Faith. The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011, p. 31.
- ↑ Hans-Georg Beck: The Byzantine Millennium. CH Beck, Munich 1994, p. 47.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: pp. 164f.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 174.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 175.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 192.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, chap. 4: The Jews of Ancient Cyrenaica , pp. 130-200, here: p. 199.
- ↑ Shimon Applebaum: Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica , Brill, Leiden 1979, p. 210.
- ^ English translation: Roman History, LXVIII, 32 .
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- ↑ St. Mark The Apostle, Evangelist Preacher of The Christian Faith in Africa , Coptic Orthodox Church Network.
- ^ Aziz S. Atiya: The Copts and Christian Civilization , Coptic.net.
- ^ Samuel Vollenweider: Neo-Platonic and Christian theology in Synesios of Cyrene , Göttingen 1985, pp. 203-205.
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- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 100-102.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 128–130.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 132.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 135.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues. Kohlhammer-Urban, Stuttgart 2007, p. 159.
- ^ John Beckwith: Early Christian and Byzantine Art , Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut 1993, p. 74.
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws , CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 105-107.
- ^ Franz Dölger, Peter Wirth, Andreas E Muller (eds.): Regest of the imperial documents of the Eastern Roman Empire: Regesten 565 - 867 , CH Beck, Munich 2009, n. 65, p. 24f. of August 11, 582. The bishop is referred to there as "antistes Carthagensium civitatis".
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws , C. H: Beck, Munich 2007, p. 85.
- ^ Procopius: De Aedificis VI, 3.
- ^ Jacques Thiry: Le Sahara libyen dans l'Afrique du Nord médiévale , Peeters, Löwen 1995, p. 23f.
- ^ Jacques Thiry: Le Sahara libyen dans l'Afrique du Nord médiévale , Peeters, Löwen 1995, p. 27.
- ↑ Jacques Thiry: Le Sahara libyen dans l'Afrique du Nord médiévale , Peeters, Löwen 1995, p. 45f.
- ^ Jonah Steinberg: Isma'ili Modern. Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community , University of North Carolina Press 2011, p. 37.
- ^ E. Barnavi: Universalgeschichte der Juden , DTV, Munich 2004, p. 81.
- ^ E. Barnavi: Universalgeschichte der Juden , DTV, Munich 2004, p. 83.
- ↑ A. Chouraqui, p. 257.
- ↑ Moshe Gil , David Strassler: Jews in Islamic Countries in the Middle Ages , Brill, Leiden 2004, p. 550 u. 557.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World. CH Beck, Munich 2004, p. 181.
- ↑ Jehan Desanges: Recherches sur l'activité des Méditerranéens aux confins de l'Afrique , Rome 1978, pp. 177-197.
- ^ Dierk Lange: Le Dīwān des sultans du (Kanem-) Bornu. Chronologie et histoire d'un royaume africain (de la fin du Xe siècle jusqu'à 1808) , Franz Steiner, Wiesbaden 1977.
- ↑ Bawuro Barkindo: The Early States of the Central Sudan , in: J. Ajayi, M. Crowder (Eds.): The History of West Africa , Vol. I, 3rd Edition, Harlow 1985, pp. 225-254.
- ↑ See Albrecht Fuess: Burned Shore. Effects of Mamluk maritime policy on Beirut and the Syro-Palestinian coast (1250–1517) , Brill, Leiden 2001.
- ^ Goldstein-Goren International Center of Jewish Thougt, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel .
- ^ A. Chouraqui: Histoire des juifs en Afrique du Nord , Vol. 1, Roucher, Monaco 1998, p. 256.
- ^ A. Chouraqui: Histoire des juifs en Afrique du Nord , Vol. 1, Roucher, Monaco 1998, p. 257. On Burghol cf. Seton Dearden: A Nest of Corsairs. The Fighting Karamanlis of Tripoli , John Murray, London 1976, pp. 128f.
- ^ A. Chouraqui: Histoire des juifs en Afrique du Nord , Vol. 1, Roucher, Monaco 1998, p. 262. His travel report can be found here .
- ^ Ali Abdullatif Ahmida: The Making of Modern Libya. State Formation, Colonization, and Resistance , University of New York Press, 2009, p. 22.
- ↑ The very first bomb fell on Libya , Jean-Claude Gerber, 20 min.ch, May 13, 2011. The pilot was Giulio Gavotti, who sat in an Etrich Taube and dropped three Cipelli type bombs over the Turkish camp of Ain Zara. His report in the form of a letter to his father has survived ( Album dei Pionieri della Aviazione italiana , Rome 1982).
