History of Algeria
The history of Algeria began with the first human traces 1.78 million years ago, i.e. in the early Paleolithic .
Prehistory and early history
Early Paleolithic (from 1.78 million years old)
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The oldest human traces of North Africa were found in Algeria. The artifacts of Aïn el-Hanech (mostly shortened to Ain Hanech in archaeological literature ) in northeast Algeria, about 12 km north-northwest of El Eulma, are around 1.78 million years old .
There were striking stones (cobbles), whole splinters (flakes), various fragments and retouched workpieces. The old age of the site has meanwhile been questioned, but has recently found advocates. In each case it could be shown that the makers of these tools lived in a savannah-like landscape and that meat was an important part of the diet. In addition to the remains of typical hunting prey such as rhinos and elephants , the bones of which show signs of processing, especially those of Equus tabeti , a species of horse, were found.
Excavations have been carried out for some time, leading to particularly early dated finds in various places in Morocco and Algeria; in Tunisia , however, only a single artifact from the time before by the leading form of so far has been hand-ax marked Acheulean , namely chopper or hackers. It is a piece of rubble from the early Paleolithic , the edge of which was created by machining an edge. Choppers are the oldest stone tools known to man and at the same time the first core tools .
In northern Algeria, in addition to Ain Hanech, the sites of Mansourah in the northeast, Djebel Meksem near Ain Hanech and Monts Tessala in the northwest are known. There are also sites in the Sahara such as Aoulef and Reggan in the middle of the country, then Saoura in the west and Bordj Tan Kena on the border with Libya . Most of the time, important stratigraphic information was missing , which led to premature and very early dates that can no longer be kept today. A major hurdle for more precise dating is the fact that the usual dating methods cannot be used, for example because there are no volcanoes in the region, the material of which would otherwise allow the determination of dating intervals.
Excavations in the years 1992–1993 and 1998–1999 led to the result that Ain Hanech is not a single site, but that there are four sites on an area of around one square kilometer. These are next to Ain Boucherit, which is about 200 m southeast of Ain Hanech west of the eponymous Ain Boucherit stream, the El-Kherba and El-Beidha sites, which are 300 and 800 m south of the classic sites, respectively. Paleomagnetic investigations determined an age of 1.95 to 1.77 million years for the relevant layer in Ain Hanech, where numerous artifacts were discovered on a former stream. The Oldowan artefacts discovered up to 2006 are located in a layer in which no traces of the Acheuléen appeared, so that this settlement phase is not related to the oldest finds. 2475 often very small archaeological finds representing processing waste, plus 1243 bones and 1232 stone artifacts were found in Ain Hanech. 631 pieces were found in El-Kherba, including 361 bones and 270 stone artifacts. In almost all cases, limestone and flint are the starting materials (43 and 56%, respectively), while quartzite and sandstone are extremely rare. Flint, which is even more common in El-Kherba, is mostly black here, occasionally green. Flint cores are consistently smaller than those made of limestone, the cuts are very small, even if the largest is 106 mm. In Ain Hanech, 411 retouched pieces were found, mostly scratches (50%) and denticulates (32%) retouched on the narrow sides , i.e. toothed devices, then end-scrapers, i.e. narrow blades or knives with at least one convex side for scraping (8, 5%), and finally devices with notches or notches (7%); very rarely are graver , hand axes were not found. Ain Hanech represents the oldest known stone processing technology (mode 1) and is therefore the only excavation site in North Africa to be part of the Oldowan; the finds were completely separate from those of the Acheuléen, which were six meters further above.
The remains of large mammals, such as giraffes and hippos, which were surrounded by stone artefacts, were difficult to interpret at both Algerian sites . In addition to the animal species known since the first excavations, there were new discoveries, such as Equus numidicus . Overall, the finds and the traces of blows and cuts that can be found on them represent the oldest evidence of the cutting up of larger animals in North Africa.
Acheuleans
In addition to the sites near Casablanca , Tighenif in western Algeria is the most important archaeological site in the north-west. The oldest human remains of Algeria discovered there are around a million years younger than the aforementioned traces. The lower jaw of Ternifine (today: Tighénif) was discovered in 1954 in a quarry 20 km east of Muaskar in the north-west of the country and initially referred to as Atlanthropus mauritanicus , today more as Homo erectus mauritanicus or Homo mauritanicus . It has been dated to be approximately 700,000 years old. This makes it the oldest human remains in Northwest Africa. They consist of three lower jaws (Tighénif 1, 2, 3), a parietal bone (Tighénif 4) and several teeth, four of which probably come from an 8 to 10 year old child. The fauna still consisted of mammals such as the elephant Loxodonta , the rhinoceros Ceratotherium and various species of antelope. The landscape should have been open, but there was enough water. Some signs point to a cooling, which can be recognized by the immigration of steppe inhabitants.
The Acheuléen, to which the find can be assigned, began about 1.75 million years ago in East Africa and is associated with the appearance of Homo erectus . The leading artifact is the hand ax . While the Developed Oldowan was divided into two phases until a few years ago , the assignment of the second section of this phase to the Acheuléen has largely prevailed. Manufacturing technology shifted from small, often rough cores to larger ones that allowed the manufacture of larger tools. New materials and new machining techniques required greater strength and precision, as well as better coordination.
The late Acheuléen can also be found in Algeria, for example at Lac Karar in the northwest; Here, on the basis of softer processing strokes, lancet- and heart-shaped hand axes, cleavers (a special shape of rectangular hand axes), plus large and small cuts, were created.
With Saoura and Tabelbala-Tachenghit, the Acheuléen is also represented in the Sahara , which offered much more favorable living conditions at that time. In addition to rubble devices, raw trihedrons (tripods), rarely hand axes , tees and cores appear in the early phase . The thick hand axes, made with greater effort, remained in use here longer than in the north. Cleavers are already numerous in this phase between 1,000,000 and 600,000 years ago, and the levallois technique came into use. After that, the devices became finer, cleavers continued to dominate, a Tabelbala-Tachenghit technique, a pre-Levallois technique, emerged. A little further to the west, in the Tarfaya region, there were also indications of the Levallois technique, but the small number of finds could point to a slow disappearance of the Acheuléen. In Tihodaine , near the Tassili-n'Ajjer plateau, is one of the rare sites where animal remains with Acheulean artifacts occur. Their age has been determined to be at least 250,000 years, similar to Sidi Zin in Tunisia.
Atérien (more than 100,000 to 30,000 BC ago), anatomically modern human
The carrier of the North African Atérien culture was anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ), although the culture may not have been developed until the Maghreb. According to Moroccan finds, this happened between 145,000 and 171,000 years ago. The Atérien thus has a key position in the question of the spread of Homo sapiens in the Maghreb and (possibly) Europe. In any case, in the Maghreb, the later hand ax complexes were followed by the teeing industries , which were very similar to those in southern Europe and Asia.
The Atérien, named after the site of Bi'r al-'Atir southeast of Constantine , was long considered part of the Moustérien , analogous to Western European developments. However, it is now considered a specific archaeological culture of the Maghreb, which reached a very high level of processing of its stone tools.
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She developed a handle for tools, combining different materials to make composite tools. The main shape is the atérien tip equipped with a kind of mandrel, which is suitable for being fastened in a second tool part. Already in 1886 it was recognized as a separate archaeological culture through excavations in the Eckmuhl quarry (Carrière d'Eckmuhl, a suburb of Oran ). In the early 1920s it was named Atérien. Although the bearers of this culture were modern people, they came to the Maghreb at the latest 80,000 years ago, as the skull of Dar es-Soltan shows.
It is possible that the first anatomically modern humans did not come to the Maghreb with the Atérien culture, but developed it on site. The oldest find of human remains of this kind in Morocco is 190,000 to 160,000 years old (Djebel Irhoud) and is thus before the previous borders of the Atérien. There were found Moustérien artifacts, but no typical artifacts of the Atérien.
It is possible that a cultural loss can be established in the late Atérien, because so far there is no known evidence of (body) jewelry such as was found in the Grotto des Pigeon near Taforalt in the Oujda region in eastern Morocco. Thirteen pierced snail shells were discovered there, which were dated to an age of 82,000 years. The shells were transported 40 km from the Mediterranean Sea, decorated with ocher and pierced in such a way that they could be worn as a chain. They are considered the oldest symbolic object. Some archaeologists ascribe the emergence of a symbolic level to modern humans, as it were as a biologically determined genetic material , while others already see this pattern among the Neanderthals in Eurasia . In addition to biological approaches, cultural or climatic causes are also discussed.
Epipalaeolithic (until 6000 BC)
The period from around 25,000 to 6,000 BC In the Maghreb, BC includes both hunter-gatherer cultures and those of the earliest transition to the sedentary, rural way of life. As in many regions of the Mediterranean, the transition to arable farming was preceded by a long phase of increasing locality, which was the prerequisite for the adoption of agricultural techniques, but cannot, as it were, explain its development backwards. In each case, this long-term development was strongly determined by climate changes.
