History of Mozambique

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The history of Mozambique is, in a narrower sense, the history of the Republic of Mozambique in southern Africa, founded in 1975 with the preceding liberation struggle and subsequent civil war, as well as the history of more than 400 years of Portuguese influence and finally the colonization of the country as Portuguese East Africa. The pre-colonial history of Mozambique also includes 1500 years of different cultures and regions, each with its own development. The national territory of Mozambique has a north-south extension of about 2000 kilometers and a west-east extension between 50 and 600 kilometers. As in most African countries, these borders were created as a result of colonial division without regard to existing natural borders or cultures. In addition to various early Iron Age cultures, the coastal region and inland in particular developed quite differently and were exposed to different influences. The coastal region was largely in the Arab- African Swahili cultureand its extensive trading network, while much of the interior was marked by membership of larger African empires, particularly the empire of Munhumutapa .

Map of Mozambique

Early history

Iron Age cultures in Mozambique

The original inhabitants of Mozambique were the hunters and gatherers of the San ("Bushmen"), but they were displaced by immigrating Bantu peoples in several waves from the 1st century AD. These Bantu were farmers who started the Iron Age here . In Mozambique, Iron Age finds have been made and scientifically investigated at various locations across the country.

These finds date between 200 and 1000. The southernmost site is in Matola near the southern border with South Africa, not far from the Iron Age trading town of Chibuene in the province of Inhambane ; The Nampula tradition is an Iron Age ceramic culture in the Nampula province of the same name in the north of the country. The Nkope culture, on the other hand, was inland, near Lake Malawi . Even here, hundreds of kilometers from the coast, finds of glass beads and other things indicate trade relations with the coast, i.e. places such as Chibuene. Relations with East African Swahili culture began on the coast within the first millennium. The earliest mention of trade relations between the Red Sea and Eastern Africa can be found in the so-called Periplus Maris Erythraei , a work from the 1st century AD that describes individual trade routes and ports between the Red Sea and the East African coast.

The coast of Mozambique as the southernmost branch of the Swahili culture

Swahili cities in East Africa

As Swahili is called a Muslim , urban embossed Arab-African mixed culture, the trading activity the entire coast of East Africa dominated for centuries. East Africa was involved in a trade network through which goods and ideas were exchanged between India, the Persian Gulf and the great empires of the interior of East Africa, such as the gold-rich Munhumutapa empire . Even Chinese porcelain has been found in excavations in Swahili coastal cities. Several coastal cities in Mozambique are Swahili foundations (for example Quelimane and Sofala ). The Mozambique coast is the southernmost branch of this trade network. Sofala in central Mozambique was the southernmost African port that was regularly approached by Arab merchants from Oman , while the aforementioned Chibuene was the southernmost coastal town that was even reached by this system. At times, the north of Mozambique came under the rule of the powerful city of Kilwa in what is now Tanzania and was thus politically integrated into a Swahili sultanate .

Inland before the arrival of the Portuguese

The interior, on the other hand, was largely under the influence of the culture of Zimbabwe , i.e. the empire of Munhumutapa. The center of this empire was in present-day Zimbabwe , but its eastern provinces encompassed the central parts of present-day Mozambique and probably reached almost as far as the coast of the Indian Ocean . The gold wealth of this country was the main reason for the trading activities of Arab and Persian traders on the southern tip of Africa and for the founding of cities by the Swahili in Mozambique.

Mozambique between the 15th century and the struggle for independence

Portuguese and Dutch expansion of power until 1800

Artist's impression of the ship by Vasco da Gama
Old Portuguese church on the Ilha de Mozambique

When the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Mozambique in 1498 , on his way around Africa he first encountered an Islamic, urban culture with a monetary economy - and Arab and local competition. He also met sailors who had experience of trading trips to his destination India. The Portuguese were not unfamiliar with the political and economic conditions in the region, because Pêro da Covilhã had succeeded in getting the Portuguese King John II a report of his Indian and African travels and his observations of the spice trade in Calicut , India , before the Vasco fleet left to send da gamas. Mozambique's coast was politically divided into several kingdoms and sultanates such as the Sultanate of Angoche . On a small island in the north, da Gama met the local Sheikh Moussa Ben Mbiki , who gave the island its name for the Portuguese - Ilha de Moçambique - from which the name of today's Mozambique is derived.