- ↑ Bernd Rill : Kemal Ataturk. With personal testimonials and picture documents , Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-499-50346-8 , p. 32f.
- ↑ Oliver Janz, 14, The Great War , Frankfurt 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39589-0 , p. 54.
- ^ Hans Werner Neulen: Feldgrau in Jerusalem. 2nd Edition. Munich: Universitas, 2002, p. 100 ff.
- ^ Fritz Edlinger (Ed.) Libya. Backgrounds, analyzes, reports . Vienna 2011, ISBN 978-3-85371-330-3 , p. 14
- ^ Antonella Randazzo: L'Africa del Duce. I crimini fascisti in Africa . Arterigere, Varese 2008, pp. 237f.
- ↑ Vittorio Santoianni: Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943 La "nuova architettura» delle Terre d'Oltremare , Diss, Naples 2008, page 49..
- ↑ Vittorio Santoianni: Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943 La "nuova architettura» delle Terre d'Oltremare , Diss, Naples 2008, p. 50.
- ↑ Vittorio Santoianni: Il Razionalismo nelle colonie italiane 1928-1943 La "nuova architettura» delle Terre d'Oltremare , Diss, Naples 2008, pp 50-52..
- ^ Haim Ze'ev Hirschberg: A History of the Jews in North Africa , Vol. 2: From the Ottoman conquests to the , Brill, Leiden 1981, p. 185.
- ^ Charles T. O'Reilly: Forgotten Battles. Italy's War of Liberation, 1943-1945 , Lexington, Lanham 2001, pp. 184f.
- ^ Haim Ze'ev Hirschberg: A History of the Jews in North Africa , Vol. 2: From the Ottoman conquests to the , Brill, Leiden 1981, pp. 185-187.
- ↑ Awni S. Al-Ani: Libyen, Daughter of the UN , in: Fritz Edlinger (Ed.), Libyen, Vienna 2011, ISBN 978-3-85371-330-3 , p. 104
- ↑ Michael Herb: All in the Family. Absolutism, Revolution, and Democracy in Middle Eastern Monarchies , 1999, pp. 189-195.
- ↑ a b c Eugene Rogan : The Arabs . German edition, Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-549-07425-1 , pp. 494–498
- ↑ John Oakes, "Are Jihadists Informed by the Quran or Grand Theft Auto?" , Berenice Stories, August 28, 2014
- ↑ M. Roumani: The Final Exodus of the Libyan Jews in 1967 ( Memento of the original from June 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , in: Jewish Political Studies Review 19.3–4 (2007), section Beginning of the End ((PDF; 241 kB)).
- ↑ M. Roumani: The Final Exodus of the Libyan Jews in 1967 ( Memento of the original from June 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , in: Jewish Political Studies Review 19.3–4 (2007), section 1969: Qadhafi's Coup (PDF; 241 kB).
- ↑ R. Luzon: In Libya now. ( Memento of the original from December 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , in: Jewish Renaissance (April 2005) p. 21.
- ^ Libyan Jew returns home after 44-year exile , Reuters, October 1, 2011.
- ^ Fritz Edlinger: A Strange Affair: Muammar al-Gaddafi and the European Left, Greens and Right , in: ders. (Ed.), Libyen , Vienna 2011, ISBN 978-3-85371-330-3 , p. 126
- ^ Albert Hourani : The history of the Arab peoples , Frankfurt 2001, ISBN 978-3-596-15085-4 , p. 514
- ^ Accident report B-727-200 5A-DAH , Aviation Safety Network (English), accessed on February 16, 2019.
- ↑ Andreas Vrabl: "Libya: A Third World - Revolution in Transition" , Master's thesis, Vienna 2008, p. 26
- ^ German Is Seized In Disco Bombing , New York Times, January 12, 1988
- ↑ Bomb Suspect Hero; Syria Tie Probed , Los Angeles Times, Jan. 12, 1988
- ^ New Lockerbie report says Libyan was framed to conceal the real bombers , The Independent, March 11, 2014
- ↑ Les preuves trafiquées du terrorisme libya , Pierre Péan, Le Monde Diplomatique, March 2001 (fr.)