The glaciations of the last glacial period did not reach the North African coast, but colder northwest winds led to a drier climate. Pollen studies have shown the increase in steppe plants in the region. The Ifrah Lake in the Middle Atlas offers pollen finds from the period between 25,000 and 5,000 BP . They in turn show that the temperature during the last glacial maximum (21,000 to 19,000 BP) was on average 15 ° C lower and the precipitation was around 300 mm per year. During this time, even the Atlas cedar ( Cedrus atlantica ) disappeared , although oaks can still be detected. From 13,000 BP, temperature and precipitation rose slowly, between 11,000 and 9000 BP there was a further cooling. In the Algerian Chataigneraie, not to be confused with the French, it was shown that the cedar fell sharply with the sharp rise in temperature and humidity by 9000 BP, an increase that continued to around 6500 BP.
Ibéromaurusia (17,000 to 8,000 BC): beginning to settle down
The Ibéromaurus , a culture widespread on the North African coast and in the hinterland, spread between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. On the entire Maghrebian coast. An important site is Afalou Bou-Rhummel near Bejaia , but above all the Moroccan Ifri n'Ammar .
The Ibéromaurus is the oldest stage of the Maghrebian Epipalaeolithic ; it extends from 17,000 to 8,000 BC. Their distinctive artifacts, microlithic back tips , were found between Morocco and the Cyrenaica , but not in parts of western Libya. To the south it stretched far into the Atlas , in Morocco even as far as the Agadir region (Cap Rhir). The lithic industry of Ibéromaurusien was based on blades; back tips that were processed into composite tools, for example in pairs to form glued, double-edged arrowheads, are particularly common. The proportion of the tips of the back regularly makes up 40 to 80% of stone tools.
In addition to the lithic industry, a highly developed bone technology emerged. The bones were made into small tips, but also decorated. In addition, mussel shells were processed, apparently not into jewelry, but rather - even up to 40 km from the coast - as components of water containers or as leftover food. In Afalou there were animal-shaped figurines made of clay and fired at 500 to 800 ° C (in a simpler form also in Tamar Hat ), but stone carvings were also found, for example on blowstones , such as the mane sheep from Taforalt .
The mane sheep, which is a goat-like species , was an important source of food. In Tamar Hat, 94% of the ungulate bones were found, which led to considerations as to whether the animals could not have been herded. In any case, it must have been a highly specialized form of hunting. It is controversial whether this type of controlled keeping or hunting came into practice in times of greater drought, only to be given up again in favor of previously common forms of hunting when the humidity increased.
In Algeria, the main sites are first to be found around the Moroccan-Algerian border ( Ifri El Baroud , Ifri n'Ammar, Kifan Bel Ghomari, Taforalt, Le Mouillah, Rachegoun), then along the coast (Rassel, Afalou, Tamar Hat, Taza) , finally a few sites in the hinterland ( Columnata , El Hamel, El Honçor, Dakhlat es Saâdane, Aïn Naga), and finally on the Algerian-Tunisian border (Khanguet El-Mouhaâd, Aïn Misteheiya, Relilaï, Kef Zoura D, El Mekta). The cultures that preceded Iberomaurus vary regionally, in Taforalt it replaces an industry without discounts. In Iberomaurus, differences in stone technology between the coast and the hinterland could be demonstrated, and people in stone processing technology also reacted in different ways to differing ecological niches.
The emergence of the Iberomaurian could be related to the spread of the dorsal blades , which occurred around 23,000 to 20,000 BP , as they covered large parts of the Middle East and North Africa. It is unclear whether it spread from east to west along the coast or on a more southerly route. The culture can be detected up to 11,000 BP, probably even up to 9500 BP.
The oldest burial sites come from the Algerian sites of Afalou-bou-Rhummel and Columnata. Anatomically, the dead belonged to modern man, but were built robustly. They were classified as " Mechta-Afalou " by Marcellin Boule and Henri V. Valois in 1932 , but today it is considered refuted that it was a separate "breed". In any case, this was assigned to the Guanches of the Canary Islands without further evidence . Against this classification, the fact that this type, observed exclusively on the basis of anatomical features and appropriately sorted skeletons, also appears in Libya, where it was assigned to a different culture, but also in the Capsia sites in Tunisia and Algeria. In 1955 the "Mechta-Afalou breed" was even differentiated into four sub-types by sorting on the basis of mere visual appearance. Around 1970 further "races" were defined in this way.
The removal of mostly healthy teeth is noticeable, e.g. B. in the skull of Hattab II, especially the incisors. Since there are no other traces of violence in the facial area, this was probably due to cosmetic, ritual or social reasons, such as status reasons.
At around 13,000 BP, large piles of rubbish were produced, most of which were made up of the shells of molluscs . They were found in caves in the western Maghreb and appeared a little before the capsia sites in Algeria and Tunisia, the escargotières . Whether these mounds are signs of increased local stability, similar to the growing number of burial sites, is still being investigated.
Capsien (around 8000 to 4000 BC)
In Eastern Algeria and Tunisia, Iberomaurus was followed by Capsia, which became known in 1909 with the discovery of the Mekta site near Gafsa in southern Tunisia. In 1933, R. Vaufrey proposed a division into typical and upper capsien , a division that is still valid today.
While large tools predominated in the earlier phase, (geometric) microliths dominated in the later phase . The boundary between the two phases, which coincided with the appearance of a changed manufacturing technique for blades, the pression pour le débitage lamellaire or pressure-flaked bladelets , could be around 6200 cal BC. Chr. Lie. The typical capsien (from 9400 to 9100 BP) was followed by an upper capsien (from 8200 BP). His new technique, in which blades were obtained less by striking than by pressure, is associated with a considerable refinement of stone technology, but it is also an indication of a change in lifestyle.
As can be proven in Hergla in northern Tunisia, the hunters, fishermen and gatherers there were able to process obsidian in addition to the predominant limestone and flint in the first half of the 6th millennium . This volcanic, glass-like material can only have come over the sea, so that it can be regarded as reliable evidence of seafaring, which at the latest at the turn of the 7th to 6th millennium BC. Must have started. In the western Mediterranean, the eastern obsidian areas, such as Anatolia , are out of the question; the Carpathian obsidian only extended westward to Trieste in northern Italy . So only Pantelleria , Palmarola , Lipari and Sardinia were eligible . Chemical tests have shown that the material came from the island of Pantelleria. The processing was evidently carried out in a similar way as one was used to with stone tools.
In contrast to Iberomaurusia, which also knew rubbish hills, such hills now arose in which organic remains held up comparatively well, now as hills visible in the landscape, not only in caves. Most of the human remains have been discovered in these hills, the escargotières . The removal of the incisors was much rarer than before, after the Iberomaurus it was mainly restricted to women. In this regard, regionally different practices can be identified around 9500 BP.
In Hergla, northern Tunisia, the manufacture of ceramics in situ has also been demonstrated. This means that the ceramics are also here earlier than the beginning Neolithic, as can already be proven in the Middle East and in numerous other areas. Pre-Neolithic pottery was found in El Mermouta and El Mirador in northern Algeria. Apparently the hunters, fishermen and gatherers adopted Neolithic innovations, but stuck with their previous lifestyle. In addition, there was a kind of long-distance trade or exchange, including by sea, technological innovations and limited settlements, as well as the formation of food stocks. In Aïn Misteheyia in eastern Algeria, the adaptability of these societies to climatic changes has been demonstrated. Possibly the people of the Capsien belong to the ancestors of the Berbers.
Neolithic (before 5600 BC)
For some time, cereal grains were kept in ceramic layers as a sign of early Neolithic Morocco. The plants and animals, but also the impresso goods, came from southern Spain. The process began later in eastern Morocco and Algeria. Sites like Hassi Ouenzga show that diversified ceramics of local types first appeared, then domesticated animals.
The data determined up to 2012 for ancient Neolithic finds from the "Rif Oriental" project extend to 5600 BC. BC, the latest data from the coastal stations are probably even older. The Ifri Ouzabor site shows an epipalaeolithic layer under the Early Neolithic. The finds of the upper layer are already here around 6500 BC. And are therefore a thousand years younger than the previous end date of Ibéromaurusien in the hinterland of the coast (Ifri el-Baroud). It is possible that the sought-after continuity of the Epipalaeolithic to the Early Neolithic can be proven here.
In any case, there seems to have been no continuity between the hunter-gatherer cultures and the Neolithic cultures in the west and north of Morocco. However, the custom of removing the front teeth persisted. While it was now seldom found in the east of the Maghreb, it was present in 71% of individuals in the west and again affected men and women equally. This may speak for a continuity of the population.