In 1500 Vasco da Gama returned to East Africa and began to drive the Arab competition from Mozambique to today's Kenya by military means. The Portuguese appeared in cannon-armed ships in the ports of the trading cities from Sofala to Mombasa and demanded that the respective rulers declare themselves subject to the Portuguese crown. If this requirement was not met, the city was looted. The Portuguese justified their trade war as a crusade against the infidels and did not shrink from atrocities. In the first half of the 16th century they built a number of fortified bases on the coast of Mozambique. On the island of Mozambique, for example, Afonso de Albuquerque had a fortress ( Fort San Sebastian ) built at great expense in 1508 , the stones of which were individually numbered and transported from Portugal to East Africa. Albuquerque was appointed second governor of all Portuguese possessions in Asia, i.e. Portuguese India , by King Emanuel I in 1506 . From there, more precisely from Goa in India , the Portuguese possessions in Mozambique and the rest of East Africa were administered. The riches of India were the main target of the Portuguese conquerors, the possessions in Mozambique were essentially stopovers after India.

Added to this, however, was the gold of Monomotapa as a destination for various Portuguese companies. They hoped for immeasurable sources of gold there, comparable to the riches that the Spaniards stole from their American possessions at the same time. They therefore began to establish themselves inland, closer to the legendary gold empire, around 1537 with the conquest of Tete on the Zambezi . The Portuguese traders and mercenaries did not rule over a large area until the 19th century. In the second half of the 16th century they undertook two large expeditions with up to 1,000 volunteers (mercenaries) to conquer the gold sources of Munhumatapas and the silver mines of Chicoa . However, they both failed because of the murderous climate for Europeans, armed resistance and, in some cases, the competition within Portugal between the expedition leader and the "captain" of Mozambique. They also had to realize that Munhumutapa was no other El Dorado . The gold mines have been exploited here for centuries and production could hardly be increased without considerable technical effort. At the beginning of the 17th century, external attacks and internal conflicts shook the Munhumutapa empire, which then became more dependent on the Portuguese, but they did not exercise permanent rule there. Towards the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese increasingly neglected their African possessions. From 1650 the rulers of the Sultanate of Oman broke the Portuguese domination north of Mozambique, which remained after the conquest of Mombasa by the Omanis in 1689 as the last part of their East African dominion. The northern part of today's Mozambique remains unaffected by Portuguese control. The Dutch appeared as European competitors until 1800 , building a fortress in Delagoa Bay near today's Maputo in 1721 , but giving up Fort Lydsaamheid as early as 1730.

Internal organization of the Portuguese possessions: captains and prazos da corona

Cathedral of Portuguese Goa in India

The places actually ruled by the Portuguese such as Sofala, Sena or Quelimane were each subordinate to a "captain" from 1505, who was able to exercise his rule on site quite independently and was able to draw considerable wealth from this office, which was assigned for a certain period of time. There were often conflicts between individual "captains" or between the crown and a single captain. The subordination of these captains to the viceroy in Goa, India, meant that considerable wealth flowed from Mozambique to Goa instead of the Portuguese capital, Lisbon . Another part went into the pockets of local Portuguese traders, adventurers and warlords. It was not until 1752 that the administration of Mozambique became independent from Goa under its own captain general for Mozambique.

The system of prazos da coron (rights of the crown) was characteristic of the internal organization of the Portuguese possessions in Mozambique . These “prazos” were a kind of fiefdom , a piece of land that the Portuguese crown gave to Portuguese settlers or to deserving locals. Locals who wanted to inherit this fiefdom, however, had to marry a Portuguese. In prazo system mingled feudal European structures and African forms of rule. The prazeiros lived from the labor of their peasants and slaves or from the yield of their mines, the legal titles were inherited through the female line. Once they had received their prazo right, they were largely independent of the Portuguese crown and of local rulers. The prazeiros soon formed a multi-ethnic upper class made up of Portuguese, Africans, Indians, Chinese and Afro-Indo-Portuguese. Here the cultures and social systems of Africa, Asia and Europe mixed. The prazeiros also raised taxes for the respective district and taxes for themselves. Some sources also define “prazo” as “small states in Portuguese Mozambique”. From 1850 the Portuguese undertook several military expeditions to subjugate Afro-Portuguese prazeiros who consider themselves rulers of their territories. The system lasted until the 1930s.

