Saladin

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Copper dirham with the ideal image of a ruler representing Saladin, enthroned with a globe in his left hand; Embossed (according to the reverse) H. 586 (1190/1191).
The surrounding inscription reads: Arabic الملك الناصر صلاح الدنيا والدين يوسف بن ايوب, DMG al-Malik an-Nāṣir Ṣalāḥ ad-Dunyā wa-d-Dīn Yūsuf b. Aiyūb  'the victorious ruler, salvation of the world and religion, Yusuf, son of Ayyub'.

Saladin ( Arabic صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيّوب الدوينيّ Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ad-Dawīnī , DMG Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf b. Aiyūb ad-Dawīnī  'Hail of religion, Yusuf, son of Ayyub from Dwin ' with the title al-Malik an-Nasir  /الملك الناصر / al-Malik an-Nāṣir  / 'the victorious ruler'; born  1137 / 1138 in Tikrit ; died March 3 or March 4, 1193 in Damascus ) was the first sultan of Egypt from 1171 and sultan of Syria from 1174 . As a leader of Kurdish origin, he founded the Ayyubid dynasty .

Under the name "Sultan Saladin" he became a myth of the Muslim world and an exemplary Islamic ruler. He conquered Jerusalem in 1187 ; as a successful opponent of the crusaders he was often glorified and romanticized. In modern historiography, however, it is assumed that he also used his role as a defender of Islam to legitimize his political goals.

Live and act

Origin and first administrative and military tasks

Saladin's sphere of life and activity in 1154 on a world map compiled from individual maps of al-Idrisis . The map is south-oriented. The transcription of the geographical locations comes from Konrad Miller . Tikrit, Baalbek, Damascus, Aleppo and Cairo were also labeled in bold.

Saladin came from a Kurdish family. His father Nadschmuddin Ayyub was born in Dwin in what is now Armenia and was governor of the Seljuks in Tikrit. He later served with his uncle Schirkuh in the army of Zengi and his son Nur ad-Din . Saladin grew up in Baalbek and Damascus, where his father was governor Nur ad-Dins. The members of his family who had come to high positions served as role models for the adolescent: his father Nadschmuddin Ayyub, his uncle Shirkuh, his mother's brother Shihab ad-Din al-Harimi, and his older brother Turan Shah.

Nur ad-Din, Saladin's lord and patron, on a 13th century French miniature.

In 1152, at the age of fourteen, Saladin was accepted into military service by Nur ad-Din in Aleppo and received his own fief . Nur ad-Din, who had succeeded in uniting Aleppo and Damascus in 1154, appointed him in Damascus in 1156 as the successor of Turan Shah as head of an urban police force ( Shiḥna ). Saladin left this service in protest against fraud in the financial administration and returned to military service. Shortly thereafter, Nur ad-Din entrusted him with the post of liaison officer to his commanders. Saladin always stayed by the sultan's side, gaining first-hand insight into the requirements of running a feudal military organization. Only ad-Din's passionate observance of religious rules, on the other hand, does not seem to have influenced him at this point in time, because he did not join the caravans of pilgrims to Mecca led by his father in 1157 and by Schirkuh in 1160 and 1161 .

In 1163, Nur ad-Din ordered Saladin to accompany his uncle Shirkuh on a military campaign in Egypt. The aim was to enforce Shawar as a vizier in Egypt. But he allied himself in 1164 with King Amalrich I of Jerusalem against Shirkuh, and Shirkuh was forced to withdraw from Egypt. In this operation, Saladin was the first to independently command. He was able to take the fortified city of Bilbais and hold it for three months. After his return to Damascus, Nur ad-Din gave him the post of Shiḥna for the second time . His little zeal in this office earned him the criticism of the chief judge Kamal ad-Din ibn al-Sharazuri, which did not damage his reputation with Nur ad-Din. Saladin also accompanied Schirkuh on further expeditions to Egypt in January 1167 and December 1168 at his express request. In January 1169, Saladin arrested Shawar, who was killed on the orders of the caliph al-ʿĀdid . Vizier now became Saladin's uncle Schirkuh.

Rule over Egypt and Syria

Cairo in the 12th century, map from Stanley Lane-Pooles The Story of Cairo with citadel (Saladin's Citadelle) and city wall (Saladin's Wall)

In March 1169, after Shirkuh's death, Saladin received supreme command over Egypt, initially as vizier of the last Fatimid caliph al-ʿĀdid. After his death in 1171 Saladin ruled alone as Sultan of Egypt. He restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt. For example, he founded theological and legal colleges, removed the chief judge and installed a Sunni legal scholar instead. He based trade and taxation on Sunni Islamic law and he also drew personal consequences by giving up drinking wine and other amusements as a vizier and leading a rather needless life. He had Cairo's citadel and city wall expanded, a strategic and ideological symbol of the Sunni-oriented power of the Ayyubids over Egypt. In 1174 he fell out with Nur ad-Din. After his death, Saladin seized control of Syria - except for Aleppo - against his underage heirs, who were initially recognized by him . Between the end of 1174 and the middle of 1176 he led several successful campaigns against his Islamic neighbors, so he took Hama in December 1174 , Homs and Baalbek in March 1175 and defeated the Zangids in April 1175 at the horns of Hama and in April 1176 in Tall as -Sultan . In May and June 1176 he took Buzāʾa and Aʿzāz . In the field camp at Aʿzāz, a second, again unsuccessful attempt by Fidāʾiyyīn of the assassins to murder him had failed. Shortly afterwards, in August 1176, Saladin besieged the Assassin fortress Masyaf without being able to take it. In early September 1176 he married Ismataddīn Khātūn, the widow of Nur ad-Din. In doing so, he emphasized his legitimacy as the successor of Nur ad-Din. Damascus was now Saladin's favorite place to stay. The economically strong Egypt, on the other hand, remained the unloved but rich financier of Saladin's constant wars. Saladin wrote to al-Qadi al-Fadil that for him Egypt was nothing more than a whore who had failed in an attempt to separate him from his faithful wife Syria.