The oldest rock carvings in the Maghreb were found at Ain Sefra and Tiout . On the mountain slopes of Mont Ksour up to El Bayadh there were pictures of ostriches, elephants and people. There are five phases in these rock art. From 9000 to 6000 BC The main engravings were made in the Bubalus phase, named after the Asian water buffalo ( Bubalus ). This was followed by the first paintings (round head, 7000 to 6000 BC), followed by fine depictions of cattle, other domestic animals and people in the cattle era (4000 to 2000 BC). Corresponding depictions follow in the horse period (2500–1500 BC) and in the camel period (from 100 BC).
Libyans, Berbers, Imazighen
Perhaps since the Capsien, cultures of considerable continuity can be detected, which were later referred to as Libyans or their ancestors and which were long referred to as Berbers . However, this is not considered certain, which is why many authors prefer the traditional term “Libyan”, which was used quite differently by the Greeks. Due to the adoption of the Latin word for those who did not speak Latin, namely barbari , which in turn was transferred to the non-Arabic-speaking population, the region was often referred to as "barbaric". The "Berbers" call themselves Imazighen (singular: Amazigh).
From around 2500 BC The Sahara became drier again, which forced numerous groups to seek out more favorable areas, and many more areas became uninhabitable. Around 1500 BC The Middle Eastern influence grew stronger, with numerous rock carvings depicting horses and chariots on the Garamanten road .
Large burial mounds were found in Algeria , which, like in Mzora , had a diameter of up to 54 m. They can probably be assigned to the first millennium BC. The later tumuli already show Phoenician influences, although the hills date back to Libyans. A mausoleum known as Medracen probably dates from the 4th or 3rd century BC. Chr. And has a base diameter of 58.9 m. Several of the buildings from the pre-Islamic Berber period were presented to UNESCO as candidates for a World Heritage Site in 2002.
Written sources only set in the 2nd century BC. A. At that time, the Berber culture had not only become strongly regionalized, but was in constant exchange with the cultures of the Sahel , with Egypt and across the Mediterranean with southern Europe and the Middle East. Only in this stage of increasing sedentariness, the emergence of villages with large necropolises and a corresponding architecture of the tombs, the emergence of tribal , later monarchical traditions as well as the influence of Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans and the emergence of our own script do we receive albeit dry written records.
In Chemtou , the ancient Simitthus in the northwest of Tunisia, there were bas-reliefs. It is possible that the depictions were local gods, similar to Béja, where the depictions probably date from the 3rd century AD. However, while in Borj Hellal from the 1st century BC A goddess is still in the center of attention in BC, the male counterpart is already in the center of attention in Beja , which is four centuries younger . Nevertheless, as Roman sources attest, the dii mauri , the Moorish gods, persisted.
In addition to these gods, Baal Hammon and Tanit played the central roles in the Phoenician regions . However, the goddess Tanit played almost no role among the Libyans. The influence of the Punic religion on the Berbers was reinterpreted early in research. Until our century, the historical imagination was all too often determined by the view of the Carthaginian human sacrifices, which cannot be dismissed there. But only one source pointed to such sacrifices among the Libyans. These Mauri , Maurusii , Masylii etc. were considered friendly by the Eastern Romans . For the hostile Berbers, however, names like Nasamon or Marmarides came into use at this time , groups that lived in the area of today's state of Libya. As evidence for human sacrifice, which is supposed to have existed until the 6th century AD, the often cited passage in Goripp is not, however, as recent studies show.
Carthage, Mauritania and Numidia
The areas of Algeria have been settled by Berbers since the beginning of historical tradition. Towards the end of the 3rd century BC The Kingdom of Numidia in the east and the Kingdom of Mauritania , which included northern Morocco as well as western Algeria, came into being.
Around 600 BC The trading metropolis Carthage dominated , which according to legend 814 BC. BC by Phoenicians had been developing. The city secured a spacious hinterland. At the latest by 580 BC it came to grief. BC with the Greek colonists in Sicily in conflicts that flared up again and again, which sparked off in the Carthaginian-Phoenician colonies in the west of the island and in trade competition. A chain of bases reached as far as the Atlantic coast, some of them were foundations of Carthage, such as Hippo Regius , Bejaia or Tipasa .
Mauritania, Massyler and Masaesyler
Expansion of Carthage, First Punic War, Mercenary War (until 237 BC)
Around 250 BC The Carthaginians advanced on the plateau of Theveste in the extreme east of Algeria.
In the middle of the first war against Rome , Hanno undertook in 247 BC An expedition to the west that took him to Theveste, while Hamilkar Barkas sailed to Sicily. Possibly took place after the mercenary war - it found 241-237 BC. After the end of the First Punic War - another Numidic War took place. Or maybe it was just the crackdown on those Numidians who had joined the mercenary uprising. It is unclear to what extent this external pressure caused the Berber groups to establish a royal rule.
The Second Punic War, Massinissa and Syphax (until 202 BC)
Gaia, the father of Massinissa , was probably the first king of the Massylers, the easternmost of the three Numider kingdoms. The narrow area lay between the area of Carthage and that of the Masaesylers, with the border town of Cirta , today's Constantine , repeatedly causing fights between the two Numider empires. Among the Massylers, the proportion of the permanent rural population was considerably higher than further to the west. Gaia's son Massinissa was raised in Carthage and had access to the highest circles there. He was trained in Punic war techniques and allied himself with Carthage in the fight against Syphax , the king of western Numidia, during the Second Punic War . He attacked Syphax together with a Punic army under Hasdrubal and forced the Roman allies to make peace with Carthage. 212 BC He crossed over to Spain with Hasdrubal, where he and his Numidian horsemen made a decisive contribution to the victory over the Romans under the brothers Publius Cornelius Scipio and Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus . 213 BC However, Syphax had changed the front and allied himself with the Romans, so that the Carthaginians had to quickly withdraw from Spain. The Carthaginians, for their part, sought a rapprochement with Gaia. Both sides tried to get Syphax to their side.
When Hasdrubal married his daughter Sophoniba to Syphax out of political calculation, namely to finally win him over as an ally, and when he also offered him the prospect of a successor to Gaia, Massinissa changed in 206 BC. On the side of Rome. But he was defeated by Syphax and driven out of eastern Numidia. His inheritance claim was also by no means secured. According to agnatic law, Gaia had appointed his brother Oezalces as his successor, but the old man soon died. However, he had two sons; the younger was a minor so that Capussa ascended the throne. Mazaetulla , who belonged to a warring line of the royal family, rose against the new king . In the fight between the pretenders, Capussa was killed. The victor transferred the throne to the dead brother's underage brother, Lacumaces , but Mazaetulla retained real power as guardian and regent. In addition, he married the widow of King Oezalces, a Carthaginian woman.
After these events, Massinissa crossed from Gades in southern Spain to Numidia without knowing how to return with his few men. King Baga of Mauritania asked him - he did not want to be drawn into the war between Rome and Carthage - 4,000 men at his disposal, who escorted him through the kingdom of Syphax and then withdrew. Massinissa established itself in Carthaginian territory and waged a guerrilla war there, which, however, was extremely costly for Carthage. Mazaetulla sent 4,000 soldiers and 2,000 horsemen under his general Buscar, who were so successful that Massinissa was able to escape with only 50 horsemen. But he was surrounded again at Clupa ( Kelibia ) and cut down to five men. Massinissa escaped and threw himself into a river with his few remaining ones. He was considered drowned, two of his four men were killed. Syphax was now the lord of both Numider realms.
But Massinissa was hiding in a cave where his men looked after him. When he set out to recapture his empire, he quickly found supporters among the Massylers. Soon he had 6,000 foot soldiers and 4,000 horsemen at his disposal again. He occupied strategically important heights between Cirta and Hippo Regius . But against the army of Verminas , the son of Syphax, Massinissa suffered a crushing defeat. Syphax allied itself in 204 BC. Finally with Carthage, for which his Carthaginian wife Sophoniba had set everything in motion. But only in the event of a war in Africa was Syphax obliged to support Carthage, not for the struggle across the Mediterranean.
When Scipio the Elder in 204 BC After landing in Africa, Massinissa came to the Roman military leader as an almost destitute refugee. When Syphax appeared with an army, Scipio had to break off the siege of Carthage. However, he let the opponents who stayed overnight in Numidian mapalia attack and burn down their huts. He himself attacked Hasdrubal's camp. Massinissa certainly contributed to the victory over Hasdrubal and Syphax in the attack. Together with Laelius , Massinissa fell into the realm of Syphax that same year. Hasdrubal and Syphax, who had a total of 30,000 men under arms, of whom 6000 were Celtiberians, finally lost in the plain of the Bagrada. Hasdrubal fled to Carthage, Syphax to Numidia. The returned Hannibal was finally defeated by Zama and had to 193 BC. Flee from Carthage. Carthage's territory was limited to Africa, the city had to deliver 10,000 talents of silver to Rome over the next 50 years , and the fleet had to be delivered up to ten ships. Carthage was officially declared an ally when Rome waged war against Macedonia and the Seleucids . The city even supplied grain and provided six of its ten ships. For Numidia, besides this power restriction, the most important contractual clause was that Carthage could no longer wage war without Roman consent.