Slave trade

The Arab slave trade has dominated the east coast of Africa since the early Middle Ages. The slaves, who were brought to the coast by mostly local slave catchers, were mostly sold by sea northwards to the Orient and even to India. Later, more and more Europeans invaded the Mozambique Strait and competed with Arab traders. Until the 19th century, the slave trade was a profitable business in the region. In addition to traditional oriental buyers, the sugar cane plantations on French possessions in the Indian Ocean such as Réunion led to increased demand; from 1800 human trafficking was mainly directed to Portuguese Brazil , but also to Cuba and the United States . In 1869 the slave trade was officially banned in the Portuguese territories, but smuggling continued into the 1890s. There are no reliable figures on the extent of human trafficking. Estimates speak of one million people displaced from Mozambique as slaves in the 19th century. There was considerable internal conflict as some tribes fell victim to the slave hunts while others took part in these hunts.

“Nguni Riots” at the beginning of the 19th century and territorial consolidation

Zulu warriors on a postcard from the 19th century

The military expansion of the Zulu Empire under Shaka Zulu led at the beginning of the 19th century to the Mfecane , a migration of peoples that covered all of southern Africa. The displaced Bantu peoples, summarized under the collective term Nguni, invaded Mozambique from 1820 and conquered almost the entire area between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers under Nxaba, i.e. the heart of the Portuguese colony. When this empire disintegrated again in 1836, the Kingdom of Gaza emerged under Soshangane on Limpopo and remained in existence until the 1890s. Portugal had little effective control over its "colony" until the end of the 19th century. The "Nguni riots" and the military expeditions against insubordinate feudal lords in the 19th century made this evident again. It was not until the 1870s that the attempt by the Portuguese state to gain direct colonial rule over Mozambique began, combined with the attempt by Portugal to colonialize its colonies of Angola and Mozambique across South Africa. The attempt failed because of British resistance. In the 1880s and 1890s, Portugal concluded various agreements with the British and Boers , which roughly secured the borders of what is now Mozambique.

The companies from 1890

Lourenço Marques 1905, postcard with English and Portuguese street names

Despite regaining control of the Nguni areas, Portugal had to realize that it was economically incapable of effectively organizing the colonial exploitation of Mozambique, and from 1891 onwards almost a third of the country was given to two British-dominated companies. The Companhia de Moçambique took over the provinces of Manica and Sofala , the Niassa Company received the provinces of Niassa and Cabo Delgado . In these areas, the colonial administration gave the companies certain sovereign rights for 50 years. For example, the Companhia de Moçambique issued its own postage stamps and had railway lines built. Added to this was in the area Sena Sena Sugar Estate, a British sugar plantation. Forced labor was the basis of the economic activities of these companies. The Portuguese colony of Mozambique was thus largely dominated by British and South African capital at the end of the 19th century, the British pound was more widespread than the Portuguese escudo and British newspapers appeared in the largest cities, in Lourenço Marques and Beira . Significant for the situation of the Portuguese colonial power and the balance of power between the old colonial power Portugal and the new powers Great Britain and Germany was the so-called Angola Treaty , in which Germany and Great Britain agreed to clean Angola and Mozambique with each other in the event of an expected insolvency of Portugal split up.

Economic development of the colony

View of the city of Beira 1905

Mozambique remained a raw material supplier in the interests of the “mother country” even in the 20th century. Originally it supplied gold, ivory and slaves, it was now cotton produced by local farmers in the north , and sugar and sisal produced on plantations in the center of the country . The south primarily provided workers for the mines in South Africa and in the British copper belt ( i.e. today's Zambia). The official regulations for this labor exodus can be found among others. in the Colonial Official Gazette of the Governor General for the Province of Mozambique , the Boletim Official . Mozambican workers were literally sold to these areas and also to São Tomé, Portugal . Several hundred thousand migrant workers in South Africa and Rhodesia only received 40% of their wages there, the rest went to Mozambique via the colonial administration. From 1940 the South Africans paid in gold, the colonial administration paid in escudos and made substantial profits. Forced labor and penal labor were also the basis of the economy within the colony. The ports of Lourenço Marques and, in 1898, Beira became the endpoints of railway lines from the British mining areas. The country was otherwise an isolated sales market for Portuguese textile and agricultural products (wine), which were not competitive in Europe. The country's economy was thus completely geared towards the needs of the British neighboring colonies or the Portuguese economy. Immigrants from Portugal came into the country and occupied the middle positions in economy and administration, a smaller part went into agriculture. The only way for the locals to get an acceptable school education was through the Catholic mission schools. The few Africans who achieved a better position within the system had to adopt the culture and language of the colonial rulers. But the number of these Assimilados was also small.