Extension of the rulership, victory at Hattin and conquest of Jerusalem

The Battle of Hattin: Saladin snatches the Holy Cross from the fleeing King Guido, which has since disappeared. Depiction from the Chronica maiora by Matthew Paris , around 1250.

With the annexation of Aleppo in 1183 and - after a serious illness - also of Mosul in 1186, Saladin had the power to attack the Kingdom of Jerusalem and to achieve its greatest propagandistic goal, the recapture of its capital and, moreover, the restoration of the great Islamic empire under his leadership. A prerequisite for this was the decisive victory over the Crusaders under Guido von Lusignan in the battle of Hattin on July 4, 1187. In evaluating this battle and its consequences, Saladin's conquest of the Holy Cross carried by the Christians played an important role. The Arab historian Ibn-al-Aṯīr justified Saladin's holy war ( jihad ) against the crusaders, who are referred to as infidels, among other things with their idolatry through the veneration of the Holy Cross. Saladin conquered Jerusalem on October 2, 1187 , putting an end to Christian rule over the city for the time being after 88 years. There he had many Christian churches converted into mosques. All inscriptions reminiscent of Christians were removed. The Church of St. Anne became a Shafiite madrasa , the house of the Patriarch a Sufi monastery. The Church of the Holy Sepulcher, however, remained untouched. In the al-Aqsa mosque he had Nur ad-Dins set up the minbar intended for this mosque . The role Saladin saw himself in is shown by the new inscription on the minbar, in which he called himself a “ friend of God ”, which in Islam is actually reserved for saints.

Last military successes, defeats to Richard the Lionheart and armistice

Legendary fight between Richard the Lionheart (left) and Saladin (right) in front of Jaffa. Representation from the Luttrell Psalter (1325–1335). In reality, the two warlords did not meet in person.

By 1189 he conquered large parts of the Crusader states Jerusalem, Tripoli and Antioch . Only the Third Crusade was able to prevent him from completely destroying the Crusader states. During this he lost the important port city of Acre in 1191 and suffered defeats against Richard the Lionheart at Arsūf and in 1192 at Jaffa . In 1192 there was an armistice between him and his opponent, which lasted three years and eight months. In the accompanying contract, Saladin guaranteed access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims. In addition, he subsequently allowed two Latin priests to serve in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Saladin himself went to Jerusalem on September 11, 1192. There he rewarded loyal followers who had always remained loyal even in critical situations during the war years. So he appointed Baha ad-Din as professor at the Shafiite college , which he had revived. Saladin's wish to carry out the Hajj , the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca , at the turn of the year 1192/1193 , did not come true. Probably disputes with the caliph in Baghdad and problems in his domain prevented him from doing so. Both Saladin's private secretary and minister al-Qadi al-Fadil and Baha ad-Din had advised against it.

Death, honor grave and succession

Saladin returned to Damascus in November 1192, where he was joined by his son al-Afdil. During Saladin's fatal illness in February 1193, he took over more and more administrative tasks from his father. Saladin died on March 3 or 4, 1193, at the age of 55 in Damascus. Maimonides , his personal physician, was not present at the time. He did not find his final resting place until December 1195 in a mausoleum built especially for him near the Damascus Umayyad Mosque . According to Saladin's will, his three eldest sons Damascus, Cairo and Aleppo, Saladin's brother al-Adil received the rest. Saladin's empire soon threatened to collapse, as 17 sons, 35 nephews, his daughter's husband and some of his brothers fought over the inheritance. Around 1200 al-Adil succeeded in gaining sole rule and securing it until his death in 1218. His sons also fought for succession, and the Ayyubid Empire only lasted about three more decades.

Saladin's mausoleum

Saladin's mausoleum is located in Damascus

The dome building in the historic city center of Damascus was donated by Saladin's son al-Malik al-Aziz Utman . It contains two sarcophagi , one wooden and one marble. The wooden one with inlaid geometrical patterns and inscriptions is considered the original. The one on the left, made of marble, is a sarcophagus that was renovated by order of Kaiser Wilhelm II and donated by the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1878. Wilhelm II also initiated and financed a restoration of the entire burial chamber and donated a silver lamp with his monogram and the Saladins, which was hung over the new sarcophagus, as well as a gilded laurel wreath with his monogram and Arabic that has been kept in London's Imperial War Museum since 1918 described panels and ribbons.

progeny

Saladin was married to Ismataddīn Khātūn, but had no children together. His 24 children, six of whom died very young, were from concubines. As the Arab chronicler Abu l-Fida reports, Saladin left 17 sons and one daughter when he died. His daughter married his nephew al-Malik al-Kamil .