Roman client kingdom Numidia (from 202 BC)
Scipio left Massinissa probably a third of the Roman army in order to enforce his inheritance claim against Syphax. He left the Roman troops behind to take Cirta, which only surrendered after Syphax had been brought up as a prisoner. Sophoniba, who was also captured by Massinissas, he tried to protect from Scipio's demands by immediately marrying her. She was already known to him as a child in 213 BC. Was promised. In the extradition claim against Massinissa, she herself argued that the Numidians and Carthaginians were Africans, which was supposed to unite them against the Roman invaders. Scipio also recognized after questioning the Syphax, who shifted all the blame on Sophoniba, that the Carthaginian was an implacable enemy of Rome. When Scipio requested her extradition, Massinissa handed her the poison cup herself. Rome recognized Massinissa as King of Numidia. As a reward for the services rendered, he received the kingdom of Syphax. The valley of the Bagradas had to cede to Carthage again, any resistance to his demands was threatened by Rome with a reopening of the war. Cirta became the capital of Numidia.
Massinissa first abolished the agnatic succession to the throne in order to secure the succession to his sons. Like Vermina before him, he had coins minted with his portrait , he wore a diadem according to the Hellenistic model and made sure that the eldest son was appointed heir to the throne. Especially in the west, where Vermina disappeared in an unknown way, the possibilities of rule were very limited. Towards the end of his reign he was faced with the uprising of a grandson of Syphax named Arcobarzanes . First, however, Massinissa encountered between 200 and 193 BC. BC to the west against Vermina, while Baga remained neutral. 195 or 193 BC Chr. Massinissa, who reclaimed the territory owned by his father Gaia, attacked Carthaginian places. 182 BC There was another attempt at expansion, again envoys from both parties went to Rome. Massinissa had to surrender the 70 cities he had conquered according to the Carthaginian complaint, but occupied them again a few years later. Much later he succeeded in 161 BC The occupation of the city of Lepcis, later Leptis Magna in Tripolitania .
Third Punic War, division of the Numider Empire (150 to 118 BC)
151 BC The Massinissas party was driven out of Carthage. However, Hasdrubal's army was defeated by Massinissa. The general had to promise to forego all disputed territory and to pay 5000 talents of silver. The rest of his army was disarmed and had to withdraw without weapons, but was attacked and killed on the way by Gulussa , Massinissa's son. Massinissa supported the Romans who ruled the city in 146 BC. Destroyed, reluctantly against Carthage. He died right at the beginning of the war in 149 BC. At the age of 90 years. At his request, Scipio the Younger divided his kingdom among the king's sons Micipsa (until 118 BC), Gulussa and Mastanabal .
Succession dispute and Jugurthin War (118 to 105 BC)
Micipsa initially played an important role in the further development; he survived his two brothers and, after thirty years of reign, in 118 BC. BC died. But his brother Mastanabal had two sons who played an even more important role in the dynastic development, namely Jugurtha , who was 118/112 to 105, and Gauda , who was 105 to 88 BC. Was king of Numidia.
After Micipsa's death, his sons Adherbal and Hiempsal and his nephew Jugurtha, whom he had adopted, were to become his successors and divide Numidia into three domains. Jugurtha, in contrast to his half-brothers Adherbal and Hiempsal, did not descend from Micipsa's favorite wife, which excluded him from his rightful claim to the throne. Micipsa felt compelled to send him to Spain, where he helped in the siege of Numantia at the side of his future opponent Marius .
As Micipsa 118 BC Died, the expected dispute for heir to the throne broke out. During negotiations, Jugurtha had Hiempsal murdered, but Adherbal was able to flee. 116 BC After Jugurtha had bribed the right men in Rome, Rome agreed to partition Numidia between Jugurtha and Adherbal. In 112 Jugurtha attacked the capital Cirta and had Adherbal executed along with the entire male population of the city. Roman traders were also killed, forcing the Senate to intervene.
But even the military operations that led to the Jugurthin War were only carried out half-heartedly, because Jugurtha controlled part of the Roman upper class. 111 BC BC Consul Lucius Calpurnius Bestia went to Numidia, but he concluded a peace that was advantageous for Jugurtha. Thereupon the tribune invited Gaius Memmius Jugurtha to Rome, where he was supposed to give an account before a popular assembly about whether he had not bought the advantageous conditions. The fact that this hearing should not take place in front of the Senate but in front of a popular assembly was a break with Rome's foreign policy tradition and also an indicator of the political tensions. Jugurtha did come to Rome, but the assembly waived the veto of a tribune's questioning. When Jugurtha had a possible rival murdered in Numidia from Rome, he had to flee Rome. After his return to Numidia, Jugurtha is said to have uttered the sentence that everything and everyone in Rome can be bought.
Beginning of 109 BC Rome suffered a serious defeat in Numidia when Aulus Postumius and his army were forced to surrender. Jugurtha demanded an extremely generous treaty with Rome as a peace condition, in which he would have been made a foedus (ally), which should secure his usurped power to the outside world. But the contract was not recognized by the Senate. A new commander should end the war. 107 BC BC Gaius Marius was elected consul and charged with suppressing the Jugurtha uprising. He reformed the army first and his newly formed army was able to defeat the Numid several times, so that Jugurtha had to flee to Mauritania. One of Marius' commanders named Sulla , negotiated the extradition of Jugurtha from his father-in-law Bocchus I of Mauritania . Jugurtha was executed in Rome in the Tullianum . Gauda , a half-brother of Jugurthas, and Bocchus inherited his empire .
Gauda was followed by his son Hiempsal II , to whom Marius fled from Sulla. But there he was imprisoned and could only free himself with the help of the king's daughter. The Marian party under Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus raised a Numid named Hiarbas against Hiempsal, who lived in 81 BC. Was overthrown. Thereupon Gnaeus Pompeius sailed to Africa to reinstate the king. According to Sallust (Jugurtha, 17) the king was the author of a Numidian story in the Punic language.
Caesar, Pompey, Juba I. - End of the Numidian monarchies (46 and 33 BC)
Juba I , a son of Hiempsal II, ruled around 60 BC. BC to 46 BC The Kingdom of Numidia. When the Roman civil war broke out between Caesar and Pompey , Juba allied himself with the latter. He destroyed 49 BC The army of Gaius Scribonius Curio fighting for Caesar . But three years later he was defeated with the supporters of the now dead Pompey in the battle of Thapsus . Juba fled towards Numidia, but his capital Cirta refused entry. In a hopeless situation, the king arranged a duel with his companion, Marcus Petreius , in which both were killed.
Bocchus I, who lived until 108 BC. He had kept neutral afterwards Jugurtha, who had promised him a third of his empire, supported him, but 105 BC. He had handed it over to the Romans. They now recognized him as a "friend of the Roman people". After his death in 80 BC His sons Bocchus II and Bogudes followed him . After the death of the latter, the divided Mauritania, whose western part Bogudes had ruled, was reunited. But with the death of Bochus II, Mauritania fell in 33 BC. At Rome.
Part of the Roman Empire
Provinces, border security, urbanization in the north
After Caesar's victory over the Pompeians and thus over Juba I, the Massylian empire was divided up and huge state estates arose. The eastern part of East Massylia became part of the Africa nova province newly created by Caesar . The western part of East Massylia, i.e. the area around Cirta, went to the adventurer Publius Sittius , who distributed the land to his soldiers and established a Roman colony , the Colonia Cirta Sittianorum . Bocchus II of Mauritania, a friend of Sittius and also an ally of Caesar in the war against Juba, received Western Massylia and Eastern Massylia, i.e. the area around Sitifis .
The Kingdom of Mauritania was founded in 33 BC. Chr. Bequeathed to Rome in will by King Bocchus II. Augustus put Juba II in 25 BC. As ruler over the resulting Roman client state . In 23 AD his son Ptolemy followed him to the throne. He put down a revolt directed against Rome. On the occasion of Ptolemy's visit to Rome, Emperor Caligula had him murdered in AD 40. He annexed the leaderless empire, and the resistance to the occupation was suppressed that same year. Claudius divided the territory of the former kingdom into the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis with the capital Caesarea ( Cherchell ) and Mauretania Tingitana with the capital Volubilis .