- ↑ Lockerbie bombing 'was work of Iran, not Libya' says former spy , The Telegraph, March 10, 2014
- ↑ Andreas Vrabl: "Libya: A Third World - Revolution in Transition" , thesis, Vienna 2008, p 55
- ↑ a b 'Libya of tomorrow': What hope for human rights, Amnesty International, June 23, 2010, pp. 9-11, 17-19, 21-22, 63, 68, engl., Pdf
- ↑ Facilitating privatization: Libya founds an exchange
- ↑ Libyan writer detained following protest call. Amnesty International , February 8, 2011, archived from the original February 8, 2011 ; Retrieved on February 20, 2011 .
- ↑ Deadly 'day of rage' in Libya. Al Jazeera , February 18, 2011, accessed February 20, 2011 .
- ↑ Thomas Pany: Libyan government corrects the number of rebels killed downwards. January 9, 2013, accessed January 9, 2013 .
- ↑ Reinhard Mutz in taz , October 2011 ( online )
- ↑ Libya pledges to treat victims of war news portal magharebia.com on February 14, 2012.
- ^ Background - The assets of Gaddafi GmbH. Zeit online, February 27, 2011, accessed February 27, 2011 .
- ↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, February 23, 2011, p. 3.
- ↑ Gaddafi's Libya reminds US who issued the first bin Laden arrest warrant
- ^ Libyan rebel commander admits his fighters have al-Qaeda links
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- ↑ Libya: Stalemate looms, warns Admiral Mike Mullen , BBC, accessed June 17, 2011.
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- ↑ Rebels dissolve government. Retrieved August 15, 2011 .
- ^ Libya crisis: Col Gaddafi vows to fight a 'long war'. BBC News, September 1, 2011, accessed September 4, 2011 .
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- ↑ Mirco Keilberth: The South of Libya: Limitless Freedom , in: taz.de , January 9, 2013.
- ↑ Denis M. Tull, Wolfram Lacher: The consequences of the Libya conflict for Africa. Rifts between the AU and the West, Destabilization of the Sahel Zone , Science and Politics Foundation , Berlin, March 2012 (PDF, 29 p., 438 kB).
- ↑ Fragile stabilization and democratization process in the pages of the Federal Foreign Office .
- ↑ "Killed US ambassador was Chinook Indian", in: "Coyote - Indianische Gegenwart", magazine of the "Action Group Indians and Human Rights eV", Munich, 95 (autumn 2012) 9.
- ^ Protests against the innocence of Muslims : Chronology of events ( Memento from September 19, 2012 in the Internet Archive ), tagesschau.de , September 18, 2012.
- ↑ In Libya, Fighting May Outlast the Revolution - New York Times article , November 1, 2011
- ^ Libya's NTC unveils new government line-up Reuters on November 22, 2012.
- ↑ Ex-rebels receive key areas in the Tagesschau on November 23, 2011.
- ↑ Libya: Transitional government of the unknown is in the Swiss Tagesschau on November 22, 2011.
- ↑ Local commander made Libya defense minister: NTC source ( Memento from July 18, 2012 in the web archive archive.today ) in Asharq al-Awsat on November 22, 2011.
- ↑ Transitional Council in Libya: If the committee resigns, there is a risk of civil war in the focus of January 23, 2012.
- ^ Liam Stack: Libya Protests Spur Shake-Up in Interim Government in the New York Times on January 22, 2012.
- ↑ Imed Lamloum: Libya's NTC Adopts election law, drops women quota AFP January 29, 2012 Design.
- ↑ Libya: Western Unite Militias, Posing Challenge to Transitional Government in the New York Times on February 14 2012th
- ↑ Libyan militias parade through Tripoli boston.com, February 14 2012th
- ↑ Western Libya militias form federation, NTC challenge in Hürriyet Daily News on February 15 2012th
- ^ Libya 1 year later: militias rule AP article on CBS News on February 17, 2012.
- ^ Libyan embassy stashed weapons in Athens in Die Presse on February 21, 2012.
- ↑ Kyreinaika: Oil-rich region in Libya declares itself to be autonomous in the world on March 6, 2012.
- ↑ spiegel.de July 8, 2012: Libyans celebrate first free election in 60 years
- ↑ spiegel.de July 18, 2012: Liberal Alliance wins elections in Libya
- ↑ Leaked UN report reveals torture, lynchings and abuse in post-Gaddafi Libya; The Independent, November 24, 2011
- ↑ Detention abuses staining the new Libya, Amnesty International, October 13, 2011, p. 17, engl., Pdf
- ↑ UNSMIL, Torture and deaths in detention in Libya, October 2013 ( Memento of the original from December 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
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