Political development of the colony until 1960

Coat of arms of Portuguese East Africa from 1935

With the submission of the last independent Nguni kingdom remaining on Mozambican soil, Gaza, in 1895 and the border agreements with the British and Boers mentioned above, Portugal formally had control over what is now Mozambique: divided into a military-ruled Gaza area and large regions under control British companies. The overthrow of the monarchy in Portugal in 1910 and the proclamation of the republic changed the political climate and resulted in greater autonomy for the colonies. While the critical spirit in Portuguese East Africa had expressed itself among Africans and Afro-Portuguese in literary form, in magazines and newspapers, several political groups emerged, including the Liga Africana in 1910 and the Partido Nacional Africano in 1921 . The entry of Portugal into the First World War on the side of the Allies (the " Entente ") in 1916, however, meant increased forced recruitment for labor and military services. From 1917 Mozambique became one of the battlefields of the First World War . The German colonial troops under General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck moved into northern Mozambique themselves after a failed attempt at invasion by Portuguese troops in neighboring German East Africa and used it as a base of operations. To compensate for the war damage there, Portugal was awarded the Kionga Triangle as part of its Portuguese East Africa colony through the Versailles Agreement .

In 1926 the republic was also overthrown and the dictatorial Estado Novo set clear priorities in colonial policy. The colonies should support the economy of the mother country as suppliers of raw materials and as sales markets. Political groups that organized strikes or demonstrations were brutally suppressed. In the 1950s the Portuguese colonies were given the right to be represented in the Lisbon Parliament and in the 1960s and 1970s, under international pressure, certain liberalizations took place. In 1970, all Mozambicans who spoke and written Portuguese were allowed to vote for the first time. Of the 1 million people who met these requirements, however, only 111,000 registered on the electoral roll. However, the ruling dictators in Portugal did not think of decolonization, as was taking place almost everywhere in the rest of Africa.

Before 1961, the right to vote in elections for the Portuguese parliament and the various colonial legislative assemblies was limited: local people were hardly allowed to vote. In 1961, all citizens of the colonies received Portuguese citizenship and were able to vote in local and city council elections. Nevertheless, Europeans still had more civil rights than the non-European population.

Foundation of FRELIMO and liberation struggle

Portuguese soldiers in the colonial war
Portuguese propaganda poster: Frelimo lied - you are suffering

In this situation, in which there was no hope that the Portuguese state would voluntarily release its colonies into independence, the Liberation Front Frente da Libertação de Moçambique , abbreviated FRELIMO , was founded in 1962 from several domestic and foreign action groups that had many years of experience with the economic and social oppression of the Portuguese colonial system. It was founded by the employment relationships among the forced laborers ( chibalo workers ) of the sisal plantations, the situation of the cooperatives in the smallholder agricultural sector, the fight against the successful African Volunteer Cotton Cooperative of Mozambique ( SAAVM , founded in 1957) by the regional administrations, the Mueda massacre among demonstrating farm workers and the growing discontent in the south of the country among dock workers and nurses. Important Mozambican organizations were founded in neighboring countries, and some of them made Dar es Salaam the organizational center of their work. Julius Nyerere encouraged such organizations to merge, which was finally completed on June 25, 1962 in Dar es Salaam for the Frente da Libertação de Moçambique . Eduardo Mondlane became the first president of FRELIMO . Nevertheless, it initially remained a complex of loosely acting but also mutually distrusting groups. Internal turmoil and competition led to a large loss of membership during the first three years, regardless of this, the organization was the political anchor for opposition members who had fled the country. The diverging forces prompted the government of Zambia to invite them to a conference in mid-1965 . Mondlane participated but left prematurely as some key players refused to rejoin FRELIMO. The conference ended with the founding of COREMO , an organization with programmatic proximity to UNITA and the PAC . However, COREMO did not have a resounding success, which later had a beneficial effect for FRELIMO with the independence of Mozambique.