With the Limes Mauretaniae an attempt was made to secure the southern border of Mauritania and Numidia in the long term, similar to other borders of the empire. The Limes of the two Mauritanian provinces, however , was not conceivable as a continuous fortified border wall because of the enormous length of the border, which stretched from the Atlantic to the eastern border of the Caesariensis province. Instead, barriers (clausurae) were primarily built in the valleys of the Atlas, as well as trenches (fossata), ramparts, but also a number of watchtowers and forts. The facilities were connected by a road network designed according to strategic aspects. Depending on the type of cooperation with the individual trunks, you could either dispense with backups or thin them out. The expansion of the border was intensified at the beginning of the 1st century AD and extended the borders further south until the 3rd century.
To the north of Schott el Hodna , a salt lake in the area of the central Algerian Monts du Hodna, there were a number of clausurae, which consisted of ramparts, adobe walls or rampart and ditch systems up to a length of 60 km and thus narrowed the valley passages . The area of the province of Mauretania Caesariensis was secured by a line of fortifications running along the 700 km long cheliff , which consisted of a series of forts built under Hadrian , about 30 to 50 km apart. In the north-west of the province, the Rif Mountains drop steeply into the sea and thus interrupt the land route between the provinces. The Severians had a number of forts built in the western Caesariensis. The last fort in this series was Numerus Syrorum ( Maghnia ), which was in the extreme west of the province in front of the Tlemcen Mountains. The Hadrianic chain of fort on the Cheliff River now served as an additional barrier and containment line.
The most important city in the Roman Numidia was next to the Municipium Lambaesis , under Septimius Severus capital of the province of Numidia and Philip the Arab colony was the colony Thamugadi . In contrast to Lambaesis, Thamugadi was founded as a new foundation in a previously uninhabited place. The old capital of the Syphax, Cirta, which became a colony whose territory included Tiddis , about 15 km away , was also of importance.
240 Sabinianus was proclaimed emperor in Carthage; his estates were near Thysdrus and his father had made his fortune by exporting olive oil to Italy. The usurpation was put down by the governor of Mauritania that same year.
Roman religion
The Roman religion came to North Africa mainly in the form of the triad Jupiter , Juno and Minerva . Even Mars played an important role as a god of war in certain environments it came up since Augustus the imperial cult . In addition to the official religion, the worship of old gods continued, who only received the new names. The Roman gods, for their part, were modified in the new environment. Saturn and Baal , Caelestis and Tanit could thus merge.
Christianization (from around 200)
Donatists
When the Donatists came up, they supported many insurgent Berbers, such as Firmus or his brother Gildon in 396. They went back to Donatus of Carthage . He was primate of the group from 315 to 355 . When the Roman Church took in those who had fallen away under the pressure of persecution, the Donatists, who refused to take up again, parted with the Church, which was close to Rome. A group of Donatists, the agonists , which Augustine of Hippo disparagingly referred to as "circumcellions", as "drifters", combined religious and social protest and tried to enforce their ideas of equality by force until the 7th century. This escalation was triggered by a colonial uprising in 320. Due to the conflict with the Donatists, Augustine, who was Bishop of Hippo from 395 to 430 , became the leading figure in the African Church. He also used state violence to persecute and convert the Donatists.
Tombs of Tiaret (Djedars)
French archeology uses the archaeological term “djedar” to describe thirteen tombs about 30 km south of Tiaret with Christian iconography . Three of them were found on Jabal Lakhdar , ten on Jabal Arawi , 6 km further south. There are great similarities with the older, smaller Berber bazinas , so that the larger structures go back to Berber traditions despite Christian iconography and the use of Roman construction techniques. It is unclear whether the dynasts in the region were themselves Christians, or just their subjects. In the large Djedars, which are up to 46 m long and originally up to 13 m high, there were burial chambers. The tomb complexes were surrounded by low walls. The few Latin inscriptions are almost illegible. The largest Djedar contains inscriptions on recycled tombstones and from other structures ranging from 202/03 to 494. The three Djedars on Lakhdar are probably the oldest, of them again the largest, Djedar A , is also the oldest (4th century). The craftsmen's marks show that Djedar B was built a little later by the same group of craftsmen. Remains of a coffin from this building could be dated to 410 ± 50. The larger group, from which a find from Djedar F could be dated to the year 494, probably comes from the 6th or 7th century. Assignments to some of the few known Berber kings and emperors from this period have so far remained speculative.
Revolt of the Firmus (until 375)
In 370 or 372 to 375 the Mauritanian prince's son Firmus rebelled against whom the Roman governor of Africa had intrigued. Emperor Valentinian sent his general Flavius Theodosius , the father of the later Emperor Theodosius I, against him . He refused the submission offered by Firmus. After the military defeat, Firmus took his own life.
Vandal Empire (429 to 535)
In the course of the Great Migration , 429 maybe 50,000 (Prokop) or 80,000 Vandals and Alans under the leadership of Geiseric crossed from southern Spain to Africa. This corresponded to a force of about 10,000 to 15,000 men. Some Berber tribes supported them, as did supporters of Donatism, who hoped for protection from persecution by the Roman state church. In 435 Rome concluded a treaty with the Vandals, in which they received the two provinces of Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis, as well as Numidia .
On October 19, 439 they conquered Carthage in breach of the treaty, and the fleet stationed there fell into their hands. 442 had to Valentinian III. acknowledge the facts created. With the help of the fleet, the Vandals managed to conquer Sardinia , Corsica and the Balearic Islands . They sacked Rome in 455.
The Vandals hung the Arianism to, a faith that in the First Council of Nicaea to heresy had been declared. Property of the Catholic Church was confiscated in its sphere of influence. The relatively small group of conquerors sealed themselves off from the provincial Roman subjects. The colonies, which were tied to the ground, are only likely to have changed the gentlemen; the imperial goods were probably simply converted into royal goods and served the ruling dynasty.
It was not until the murder of Emperor Valentinian in 455 that Geiseric's dynastic plans to marry his son Hunerich to Eudocia, a princess from an imperial family, were destroyed. During the attack on Rome he first resorted to Moors, i.e. Berbers. Eudocia was married to Hunerich. Now Cirta also became part of the Vandal Empire, but at the same time the Roman territories, which had to a certain extent become ownerless, became small states of their own, which opposed the Vandal Empire in changing coalitions. In Algeria this happened (from west to east) mainly around Altava , Ouarsenis, Hodna, in the Aurés, around Nememcha and Capsa . Many Berbers, in turn, were recruited for the naval ventures in the western Mediterranean.
After attempts by Rome to conquer the Vandal Empire, they plundered Sicily in 462, 463 and 465, with a defeat in 465. The victor Marcellinus succeeded in 466 in snatching Sardinia from the Vandals, but was sidelined. Another large-scale attempt, this time by Western and Eastern Roman troops to recapture Africa, failed in 468, and again in 470 - possibly by land via Tripolitania. In 472 the imperial crown went to Hunerich's brother-in-law Olybrius for a few months , so that Sicily fell to the Vandal Empire. In 474, Constantinople King Geiseric guaranteed the possession of Africa and the islands after the eventful battles over some of the western Greek islands and an attack on Nicopolis in Epirus .
After Geiserich's death in 477 he was succeeded by his eldest son Hunerich; he fought the Catholic Church more intensely and resorted to forced baptism. Apparently the Alans and Vandals opposed his succession, so that he tried to win the provincial Romans on his side. But the Catholic Church rejected a church that was independent of Rome and was forbidden from communicating with the Roman headquarters, so Hunerich turned against them. First, Hunerich struck down the inner-Germanic opposition, including the Patriarch of Carthage Iucundus . In two edicts , Hunerich closed all Catholic churches and called for a conversion to Arianism, similar to what earlier imperial edicts against heretics had done. He forced the bishops to take an oath on his son Hilderich as heir to the throne, but then made them colonists for violating the biblical ban on oaths. Those who refused to take the oath were exiled to Corsica and subjected to heavy physical labor.
484 Hunerich died suddenly towards the end of the year. His successor Thrasamund continued church politics, but allowed the establishment of monasteries. In 500 he married Amalafrida , the widowed sister of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric , who meanwhile ruled Italy. Nevertheless, the vandals lost their reputation, on the one hand because they did not support the Ostrogoths, on the other hand because they could not find any means against the Berbers, who were occupying Vandal territory piece by piece. In the meantime, this applied not only to Algeria, but also to the heartland in what is now Tunisia. The Albertini tablets document the unsafe situation in northwestern Tunisia around the Djebel Mrata as early as 493 to 496.
With Masuna , a "Rex Maurorum et Romanorum" appears in the sources for the first time, whose territory perhaps extended as far as the Aurès Mountains in southern Numidia. The title is an indication that the Moors in no way have to be understood as an ethnic term, but that numerous Romans can also be subsumed under it. When the Vandal king gave up the alliance with the Ostrogoth king, Theoderic planned a campaign of revenge, but he died in 526. At the same time, King Hilderic distanced himself from Arianism. The Moors, led by a certain Antalas, defeated a vandal army in eastern Tunisia. On June 15, 530 a conspiracy overturned in which a great-grandson of Geiseric named Gelimer played a central role, King Hilderic.