Saladin took great care that his sons were raised in the right faith. Between the campaigns he took care of it himself, when he was on the road, tutors took over the task, and Saladin was kept up to date by couriers. When circumstances permitted, he traveled with parts of his large family, for example in 1177 with his still very young sons al-Afdal and al-Aziz to Alexandria - most likely together with their mothers. The sons were trained in the handling of weapons at an early stage and were taken on military campaigns as observers. You should get used to war at the age of eleven or twelve. Al-Afdal already took part in the Battle of Hattin as an active fighter, al-Aziz was there in the conquest of Jerusalem, and al-Zahir Ghazi played an important role on campaigns against the Crusaders in northern Syria at the age of fifteen. Instructions given by Saladin in October 1192 show some maxims for the upbringing of his sons: to always fear and honor God, to avoid bloodshed, and rather to negotiate and convince oneself to concern oneself with the welfare of the subjects as well as the military and the Treat the civil elite well in order to secure their support.

His sons, grandchildren and great-grandchildren include:

Saladin as a legendary figure

Example of the reception of Saladin in Christian Europe: Saladin in a knightly representation from a central European manuscript of the 15th century
Saladin on a woodcut by Tobias Stimmer from 1577. In the caption, Saladin is described as experienced in the war and ingenious. "[T] he five-pointed hat five-kingdom does mean." According to William of Tripoli , these are Egypt, Jerusalem, Syria, Aleppo and Arabia.

Facts and legends as well as their intermingling and interpretation shaped the image of Saladin in the Christian West and in the Islamic Orient.

Generosity and generosity

Christians and Muslims praised Saladin's generosity in financial matters, especially his generosity. Muslims therefore equate him with the Mahdi identified as Jesus , who leads Muslims to true Islam and is characterized by the greatest generosity. The Islamic historian Baha ad-Din said that Saladin's generosity was so widely known that it need not be mentioned separately. Suffice it to say that the ruler of so many countries had only 47 silver drachmas and only one piece of gold when he died. Saladin is said to have declared that a supplicant who came before him would not be compensated for his blushing even if he gave him all the money from his treasure. In fact, Saladin was generous and generous towards his Muslim opponents and allies, but this also earned him criticism from some Muslim contemporaries. An example of the assessment on the Christian side is the opinion of Wilhelm von Tire , the chancellor of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, who was born in Jerusalem around 1130, and who saw Saladin as a haughty and glorious ruler, but still attested him an extraordinary generosity. This quality of Saladin seems to have corresponded to his temperament and the values ​​of his upbringing, but was also used by Saladin with political considerations.

Chivalrous opponent and archetype of the noble pagan

Saladin was never forgotten in the West, and no Islamic ruler of the Middle Ages is better known in Europe. And although he had inflicted serious damage on the Crusader states, he was held in particularly high esteem for centuries. The memory of him was soon transfigured and romanticized. He went down in European historiography as a “chivalrous opponent” and “archetype of the noble heathen”, although after the Battle of Hattin he had the surviving knights (except for the Templar master) executed and the other prisoners sold into slavery. This is said to have lowered the price of slaves so that one could exchange a Christian slave for a pair of sandals.

In return for the surrender of Jerusalem, he is said to have freed those residents who had property for a bounty. 18,000 of those who could not raise this bounty themselves were ransomed for a laboriously collected lump sum. Around 100,000 dinars in total flowed into Saladin's cash register. The roughly 15,000 who were not freed - 7,000 men and 8,000 women and children - were captured by Saladin. When Saladin's brother al-Adil saw the misery of those who had not been freed, he asked the victorious general to give him 1,000 slaves. Saladin complied, and his brother released the slaves he had been given.

Relations with Christian rulers

Saladin's relations with King Richard I, the Lionheart of England and with Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa received particular attention in Europe .

Despite the military opposition, his relationship with Richard the Lionheart was characterized by great mutual respect. When Richard fell ill during the siege of Acre , Saladin is said to have offered him the services of his personal physician and sent him peaches and snow from Mount Hermon to cool drinks. When Richard's horse was shot from under the body in the fight near Jaffa , Saladin had a slave bring him two noble Arab horses so that he could continue fighting appropriately - which caused a sensation among chroniclers because of the unusually chivalrous behavior. Diplomatic contact was maintained during the breaks in the fighting. Envoys took part in festivities, tournaments and hunting trips and gifts were sent: according to legend, Richard gave Richard a white Kurdish falcon, and Saladin received an Andalusian black horse in return.

In order to end the war in the Holy Land and to be able to return to Europe and thus secure his shaky rule in England and France, Richard the Lionheart offered that al-Adil, Saladin's brother, Johanna , Richard's sister and Queen widow of Sicily should get married: She would get the Christian-controlled territories of Palestine, Saladin should enfeoff his brother with the rest of the Holy Land, rule together as a couple from Jerusalem and leave the land open to all Christians and Muslims - almost unimaginable for Muslims and Christians at the time. Even if these suggestions were ultimately not taken too seriously by either side, the suggestion clearly shows the mutual respect.