In 1964 FRELIMO began armed struggle and was soon able to achieve some military successes, which led to massive counter attacks by the Portuguese army. From the beginning there had been internal conflicts within FRELIMO, which escalated after the first military successes of the colonial army and led to the murder of leading members of the organization by its own people in 1968. In 1969 Mondlane was killed by a letter bomb attack by the Portuguese secret police PIDE. Nevertheless, FRELIMO was able to set up so-called “Liberated Zones”. The Cabora-Bassa dam , which was ultimately defended by up to 20,000 men on the part of the Portuguese against FRELIMO raiders, was particularly hotly contested . Colonial warfare became increasingly brutal and the European public and also parts of the Catholic Church distanced themselves from the colonial power. The colonial troops' massacre of the residents of Wiriyamu village became a symbol of this brutality . In the 1970s, 65,000 to 70,000 thousand men were on the Portuguese side in action against a guerrilla of around 8,000 to 10,000 men.

The decision was not made until the Portuguese dictator Caetano was overthrown (the so-called Carnation Revolution ). The new democratic government decided the independence of all Portuguese colonies as soon as possible. The Lusaka Agreement of September 7, 1974 ended the colonial war in Mozambique with an immediate ceasefire. On June 25, 1975, the independence of the People's Republic of Mozambique was proclaimed.

Mozambique since independence

With independence on June 25, 1975, universal active and passive suffrage was introduced. This also achieved general women's suffrage . Samora Machel became the first president, but not by general election. In 1986 the FRELIMO President died in a plane crash in the Lebombo Mountains that has not yet been clarified . The Marxist forces prevailed in the FRELIMO. One month after Independence Day, June 25, 1975, the legal, educational and health systems as well as funeral homes were nationalized. A large part of the social system went into state administration because continuation on a two-pronged basis was not desired. Production companies and financial institutions, however, remained private. Nevertheless, numerous academic professional groups lost their free employment base and real estate speculation was prevented. Land ownership remained only in the hands of individuals for their own use. These conditions triggered a flight abroad primarily by the Portuguese, but numerous Asians and Mozambicans also left the country. Some whites remained in the country, some of whom participated in the political and economic chaos in the repression of residents of European descent, as in the well-known case of Jorge Costa (built up the police and the secret service), and in this way further increased the emigration trend . The massive emigration caused enormous economic problems. The construction industry and tourism almost came to a standstill. Completely unprepared, it hit companies where the owner fled “overnight” and the workforce was only partially or not able to continue. The situation forced government intervention, called "intervention", which was the situation-specific type of bankruptcy proceeding.

Up until the third FRELIMO party congress in 1977, the government nationalized insurance companies, some large companies and many banks, and agricultural production cooperatives were founded in rural areas. The takeover of previous private industrial companies also took place because of the loss of staff and the transfer of the banks to the state bank of Mozambique and the newly established Development Bank of the People was not only due to political considerations, but also because of an illegal capital export that had previously taken place. British and Portuguese owned Banco Standard Totta de Mozambique continued to be a private company. Other functioning private companies were also disregarded.

The new government initially maintained good relations with the GDR and other socialist countries. Skilled workers and development aid were also sent to Mozambique from the GDR, while Mozambican citizens went to the GDR as contract workers or for training. But the emigration of European skilled workers, mainly Portuguese, weakened the country's economy seriously. In the mid-1970s a new resistance movement arose, which was supported by South Africa and Rhodesia - the RENAMO . In contrast to the Angolan UNITA, for example, the RENAMO, which only emerged after independence, never fought against the Portuguese colonial power and therefore had little support from the Mozambican opposition.

In 1976, however, the country fell into a 16-year civil war between FRELIMO and RENAMO, which almost led to an economic collapse. Mozambique received support e.g. B. after 1980 from Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia), which sent 10,000 soldiers to secure the Beira corridor . In 1983 there were 750 military advisers and trainers from Cuba, 600 from the Soviet Union and 100 from the GDR in the country . There were also development workers from the GDR in the country. During the attack in Unango in 1984 some of them came killed. The peace negotiations for Mozambique took place from July 1990 to October 1992 under the leadership of the Catholic Community of Sant'Egidio in Rome. From the People's Republic of Mozambique was in December 1990, the Republic of Mozambique .

After the end of the civil war with over 900,000 dead and 1.7 million refugees, the country was stabilized with the help of UN peacekeeping forces and the first opposition party was founded.