Soon the Vandals found it difficult to fight off attacks by the Moors. Masties made themselves completely independent and ruled the hinterland. He fought the Arians and possibly had himself proclaimed emperor. When Gelimer sat on the throne, Ostrom regarded him as a usurper . In 533 16,000 men landed in Africa under the leadership of the Eastern Roman general Belisarius . The realm of the Vandals went under after the Battle of Tricamarum .
Eastern Byzantium on the coastline (from 533), Berber empires in the hinterland
Eastern Roman military and civil administration, diocese, exarchate
Carthage became the seat of an Eastern Roman governor, a Praetorian prefect who was responsible for civil affairs and to whom six governors were subordinate. For the military sector, a Magister militum was appointed for imperial North Africa, to which four generals were subordinate. However, this system was flexible, so that occasionally there were two masters, or civil and military offices were in one hand. The Magister militum was also used as an honorary title without authority. The bishop of Carthage received the dignity of a metropolitan from the emperor in 535. There were a total of seven provinces, namely Proconsularis, Byzacium, Tripoli, Numidia, two Mauritania and Sardinia. There were also five Duces in Tripolitania (based in Leptis Magna ), Byzacium ( Capsa and Thelepte ), Numidia ( Constantina ), Mauritania ( Caesarea ) and the Dux of Sardinia . But here too a district could have two duces ; In addition , caution is advised with the term Dux , which appears frequently in the sources, but which initially no longer means a leader .
In 590, the Carthage Exarchate was created to pool military and civilian powers . The first exarch Gennadios (591-598) defeated the Moors. Around 600 Herakleios the Elder , the father of the emperor of the same name, became Exarch of Carthage, probably he was the successor of Gennadios. In 610 Herakleios overthrew the Eastern Roman usurper Phocas from Carthage by traveling with the Carthaginian fleet to Constantinople. When the Persians conquered large parts of the Eastern Roman Empire from 603, like Egypt in 619, Emperor Herakleios had plans to move the capital to Carthage. This did not happen, because he was able to defeat the Persians from 627 onwards.
Stotzas rebellion, support in Mauretania
When 536 parts of the garrison troops in Africa rebelled against the Eastern Roman general Solomon, they elected Stotza's soldiers as their leader. With an army that included around a thousand vandals and a few slaves in addition to the rebels , he besieged Carthage. According to Prokop , two thirds of the garrison troops had joined the rebels. When Belisarius landed back in Africa, Stotzas lifted the siege and withdrew to Membressa , but was defeated by Belisarius. Now Stotzas fled to Numidia, but was able to win another battle. General Germanus , a relative of the Emperor Justinian , was able to convince numerous rebels to defend, whereupon Stotzas sought battle and was defeated at Cellas Vatari, although behind his army there were some ten thousand Moors under Jabdas and Ortaias. But some tribes made alliances to Germanus even before the battle. Stotzas fled with a few faithful to Altava in Mauretania, where he married the daughter of a prince and is said to have assumed the title of king in 541. In 544 he invaded the province of Africa, gathered with rebels under Antalas, who had summoned him, but was killed by an arrow in a battle the next year, even if his army was victorious.
Striving for autonomy, Berber empires, Antalas and Cusina
This shows not only conflicts within the army and between military leaders, but also the fact that the Berber regions, above all Numidia, played an increasingly independent role. The Berber striving for autonomy had already intensified by the time of the Vandals; possibly further promoted by the religious policy of the Germanic peoples. At least some Berber groups adapted the Roman legitimation model and called themselves rex gentis Ucutamani (CIL. VIII. 8379). The Berber leader Masties ruled a territory in the Aurès. In order to legitimize his rule with the Roman provincials, after 476 - probably in 484 in connection with a rebellion of the Berbers against the Vandal King Hunerich mentioned by Prokop - he possibly accepted the imperial title and professed himself a Christian. An inscription attributes Masties 67 years as dux and 10 (according to another reading: 40) as “ imperator ” over “Romans and Moors”. The reign is thus either 484 to 494 or 476/477 to 516. Masties' “imperialism” has not been recognized by either Zeno or Anastasios I. A third inscription, this time from Altava , names a Masuna as king over "Romans and Moors", a title that perhaps goes back to a Roman, but possibly also to a Vandal rulership. The extent to which the Vandals also adopted those of the Germanic successor empires in addition to Roman models has long been researched, but the question of the extent to which the Berbers influenced the Vandal Empire, who apparently also saw themselves as legitimate successors and heirs of the Roman Empire, can hardly be answered.
Although the Vandal empire collapsed within a year of the eastern Roman attack, wars broke out that lasted more than twelve years; first within the army, then under the side of the Berbers. In 546, the dux Numidiae Guntarith and Johannes failed with another attempt at usurpation or vandalism. Belisar's successor Solomon had the fortresses expanded, and he managed to recapture long-lost areas, for example south of the Aurès. Many city walls were reinforced, such as those of Thugga and Vaga ( Béja ). The further hinterland of the provincial capital increasingly escaped the control of Constantinople. Berber rebellions contributed to this, such as 545-547 in Byzacena, the southern province in what is now Tunisia, then 563 in Numidia, the southern and western province of Numidia Zeugitana . Under Emperor Justin II a Byzantine army suffered a defeat, 587 insurgent Berbers stood before Carthage. The role of the Berber princes remained unclear, and people liked to talk about the popular character of the Berbers in order to negate this lack of clarity.
In 2003, Yves Modéran presented a fundamental study on the history of the Berbers. According to him, a distinction must be made between “internal” and “external” Berbers. The former were primarily the Romanized groups of the provinces of Byzacium and Numidia, i.e. eastern Algeria and Tunisia, the latter came from the east, i.e. from the area of today's state of Libya. While the "internal" Berbers integrated themselves into the Roman system of rule that spanned the entire Mediterranean in the late Roman period, they retained their tribal structure. Titles like praefectus gentis or princeps gentis were able to legitimize internal rule. In the time of the vandals, however, there was again increased tribalization. It was even belonging to a tribe that actually made the Berber what it was, while the Roman language, Christianity or title in no way diminished this membership. The “external” Berbers, on the other hand, were hostile to Roman culture and later to Christianity.
When the Vandals had been defeated, but still offered resistance, Berber envoys from Mauretania, Numidia and Byzacena appeared at the victorious general Belisarius and offered to place them under the imperial rule. But they demanded an investiture, probably an installation in their offices secured by Roman titles. The princes Antalas, Cusina and Iaudas, who played a central role in the rest of the story, are likely to have subordinated themselves accordingly. Antalas, born around 499, son of the prince of the Frexes named Gunefan, had already started fighting the vandals in 529. As a result of his victory over the Vandal Army in 530, the coup that had given Constantinople the legitimacy to intervene had come about.
When the Moors in the Byzacena rose against the east in 534/535, Antalas remained on the emperor's side. One of the leaders of the uprising was said Cusina, whose mother was a "Roman". He was therefore called Afrer , as the Roman-Berber population was called. The antagonism between Antalas and Cusina was decisive for the progress of the fighting.
After his defeat against Ostrom and Antalas, Cusina fled to Prince Iaudas in Numidia, who after Modéran was the worst known of the three Berber princes, but probably the most influential. He had risen in 535 in the eastern Algerian Aurès against Ostrom and now he took on Cusina. In 537 Solomon attacked him unsuccessfully, who was able to defeat him in 539. Iaudas did not surrender, however, but fled to Mauretania, what initially became of Cusina is not known. In 542 to 543 the region suffered the great plague , so that there was no further fighting. However, when Solomon 543 or 544 withdrew the promised subsidies from Antalas and even had his brother Guarizila executed, Antalas allied himself with the Berbers living in Libya on the Syrte, the Lawata . Under their priest-king Ierna, these “external” Berbers now moved west and sacked Roman territory - which had never happened before. Solomon was defeated against the Lawata and Antalas in a battle and was killed.
That could have ended the conflict between Solomon and Antalas. Antalas continued to regard himself as subordinate to the emperor, but since the death of his brother demanded that the nephew and successor of Solomon, who in his eyes was his brother's murderer, be recalled. With Constantinople not responding to this demand, the struggle continued and the Berbers captured Hadrumetum, today's Sousse .
In the following year 545, the Dux Numidiens, who were forging plans against Constantinople, contacted Antalas. In fact, Antalas as well as Cusina and Iaudas now supported the usurper Guntarith to march together on Carthage. The rivals Antalas and Cusina each conducted secret negotiations and tried to gain advantages. However, Guntarith heard about the negotiations of Cusina, but the negotiator knew nothing of his defection from the emperor. Guntarith had this negotiator named Areobindus murdered; at the same time Antalas was now aware of the betrayal of Cusina.