Something similar has been handed down from Saladin's diplomatic relations with Frederick I Barbarossa , in which he allegedly asked for his daughter's hand on behalf of his son in 1173 with the option that he should then be crowned Christian king. However, this is likely to be a legend that was later spread by Christian troubadours . The Egyptian delegation sent to Aachen for this purpose is said to have stayed at the court of Frederick I for half a year, where they presumably negotiated an alliance against Byzantium. After Saladin's recapture of Jerusalem, Frederick I is said to have asked him in a letter of May 26, 1188 to a knightly duel on November 1, 1189 in the Egyptian plain of Zoan . However, this good faith ( bona fide ) letter, which has been handed down in various forms, and Saladin's reply letter are originally considered English forgeries.

tolerance

Saladin's religious tolerance was part of the image of the “noble pagan”. Contemporary sources describe him as a devout Muslim who observed the tolerance of Jews and Christians based on the Koran. He refused forced conversions. He himself is said to have been convinced that he had received the commission from God to restore the right order in the world. Nevertheless, he did not unconditionally fight the crusaders, but also repeatedly sought armistices in order to be able to wage wars against his Muslim neighbors. This is also an indication that Saladin was not only concerned with the recovery of Jerusalem and the victory over the Crusaders, but also the restoration of the Islamic empire. Hence his tolerance can also be seen as a political means to an end. In contrast to the Catholic Crusaders and their descendants, the Oriental Christians under Saladin had nothing to fear. He recruited them and also Jews to repopulate the conquered Jerusalem and granted them the rights they are entitled to as respected book owners .

As a pioneer of the Sunnah, he refrained from persecuting the Shiites of his empire, who were seen as heretics, and instead opposed a Sunni educational offensive. He was also approachable to Sufis , the Islamic mystics , and endowed them with foundations, but did not prevent the execution of the great mystic Suhrawardi, who was accused of heresy .

Saladin as the new Yusuf

The story of Joseph, the youngest son of the Old Testament Jacob, was popular during Saladin's lifetime, especially since Joseph also appears in the Koran as Yusuf. There he is considered a prophet and thus a predecessor of Muhammad. For Saladin's Muslim contemporaries it made sense to compare and even equate the Yusuf of the Koran and Saladin, whose real name was Yusuf. Saladin himself also drew these parallels. Legends of the Muslims, Jews and Oriental Christians offered much material for comparisons, culminating in the fact that Saladin was apostrophized orally and in writing as the resurrected Yusuf and as the savior of a new golden age.

Oblivion and rediscovery in the Orient

Unlike in Europe, the figure of Saladin was soon forgotten in the Orient. The piety of Nur ad-Din and the relentless mercilessness of Baibar I remained in the collective memory for a longer time. It was not until the 19th century that Saladin returned to the consciousness of the Islamic world due to the positive assessment in Europe. In particular, the German Emperor Wilhelm II 's trip to the Orient in 1898, at the end of which he visited Saladin's grave in Damascus, aroused the interest of Muslims. In a speech of thanks, Wilhelm II praised Saladin as "one of the most chivalrous rulers of all time" and as a "knight without fear and blame who often had to teach his opponents the right kind of chivalry".

Saladin in European literature (selection)

Already in Saladin's lifetime and shortly thereafter, Saladin was referred to in poems, epics and stories. In the process, his image changed from a cruel opponent to a chivalrous, virtuous ruler and general.

  • In the anonymous crusade song Heu voce flebili cogor enarrare from 1188, which was included in the Carmina Burana , he is portrayed with many negative features as an adversary of the Crusaders during the Battle of Hattin and the conquest of Jerusalem, as well as the devastator of the Holy Land and as barbarus perversus ("corrupt, heretical barbarian"). He is accorded an anti-Christian greatness that also makes the crusaders' deeds appear great.
  • In the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi , an anonymous prose story about Richard the Lionheart's participation in the Third Crusade, written in the 12th century, Saladin is described as an honorable opponent who was even made a Christian knight by Humfried IV of Toron.
  • Walter von der Vogelweide , in his Lionheart warning of 1201 addressed to Philipp von Schwaben, presented both the “milten” Saladin and his adversary and contractual partner, Richard the Lionheart, who was awarded a “giving hant”, as models of generosity.
  • In the old French epic Le Pas Saladin , written around 1300 and dealing with the Third Crusade, Saladin is portrayed as a generous and chivalrous opponent of the Christian crusaders.
  • In the fourth song of Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy , completed in 1321 , Saladin, as a non-baptized man, has his place in limbo : “e solo in parte vidi 'l Saladino” (“and I saw Saladin all by myself”). Dante also emphasized Saladin's generosity.
Illustration from 1403/1404 to Le chevalier errant by Thomas III. de Saluces. Left Saladin with his knights, right of the bridge Richard the Lionheart with his knights.
  • Around 1395, the story of Le Pas Saladin in Thomas III. de Saluces' extensive prose and verse adventure novel Le chevalier errant revisited. The manuscript Ms 12559 of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris from 1403/1404 contains many illustrations, including the meeting of Saladin with the Crusaders.
  • In the middle of the 15th century, Saladin was even described by the papal secretary Flavio Biondo in his Historiarum ab inclinatione Romanorum imperii decades tres as the most capable and most educated ruler of that time.
  • The fictional French prose story Saladin , the last part of a trilogy from the second half of the 15th century, uses content from French, Italian and Spanish reports from the 12th century, in which Saladin's relationship to Christianity, for example his alleged Christian origin and his reflections Christian to be treated. It is also about criticism of the condition of the Christian church. There is a report in Saladin about the sultan's incognito trip to Europe with two Christian knights. Saladin's goal is to get to know Christian culture on the spot in order to be able to decide whether he wants to become a Christian. But the unchristian customs, especially the unbearable treatment of the poor in Paris, make him shy away from it at first. Back in Damascus, he is preparing for a campaign to incorporate France into his territory or to devastate it. Nevertheless, he is always considered to be morally superior to Christians, including at the end of the story when Saladin baptized himself Christian after a debate about the three Abrahamic religions . However, there is no historical basis for any of this.