The first flag of independent Mozambique

Since 1995, Mozambique has been the only member of the Commonwealth of Nations besides Rwanda that was not a former British colony. Large-scale white emigration, economic dependence on South Africa, a persistent drought and protracted civil war hampered the country's economic development. Since turning away from Marxism-Leninism and the one-party rule of FRELIMO, the Renamo has established itself as a political party and has been the parliamentary opposition in the country since 1994. The first democratic elections were held under the supervision of ONUMOZ in October 1994. From it emerged the consolidation of the old government and, after pressure from neighboring countries had been exerted, RENAMO accepted the seats in parliament, thus forming the opposition. In February 2000, heavy rains lead to a flood catastrophe that kills numerous lives, a setback for the emerging country.

In October 2013 reports of increasing fighting between the former civil war parties fueled fears that the 1992 peace agreement would be terminated - at least a spokesman for RENAMO announced this as a possible consequence of the capture of the RENAMO headquarters near Gorongosa by government troops. In 2014 Filipe Nyusi (FRELIMO) was elected as the new President. In March and April 2019, cyclones Idai and Kenneth claimed numerous victims. On August 6, 2019, FRELIMO and RENAMO signed a peace agreement in the presence of numerous African heads of state.

The jihadist group Al-Sunnah wa Jamaah has been operating in the Cabo Delgado province in the north of the country since October 2017 . By February 2020, they killed around 600 security guards and civilians.

See also

literature

  • Eric Allina: “New People” for Mozambique. Expectations and reality of contract work in the GDR in the 1980s , in: Arbeit - Bewegungs - Geschichte , Issue III / 2016, pp. 65–84.
  • Joseph Ki-Zerbo: Die Geschichte Schwarzafrikas , Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main 1993, ISBN 3-596-26417-0 .
  • Walter Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: Central Africa, Southern Africa and the States in the Indian Ocean , Brandes & Appel, Frankfurt am Main 1999, ISBN 3-86099-120-5 .
  • Malyn Newitt: A History of Mozambique. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1995, ISBN 0253340071 .
  • Cameron Hume: Mozambique's ending was. The Role of Mediation and Good Offices. United States Institute of Peace Press, 1994. ISBN 1-878379-38-0 .
  • David Hedges (Ed.): Història de Moçambique, Volume 2 Maputo, Moçambique 1993. 2a Edição 1999. Departamento de História - Faculdade de Letras / Livraria Universitária UEM. No de Registo: 017171 / INLD / 99.
  • Roberto Morozzo della Rocca: Mozambique. Create peace in Africa. Echter, Würzburg 2003, ISBN 978-3429025823 .

Web links

Commons : History of Mozambique  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ki-Zerbo: The History of Black Africa P. 319.
  2. ↑ Ki-Zerbo: The History of Black Africa, p. 325
  3. ↑ Ki-Zerbo: The History of Black Africa, p. 325
  4. ↑ Ki-Zerbo: The History of Black Africa, p. 327
  5. ^ Newitt: A History of Mozambique. after Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 78.
  6. ↑ Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 79.
  7. ↑ Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 79.
  8. ↑ Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 80.
  9. ↑ Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 80.
  10. ↑ a b c d June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 9.
  11. ↑ Joseph Hanlon: Mozambique. Revolution in the crossfire . edition southern Africa 21, Bonn, 1986, pp. 37-40
  12. ↑ Schicho: Handbook Africa. In three volumes . Volume 1: p. 82.
  13. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 266.
  14. ↑ Joseph Hanlon: Mozambique. Revolution in the crossfire . Edition Südliches Afrika 21, Bonn 1986, pp. 64–65 ISBN 3-921614-25-2
  15. ↑ Joseph Hanlon: Mozambique. Revolution in the crossfire . Edition Südliches Afrika 21, Bonn 1986, pp. 93, 97-98 ISBN 3-921614-25-2
  16. ↑ Eric Allina: "New People" for Mozambique. Expectations of and Reality of Contract Labor in the GDR in the 1980s . In: Work - Movement - History , Volume III / 2016, pp. 65–84.
  17. ↑ https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/mozambique_1991-92.pdf
  18. ↑ https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/mozambique_08071992.pdf
  19. ↑ http://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/mosambik100.html ( Memento from October 23, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  20. ^ African leaders in Mozambique to witness signing of peace deal. africanews.com, August 6, 2019, accessed August 6, 2019
  21. ↑ Peter Fabricius: AU finally takes the official note of northern Mozambique jihadist insurgency. Daily Maverick February 11, 2020, accessed February 15, 2020