Guntarith sent the head of the Areobindus to Antalas, but he did not send the required troops and the money. Thereupon Antalas dropped Guntarith and submitted to the emperor. On the other hand, Cusina took Guntarith's side more openly. Roman troops under the Armenian Artabanes and troops under Cusina attacked Antalas together and defeated him, which could have ended the war between the two warring Berbers again. However, Artabanes had his own plans. After this victory he returned to Carthage, justified there why he had not pursued and destroyed Antalas further, and murdered Guntarith at a feast. He then left the province at his own request. He wanted to marry Praejecta, the widow of the murdered Areobindus and niece of Emperor Justinian, whom Guntarith had wanted to marry. The emperor appointed him the new magister militum of Africa. Although he was already married, Artabanes became engaged to Praejecta. A little later Artabanes was called back to Constantinople, and Johannes Troglita was his successor as army master . Artabanes' wife traveled to the capital and Empress Theodora urged Artabanes to stay with his wife. He was only able to divorce her after Theodora's death in 548, but Praejecta had since been remarried.
Johannes now led the fight against the Berbers, especially against Antalas, who had changed sides again, probably because this time too he had not received any wages for his work. Ostrom drew conclusions from this change of front insofar as his now ally Cusina received Roman troops - under his command. Antalas lost 546; Cusina and Iaudas fought on John's side. The Berbers from the Syrte, dispersed after the battle, rallied under Carcasan, who was also joined by the forces of Antalas, but in 548 they were finally defeated by John's army.
Again Antalas became a Roman ally, this time together with Cusina, even if their old enmity might have persisted. The latter even received the title of Exarch of the Moors . But the East Romans tried again to stop paying. Cusina was even murdered. But now his sons wandered the provinces, pillaging and murdering. Without honorary titles and payments to the increasingly autonomous Berber groups, peace on the extremely long border was hardly conceivable.
Arab expansion, Islamization
Foundation and first phase of expansion, split into Sunnis and Shiites
After the death of the founder of the religion, Mohammed, in 632, the Muslim coalition he founded threatened to break up. His successor Abū Bakr apparently recognized that the war of conquest was essential for their continued existence. Those who refused to pay the war tax were attacked accordingly, and the last resistance on the Arabian Peninsula collapsed in 634. From 634 to 640 Palestine and from 639 to 642 Egypt, together with Syria and Iraq, were conquered. In 636, the Muslims achieved decisive victories over the Eastern Roman and Sassanid empires at the Yarmuk in Syria and at Qadisiyya in Iraq, which had fought each other with the use of all their forces just a few years earlier.
According to Muslim tradition, both the Umayyads and the Prophet Mohammed descended from Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy , a member of the Quraish tribe. His son, Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf , became the progenitor of the Umayyads. Abd Shams' son Umayya ibn Abd Shams was named after the Umayyads. After Mohammed had to flee to Medina with his followers in 622 and there was subsequent fighting against Mecca, members of the Umayyad family assumed leading positions on the side of the Meccans. In the later course of the fighting, Abū Sufyan ibn Harb was their leader at the head of Meccan politics. In the end, however, he had to surrender to Mohammed and converted to Islam himself shortly before the Muslim troops conquered Mecca in 630.
After the Prophet's death, Muawiya , a son of Abu Sufyan, took part in the campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire and was rewarded in 639 with the post of governor of Syria. 644 with ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān even a member of the Umayyad clan was elected caliph. In contrast to the rest of his family, Uthman was one of the earliest supporters of Muhammad and had already been there when he escaped from Mecca in 622. When assigning influential posts, he favored his relatives to a large extent, so that an opposition to his rule soon formed. In 656 he was finally murdered in Medina. ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib , the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, was elected to succeed him.
But Ali's election as caliph was not universally recognized by Muslims. As a supporter of the murdered Uthman, Muawiya was also proclaimed caliph in Damascus in 660 . This was the first time that the Muslim community (the Umma ) was divided. The result was the first Fitna , the first civil war of the Islamic empire. Although Muawiya was able to assert his rule after Ali's murder by the Kharijites in 661 and establish the Umayyad dynasty, he was still not recognized as the rightful ruler by the followers of Ali. The result was a schism between Sunnis and Shiites .
Second phase of expansion, Berber resistance, Islamization
Under Muawiya I , the Arabs resumed their expansion , which had temporarily stalled due to internal disputes, from 661 onwards. From 664 new Arab attacks to the west followed. Africa was recaptured after the Eastern Roman exarch, together with the Berber prince Kusaila ibn Lemzem , had been crushed by Uqba ibn Nafi near Biskra in 683 . In 698 the general Hassan ibn an-Numan besieged Carthage with 40,000 men. Emperor Leontios sent a fleet under the later Emperor Tiberios II. They fought with varying success, but when they moved to Crete to pick up reinforcements, the besiegers succeeded in capturing and destroying the city.
Uqba's successor Abu al-Muhadschir Dinar was able to win over the "Berber king" Kusaylah in Tlemcen for Islam, who dominated the Awrāba clans in the Aurès as far as the area around the Moroccan Fez . When Uqba returned to office, he insisted on direct Arab rule and moved as far as the Atlantic. On the way back he was attacked on the orders of Kusaylah and with Eastern Roman support and killed in a battle. Against Kusaylah, Damascus dispatched Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawī , who recaptured Kairuan and defeated Kusaylah (before 688). A second Arab army under Ḥassān ibn al-Nuʿmān encountered heavy resistance from the Jawāra in the Aurès from 693 onwards. They were led by Damja, who was briefly called al-Kahina , the priestess, and defeated the Arabs in a battle in 698. In 701 the Arabs also defeated al-Kahina.
The Arab genealogists distinguish in these disputes between Barānis, to which Kusayla belonged and who were mostly sedentary, and Butr, to which the horsemen of the Zanāta belonged, and to which they also counted the people of the Kāhiina. The Barānis were heavily influenced by Roman culture and were often Christian; they divided into two groups, namely the Maṣmṣda of central and southern Morocco and the Ṣanhāğa. This nomadic group living in the desert, to which the settled Kutāma of eastern Algeria belonged, later produced the Almoravids . The Zanāta failed to establish a permanent empire and they were forced to move to Morocco. Many of them went to Spain. Numerous Jews also lived in the Maghreb, which contributed to the legend that the Confederation of Kāhina was Jewish. Christianity disappeared in the course of the following generations, but it can still be proven in the 11th century in Kairouan .
Kairuan later became the starting point for expeditions to the northern and western Maghreb. After stubborn resistance, most of the Berbers converted to Islam, mainly by joining the armed forces of the Arabs; culturally, however, they found no recognition, because the new masters treated them with as much contempt as the Greeks and Romans once had of their neighbors. They also adopted the Greek word barbaric for those who had not learned their language or who had not learned it enough in their eyes. Therefore the Imazighen (singular: Amazigh) are still called Berbers today . They were paid less in the army and their wives were sometimes enslaved, as with subjugated peoples. Only Umar II (717–720) forbade this practice and sent Muslim scholars to convert the Imazighen. In the Ribats Although religious schools have been set up, but there are numerous Berber joined the denomination of the Kharijites , which proclaimed the equality of all Muslims regardless of their race or social class. Resentment against the Umayyad rule increased. As early as 740, a first uprising of the Kharijites began near Tangier under the Berber Maysara . In 742 they controlled all of Algeria and threatened Kairuan.
The Warfajūma Berbers ruled the south in league with moderate Kharijites. They succeeded in conquering the north of Tunisia in 756. But another moderate Kharijite group, the Ibāḍiyyah from Tripolitania, proclaimed an imam who saw himself on the same level as the caliph and conquered Tunisia in 758. At Tawurga, in 761 these Ibadites, most of whom were Berbers, were defeated by the Arab Muslims. Their Imam Abū l-Chattāb al-Maʿāfirī was killed in the battle, as were 14,000 of his followers. Although the Abbasids succeeded in conquering large parts of the rebellious territory, they were only able to assert themselves in Tripolitania, Tunisia and Eastern Algeria. In addition, the reign that was painstakingly restored was very fragile. Ibrāhīm ibn al-Aghlab, who commanded the army in eastern Algeria and founded the Aghlabid dynasty, gradually made the country independent, but still formally recognized the rule of the Abbasids.
Aghlabids in the east (800 to 909), Kotama (approx. 900 to 911)
First Islamic empire founded in the eastern Maghreb
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In the year 800 the Abasid caliph Hārūn ar-Raschīd handed over his power over Ifrīqiya to the Emir Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab and gave him the right to inherit his function. With this the Aghlabid dynasty was founded, which ruled eastern Algeria, Tunisia and Tripolitania. Around 896 they moved their court to Tunis .