The positive image of Saladin lasted from the Christian Middle Ages into the 19th century. It stood out clearly from the traditionally gloomy, negative image of Islam. It was not recognized that Saladin's behavior as a “noble heathen” was not only determined by him as a person, but was also a result of the commandments and prohibitions of the Koran. Saladin was considered an exception. It was only when a Latin translation of the Arabic biography of Saladin by Bahā 'ad-Dīn Yusuf ibn Rafi ibn Shaddād was published in 1732 that Arabic sources that were able to correct the previously common, one-sided Saladin image received attention.

  • The first modern biography by François Louis Claude Marin was published in 1758 and translated into German in 1761.
  • Voltaire's Essai sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations from 1756 had a great impact. In it, Voltaire praised Saladin's gentleness at the time of the capture of Jerusalem, which in an earlier work, translated by Lessing, he opposed the bloody cruelty of the Crusaders during their conquest of Jerusalem would have.
From Nathan the Wise : Saladin's question to Nathan, who answers with the ring parable and thus leads Saladin to tolerance.
  • As a pioneer of the Enlightenment concept of tolerance, Lessing's dramatic poem Nathan the Wise , published in 1779, made a lasting impression on educated Europeans.
  • Even Walter Scott recorded in his story The Talisman of 1825 a very sympathetic picture of Saladin, where he barely held on to the historical facts.

The Arabic and Christian sources, which were rich by high medieval standards, made it possible - starting with Stanley Lane-Poole's biography of Saladin from 1898 - to take a more sober approach.

Instrumentalization

The Saladin memorial in front of the Citadel of Damascus was unveiled in 1993 by Hafiz al-Assad on Saladin's 800th year of death

In the Middle East, interest in Saladin only reawakened towards the end of the 19th century. Pan-Islamic and pan-Arab rulers in particular have instrumentalized him for political purposes since then.

The Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II stylized Saladin and himself as reuniting of the Muslim world. He believed that Europe was waging a crusade against the Ottoman Empire. The meeting of Abdul Hamid II and Emperor Wilhelm II and their joint visit to the Saladin mausoleum in Damascus in 1898, with the Emperor Saladin's historical importance boasting himself and Germany as friends of all Muslims, therefore acted like a political signal for the Middle East depicted.

As a result, a new interest in the Crusades arose among Muslims in the 20th century. The founding of the Crusader States was equated with the establishment of the State of Israel , and the leaders and rulers equated with Saladin as the conqueror of Jerusalem and defender of Islam.

The Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser became President of the United Arab Republic after unification with Syria and saw himself as the new Saladin.

The Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad described himself as the "Saladin of the 20th century" and had a Saladin memorial with larger-than-life figures erected in Damascus in 1993. Although he was an Alawite , he identified with the Sunni ruler and had a painting placed over his presidential table depicting Saladin as the victor after the Battle of Hattin.

The Iraqi ruler Saddam Hussein , who, like Saladin, was born in Tikrit, took advantage of this commonality. Since the date of his birth had not been recorded, he decided 1937 to be his official year of birth. It coincided with Saladin's 800th year of birth for propaganda purposes. Saddam Hussein was celebrated as the equal successor of Nebuchadnezzar , Harun al-Rashid and Saladin. Saladin's picture, along with Saddam, graced Iraqi postage stamps and banknotes.

The Iraqi province of Salah ad-Din and the eagle of Saladin as well as the Liwa Ahfad Saladin , a unit of 600 men belonging to the Free Syrian Army , are named after the sultan.

In 2014, the former rector of Al-Azhar University welcomed the Egyptian President Abd al-Fattah as-Sisi as the successor to Saladin, who would conquer Jerusalem.

The pan-Islamic and pan-Arab view of Saladin is not shared by Shiites, as Saladin ousted the Shiite Fatimids in Egypt in favor of the Sunni dynasty he founded, the Ayyubids, and fought what they believed to be true Islam.

Modern Kurdish literature made Saladin a national hero. In return, various governments in Baghdad invoked the symbolic figure Saladin to justify their fight against the Kurdish independence movement.

Saladin in the film (chronological)

Advertising poster for the film An-nasir Salah ad-Din in Tunis
  • In 1922 Bavaria Film AG filmed Lessing's Nathan the Wise (see Nathan the Wise (1922) ). The Austrian actor Fritz Greiner played Saladin, directed by Manfred Noa . The film was rejected by the Munich Film Inspectorate in the year it was made. In Poland and Austria, too, performances were only possible under certain conditions. After the war it was considered missing. In 1996 a complete, well-preserved copy was found in Moscow and colored in the style of the 1920s.
  • The film An-nasir Salah ad-Din (Egypt 1963) shows the reconquest of Jerusalem under Saladin, the beginning of the 3rd Crusade and Saladin's encounter with Richard the Lionheart, which was part of the realm of legends. Directed by the Egyptian Youssef Chahine , who has also received awards in Europe for his cinematic works (e.g. Golden Palm of the 50th Anniversary (Prix du Cinquantième) in Cannes 1997).
  • Saladin's campaign against Jerusalem is depicted in Kingdom of Heaven , a 2005 monumental film directed by Ridley Scott . However, in favor of the drama and to maintain the portrayal of Saladin as a benevolent ruler and Balians of Ibelin as an equally good character, the film ignores historical facts (for example, Balian took part in the Tripoli campaign to fight Saladin; also omitted in the film is that of a ransom for free departure was demanded of every franc within Jerusalem, and all who could not pay were slavery). The role of Saladin was played by the Syrian Ghassan Massoud .
  • In the film Arn - Der Kreuzritter (2007) a Swedish Knight Templar meets Saladin, and a kind of friendship develops between the two later.

literature

swell

  • Bahā 'ad-Dīn Yusuf ibn Rafi ibn Shaddād (439 / 1145–632 / 1235): al-Nawādir al-sulṭāniyya wa' l-maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyya or Sīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn . (Basic biography of a contemporary witness)
  • Imad al-Din al-Isfahani (519 / 1125–597 / 1201): al-Barḳ al-S̲h̲āmī (562/1166 - 589/1193). Autobiographical report on Saladin's wars, only partially preserved as a manuscript, quoted and supplemented by subsequent Islamic historians, e. B. at al-Bundārī, Ibn al-Athir and Abu Shama.
  • Ibn-al-Aṯīr, ʿIzz-ad-Dīn Abu-'l-Ḥasan ʿAlī (1160-1233); Donald S. Richards: The chronicle of Ibn-al Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh / 2. The years 541-589 / 1146-1193: the age of Nur al-Din and Saladin . Transl. by DS Richards. Aldershot [u. a.]: Ashgate, 2007.
  • Ernst P. Goergens (Ed. And transl.): Arabic source contributions to the history of the Crusades / 1. To the history of Salah ad-dins . Reprint of the Berlin 1879 edition, Hildesheim [u. a.]: Olms, 1975.
  • Francesco Gabrieli: The Crusades from an Arab perspective from the Arab. Sources selected and over. by Francesco Gabrieli . 2nd edition Munich: Dt. Taschenbuch-Verl., 1976. (German TV series; 4172: Documents)
  • William of Tire: Chronica (= Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum ). Written between about 1168 and 1184 or 1186, covers the period from 1095 to 1184.

Secondary literature

Overall representations

Individual aspects

  • Heinz Gaube and others: Confrontation of cultures? Saladin and the Crusaders . Zabern, Mainz 2005, ISBN 3-8053-3466-4
  • Johannes Hartmann: The personality of the Sultan Saladin in the judgment of the occidental sources. Reprint of the Berlin 1933 edition, Vaduz: Kraus, 1965.
  • Carole Hillenbrand: The Evolution of the Saladin Legend in the West. In: Mélanges de l'Université Saint-Joseph. Vol. 58 (2005), pp. 497-512 ( online ).
  • Arua Husaini: The narrative representation of Salah ad-Dins (d. 1193) life in Ibn Hallikans (d. 1282) biography collection . EB Verlag, Bonn 2012, ISBN 978-3-86893-079-5
  • Margaret Jubb: The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography . Edwin Mellen Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7734-7686-5
  • Malcolm Cameron Lyons, D. E. P. Jackson: Saladin. The Politics of the Holy War . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1982, ISBN 0-521-31739-8
  • Yaacov Lev: Saladin in Egypt. Leiden et al.: Brill, 1999.
  • Hannes Möhring: Saladin and the Third Crusade . Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1980, ISBN 3-515-02895-1
  • Hannes Möhring: Between Joseph's legend and Mahdi expectation: Sultan Saladin's successes and goals as reflected in contemporary poetry and prophecy. In Yaacov Lev (ed.): War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th – 15th Centuries. Leiden et al: Brill, 1997
  • A. Wieczorek, M. Fansa, H. Meller (eds.): Saladin and the crusaders . Zabern, Mainz 2005, ISBN 3-8053-3513-X

Fiction

Web links

Commons : Saladin  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence and explanations

  1. ↑ On the copper dirham within Saladin's monetary system, on the depiction of rulers and on the dating of the coin, see Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin und die Kreuzfahrer. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory in Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man in Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn Museums in Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 321 f. And Stefan Heidemann: Money connects - coins from the Zangids, Ayyubids and Crusaders . In: Syria in the time of Saladin: Accompanying booklet to the special exhibition “Saladin and the Crusaders” in the State Museum for Nature and Man from March 5th to July 2nd, 2006. Oldenburg: Isensee Verlag 2006. pp. 63-69.
  2. ↑ The translation of Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn (Saladin) as "Heil der Religion" dominates in German literature of the 19th century, in which "Heil des Faith" can also be found. While the Islamic scholars of the 20th and 21st centuries, such as Hannes Möhring, avoid a translation because of the ambiguity of the terms Ṣalāḥ and Dīn , other translations are also common in popular writings and newspaper articles, for example "Honor of the Faith", "Righteousness / Righteousness of Religion" and "Truth of Faith".
  3. ↑ According to Abu l-Fida and other historians such as aḏ-Ḏahabī : Siyar aʿlām an-nubalāʾ , volume 21, pp. 278-279 he was born (according to the Islamic calendar ) in 532 in Tikrit , which corresponds to the year 1137/38.
  4. ↑ a b The undecided question of whether Saladin died on March 3 or 4, 1193, arose from an apparently contradicting statement by the Islamic contemporary witness Bahā 'ad-Dīn Yusuf ibn Rafi ibn Shaddād in: al-Nawādir al-sulṭāniyya wa 'l-maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyya or Sīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn . He writes: "The Sultan died after the hour of morning prayer, on Wednesday, the 27th Safer 589." According to our calculations today, the 27th Safer 589 corresponds to March 4th 1193 and is a Thursday. Wednesday, on the other hand, is Safer 26th, 589 and corresponds to March 3rd, 1193.
  5. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 11 f.
  6. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 48 f, 61 ff and 124.
  7. ^ A b Thomas S. Asbridge: The Crusades . 7th edition. Klett-Cotta, 2016, ISBN 978-3-608-94921-6 , pp. 719 .
  8. ^ A b Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 31.
  9. ↑ Histoire d'Outremer (1232–1261), French translation of Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum by William of Tire. British Library Yates Thompson MS 12, f. 132r.
  10. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 261.
  11. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 31 f.
  12. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 32.
  13. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, pp. 36-38.
  14. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, pp. 33–41.
  15. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, pp. 41–51.
  16. ↑ Hannes Möhring: Muslim reactions: Zangi, Niraddin and Saladin. In: Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 90.
  17. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 267.
  18. ↑ The results of excavations in Cairo since 2000 show that a city wall was also built along the Nile. An inscription found in 2002 names Saladin with many honorary titles as their builder: Al-malik al-nāṣir (الملك الناصر), Ǧāmiʿ kalimat al-īmān (جامع كلمة الإيمان), Qāاāاāمل, wa l-dīn (صلاح الدنيا والدين), Sulṭān al-islām wa l-muslimīn (سلطان الإسلام والمسلمين), Abū al-Muẓaffar Yūsufyيام ). See: Frédéric Imbert: Une nouvelle inscription de Saladin sur la muraille ayyûbide du Caire. In: Annales islamologiques 42, 2008. Dossier: Groupes sociaux et catégorisation sociale dans le Dār as-islām médiéval (VIIe-XVe siècles) . Pp. 409-421.
  19. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. XIV u. P. 394 f.
  20. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, pp. 61–63.
  21. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 45.
  22. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 71.
  23. ↑ During this illness, his beloved Ismataddīn Khātūn died in January 1186. Her death was kept from him until March 1186 out of concern for his mental state, and he wrote her several letters himself from the sickbed. See Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 346.
  24. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 169 f.
  25. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 319.
  26. ↑ Klaus van Eickels: the battle of Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem in 1187. In: Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 102 ff.
  27. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 81.
  28. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 149.
  29. ↑ See the illustration on the floor tiles of Chertsey Abbey (13th century, British Museum, 1885, 1113.9065-9070).
  30. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 104.
  31. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, pp. 225 f.
  32. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 227.
  33. ↑ Abu l-Fida dates his burial on December 15, 1193 (10th Muharram 589).
  34. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 106.
  35. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 106 f.
  36. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 493 f.
  37. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 462.
  38. ↑ Illustration of the laurel wreath and commentary on the Imperial War Museum website .
  39. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 460 u. 463.
  40. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 122.
  41. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 347.
  42. ↑ Abu'l-Fida: Mukhtassartaʾrikh al-Bashar. In: Recueil des historiens des croisades, Historiens Orientaux . Volume 1 (1872), p. 69. Online
  43. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. 348 f.
  44. Jump up ↑ Rulers of Aleppo, Damascus, Hamah, Homs, Khelat (Ayubids) at Foundation for Medieval Genealogy .
  45. ↑ Abu'l-Fida: Mukhtassartaʾrikh al-Bashar. In: Recueil des historiens des croisades | Recueil des historiens des croisades, Historiens Orientaux. Volume 1 (1872), pp. 140-141. On-line
  46. ↑ Peter Jackson (Ed., Transl.): The Seventh Crusade, 1244-1254. Sources and Documents. Ashgate Publishing, 2009, ISBN 0754669238 , p. 223.
  47. ↑ Guilelmus Tripolitanus (1273): Notitia de Machometo. Commented Latin-German Text output by Peter Engels. Würzburg: Echter-Verl. u. a., 1992. (Corpus Islamo-Christianum / Series Latina; 4), p. 108.
  48. ↑ Andrew S. Ehrenkreutz: Saladin. Albany, NY: State Univ. of New York Press, 1972, p. 237.
  49. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 112 f.
  50. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 77.
  51. ↑ Kurt Frischler: The Adventure of the Crusades. Munich: Heyne 1979, p. 241.
  52. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 81 f.
  53. ^ Wilhelm Havemann: History of the exit of the Templar order. Stuttgart u. Tübingen: JG Cotta'sche Buchhandlung 1846, p. 47.
  54. ↑ See Hans Pütz: Cultural History of the Crusades. 2. Reprint of the Berlin 1883 edition, Hildesheim [u. a.]: Olms, 1994 = 1883, p. 68.
  55. ↑ Michael A. Köhler: Alliances and treaties between Frankish and Islamic rulers in the Middle East. Berlin: De Gruyter 1991, p. 352.
  56. ^ Hans Eberhard Meyer: The letter of Emperor Friedrich I to Saladin from the year 1188 . In: German archive for research into the Middle Ages / magazine volume (1958) / magazine issue / magazine section / Miszelle / pp. 488–494. Online .
  57. ↑ Martin Wagendorfer: A hitherto unknown (partial) transmission of the Saladin letter to Emperor Friedrich I. Barbarossa . In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages / magazine volume (2009) / magazine issue / magazine section / article / pp. 565-584. On-line.
  58. ↑ Hannes Möhring: Saladin and the Third Crusade: Aiyubid strategy and diplomacy in comparison, primarily of the Arabic with the Latin sources . Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1980. pp. 93-125.
  59. ↑ a b Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, pp. 115–117.
  60. ↑ Hannes Möhring: Between Joseph's legend and Mahdi expectation: Sultan Saladin's successes and goals as reflected in contemporary poetry and prophecy. In Yaacov Lev (ed.): War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th – 15th Centuries. Leiden et al.: Brill, 1997, pp. 181-192.
  61. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138-1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 107.
  62. ↑ Thomas S. Asbridge: The Crusades . 7th edition. Klett-Cotta, 2016, ISBN 978-3-608-94921-6 , pp. 713 and 719 .
  63. ↑ Alfried Wieczorek et al. (Ed.): Saladin and the crusaders. [Accompanying volume for the special exhibition "Saladin and the Crusaders" in the State Museum of Prehistory Halle (Saale), in the State Museum for Nature and Man Oldenburg and in the Reiss-Engelhorn-Museums Mannheim]. Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 2005, p. 463 f.
  64. ↑ Carmina Burana - Version BSB Clm 4660: Heu voce flebili cogor enarrare. Online in the MDZ
  65. ↑ Hay voce flebili cogor enarrare in the Bibliotheca Augustana.
  66. ↑ Friedrich-Wilhelm Wentzlaff-Eggebert: Crusade poetry of the Middle Ages: Studies on their historical and poetic reality. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1960. p. 161 f.
  67. ↑ Ingrid Hartl: The enemy image of crusade poetry: the clash of Christians and Muslims. Bern [u. a.]: Lang, 2009. pp. 110-116.
  68. ↑ Margaret Jubb: The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography . Lewiston et al: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2000, p. 67.
  69. ^ Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi , Liber I, Capitulum III. Online in the MDZ reader of the BSB
  70. ↑ Online in the Gutenberg DE project
  71. ^ Annotated edition by Frank E. Lodemann (1897), online at Archive.org
  72. ↑ Margaret Jubb: The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography . Lewiston et al: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2000, pp. 134-145.
  73. ↑ La Divina Comedia, Canto IV
  74. ↑ Online in the Gutenberg DE project
  75. ↑ a b Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138–1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 112.
  76. ^ Decamerone, 3rd story
  77. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, image 14 between p. 315 and P. 316.
  78. ↑ Margaret Jubb: The Legend of Saladin in Western Literature and Historiography . Lewiston et al: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2000, Chapter 4: Saladin's noble Christian pedigree , Chapter 6: Saladin's inclination towards Christianity , Chapter 7: Saladin's journey to the West .
  79. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138–1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 114 u. 120.
  80. ↑ a b c Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138–1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 109.
  81. ↑ The story of Mr. Marin's Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Cell: Gsellius 1761. First part online at the MDZ. Second part, download from books.google.
  82. ↑ a b c Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and His Time 1138–1193 . 2nd edition Munich: Beck 2012, p. 110.
  83. ^ First printing of Lessing's Nathan the Wise from 1779. Online at MDZ.
  84. ↑ Walter Scott: The Talisman - Chapter 26 as a case in point .
  85. ^ Stanley Lane-Poole: Saladin and the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem . New York 1898. Online at Archive.org.
  86. ^ Stanley Lane-Poole: Saladin and the fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Reprint of the New York 1898 edition. New York: AMS Pr., 1978.
  87. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and his time . In: CH Beck Knowledge . Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-50886-3 , p. 121.
  88. ^ Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and his time . In: CH Beck Knowledge . Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-50886-3 , p. 121 f.
  89. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. XIV u. P. 496.
  90. ↑ John Man: Saladin. The Life, the Legend and the Islamic Empire , Bantam Press, London 2015, p. 265.
  91. ↑ John Man: Saladin. The Life, the Legend and the Islamic Empire , Bantam Press, London 2015, p. 266.
  92. ^ Anne-Marie Eddé: Saladin . Translation into English by Jane Marie Todd. Cambridge, Mass. [u. a.]: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2014, p. XIV u. P. 497 f.
  93. ↑ Taef El-Azahri: The coinage of future generations through the image of the Crusades in Arab culture and media landscape . In: Felix Hinz (ed.): Crusades of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age . Historical European Studies, No. 15 . Georg Olms, Hildesheim / Zurich / New York 2015, ISBN 978-3-487-15267-7 , pp. 176 .
  94. ↑ a b Hannes Möhring: Saladin. The Sultan and his time . In: CH Beck Knowledge . Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-50886-3 , p. 123.
  95. ↑ In English translation online : The Life of Saladin by Behâ ed-Din . Palestine Pilgrim's Text Society, London 1897.
  96. ↑ HAR Gibb: Al-Barq al-S̲h̲āmī the history of Saladin by the Kātib ʿImād ad-Dīn al-Isfahānī . In WZKM, lii (1953), pp. 93-115. Contains an extract from Book V (Arabic and English translation).
  97. ↑ Latin version online .
  98. ↑ German translation (revision by E. and R. Kausler: History of the Crusades and the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the Latin of Archbishop Wilhelm von Tire . Stuttgart 1840) online.
predecessor Office successor
al-ʿĀdid
(Caliph of the Fatimid dynasty )		 Sultan of Egypt ( Ayyubid dynasty )
1171–1193 		al-Aziz Utman
as-Salih Ismail
(Atabeg of the Zengid dynasty )		 Emir of Damascus
1174–1193 		al-Afdal
Imad ad-Din Zengi II
(Atabeg of the Zengid dynasty )		 Emir of Aleppo
1183–1193 		az-Zahir Ghazi
personal data
SURNAME Saladin
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Salah ad-Din Jusuf ibn Ajub
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Ayyubid Sultan
DATE OF BIRTH 1137
PLACE OF BIRTH Tikrit
DATE OF DEATH March 3, 1193
Place of death Damascus