Most of the land belonged to large Arab landowners, while the ethnically mixed cities were burdened with high taxes. They and the Berbers invoked Islamic norms to protest against Arab dominance. Two of the four Sunni schools, the Hanafis and the Malikites , ruled the country; the former came to Algeria with the Abbasids, but most of them were attached to the latter. They appeared from the 820s as the people's defenders against the claims of the state and made high moral demands on a just government. In order to involve them more closely, many of their leaders were employed as kadis .
Tribal groups of the Berbers, dominance of the Kotama (until 911)
The large tribal groups of the Berbers in the Maghreb were the Zanāta , the Masmuda and the Ṣanhāǧa . While the Zanata lived in Morocco, the Ṣanhāǧa tribes settled in the Middle Atlas , but also expanded much further south. A part of the Ṣanhāǧa settled in eastern Algeria (Kutāmaberber) and formed an important pillar for the rise of the Fatimids . In contrast, the Moroccan Zanāta allied against the Fatimids with the Caliphate of Cordoba . Remaining groups of the Masmuda are the Haha around Algiers.
Already in Byzantine times, Berber associations had come together to form larger domains; their leaders were called kings. Above all, the Kotama or Kutāma managed to bind the neighboring tribes to themselves. In Algeria the Berber Kabyls are descendants of the Kutāma. The Kutama conquered Mila in 902 , Sétif in 905, Tobna and Bélezma followed in 905, and in 909 their leader Abū ʿAbdallāh al-Shīʿī (893–911) even managed to conquer Kairouan and Raqqada . In 893 he founded an extremely successful Shiite cell among the Kotama, the dār al-hiğra on Mount Ikğān near Mila (the name 'al-hiğra' was an allusion to the Hijra of Muhammad). Finally they reached far to the west in the direction of Sidschilmasa and freed their leader Abdallah al-Mahdi , who had been imprisoned there and who had passed himself off as a merchant since his escape from Syria, who would later become the first caliph of the Fatimid dynasty.
Both leaders, however, strove for secular rule, while the Berber leader only intended spiritual leadership for his ally. In an upheaval on February 18, 911, the Berber rule was overturned and its leaders murdered. As a result, Arabization intensified. The new rulers took over large parts of the Aghlabid ruling apparatus.
Fatimids (909 to about 1016/1045)
In December 909, Abdallah al-Mahdi had proclaimed himself caliph. He regarded the Sunni Umayyads on the Iberian Peninsula and the Sunni Abbasids as usurpers . He himself was a representative of the Ismailis , a radical wing of the Shiites , also known as the Shiite Seven. Since the middle of the 9th century, the Ismailis initially operated from their center of Salamiyya in northern Syria. They sent daʿis , missionaries, who made contact with opposition groups in the Abbasid Empire. From 901 they also appeared in the Kutama of Eastern Algeria. These eliminated the power of the Aghlabids. The Fatimid state now spread its influence over all of North Africa by bringing the caravanserais and thus the trade routes with Trans-Saharan Africa under its control. In 911 they again eliminated the Berbers, especially the Kutama, as rivals for supremacy in Ifriqiya. As a symbol of the new rule, the capital was moved to al-Mahdiya on the east coast of Tunisia, but the dynasty failed with the introduction of Sharia law .
The conquest of the western Maghreb began in 917. While it succeeded in taking Fez , but the Berbers of the West resisted successfully. In return, the Umayyads in Spain conquered Melilla and Ceuta in 927 and 931 . In contrast, the Takalata branch of the Ṣanhāǧa Confederation, to which the Kutama belonged, stood on the side of the Fatimids. But there could only be talk of real rule in Ifriqiya.
Ismail al-Mansur (946–953) succeeded the second Fatimid ruler, who died in 946 . Using the Berber Zirids (972-1149), who belonged to the Ṣanhāǧa, he could Banu Ifran subject in western Algeria and Morocco: The last great revolt of Kharijite Banu-Ifran tribe under Abu Yazid was put down after four years in the year 947 . The Banu Ifran had conquered large parts of the empire, but their coalition broke up during the siege of al-Mahdiya. Then the third Fatimid caliph took the nickname "al-Mansur". The Banu Ifran had founded a " caliphate " under Abu Qurra near Tlemcen between 765 and 786 , but had come under the rule of the Moroccan Magrawa . They were defeated by the Fatimids when they tried to form an alliance with Cordoba and were eventually driven to Morocco.
The fourth Fatimid caliph was Abu Tamim al-Muizz (953-975). From 955 he fought the Berbers and the Iberian Umayyads in the west. The conquest of Northwest Africa was completed in 968, after an armistice had been agreed with Byzantium in 967. So, relieved by internal crises in Egypt and on the Arabian Peninsula, the Fatimids succeeded in conquering the Egyptian Ichschidid Empire and Abbasid territories from 969 onwards. After temporary conquests in Syria, the Fatimids moved their residence to the newly founded Cairo . In 972, three years after the region was completely conquered, the Fatimid dynasty moved its base to the east. The focus of the vastly grown empire was now Egypt.
Escape of the Kharijites to central Algeria
Since the 9th century, Kharijites fled to the sparsely populated M'zab , especially Ibadites . These go back to ʿAbdallāh ibn Ibād (8th century). After their capital in Tahert was burned down in 909, they moved first to Sedrata and then to M'zab. There they expanded the oases with the help of irrigation systems and planted palm groves. Like many other groups, they are not recognized as Muslims by the rest of the Islamic world.
The five citadel-like towns or Ksour El Atteuf, Bou Noura, Beni Isguen, Mélika and today's capital Ghardaia were founded. Each is surrounded by a wall. Each city of the Mozabites represented a theocratic republic, with a council of twelve religious notables responsible for the administration of justice, while a council of lay people directed the administration. The mosques also served as arsenals and granaries as well as independent fortifications. The houses were built in several circles concentrically around the mosque and consist of one room of uniform size. El Atteuf is the oldest establishment. It was built from 1012 onwards. The other cities were built until around 1350.
The Ibadites of Algeria are called Mozabites . As head they only recognize an elected caliph who is recognized by God as the best Muslim. One of the first scientific papers was written in 1893.
Zirids (972 to 1149) and Ḥammādids, Banu Hillal, Disappearance of Christianity
Capital Cairo, Viceroyalty of the Zirids, Hammadids
To secure rule in the west, Caliph Abu Tamim al-Muizz placed rule over Ifriqiya in the hands of Buluggin ibn Ziri , who founded the Zirid dynasty. He was the son of Ziri ibn Manad , the main Fatimid ally in Algeria and namesake of the dynasty. Algiers was founded under its founder, Buluggin ibn Ziri († 984); he fought the Zanata tribes in the west. More precisely, Buluggin's capital was built between 935/936 and 978 in Aschir in the south of Algiers. In addition, Liliana and Médéa (Lamdiyya) became bases of his power.
When the Fatimids shifted the focus of the empire to Egypt, he was appointed Viceroy in Ifriqiya in 972. However, the Fatimids had taken the fleet with them so that the Kalbites could make themselves independent in Sicily. During a campaign in Morocco, Buluggin advanced to the Atlantic, but died. His son and successor al-Mansur ibn Ziri († 995) could not hold the conquests in the west. On the contrary, his heir and son Bādīs ibn Zīrī († 1016) had to lean more and more on his overlords in Cairo , because his right of inheritance was contested by his great-uncle Zāwī ibn Zīrī. Although this could be driven to the Iberian Peninsula , where he founded the kingdom of the Zirids of Granada (1012-1090).
More serious, however, was that an empire could not be prevented by his uncle Hammād. With Qalat Banu Hammad he established his own residence near Bidschaya . In 1015 the Banu Hammad finally made themselves independent in eastern Algeria; against them, the Zirids received no support from the Cairo Fatimids. With the displacement of the Zanata from western Algeria to Morocco, the Sanhadscha became the masters of the central Maghreb. The inhabitants of the conquered Tlemcen were deported to the capital Aschir. The Ziride al-Mansur (984-996) failed when trying to control Sidschilmassa and Fez.
Independence of the Zirids, Bedouin invasion, Arabization, Sunnis
Now the Zirids, for their part, gained independence from the Fatimids. First, the underage al-Muʿizz took the throne in 1016 († 1062). He was under the tutelage of an aunt until 1022. In 1016 there was an uprising in Ifriqiya, in the course of which the Fatimid residence in al-Mansuriya near Kairouan was destroyed. In addition, 20,000 Shiites were allegedly massacred in the strictly Sunni country. The impending confrontation with the Fatimids forced the Zirids to a truce with the Hammudids and in 1018 to recognize their independence. Already between 1007 and 1010 Ḥammād, the uncle of Badis (996-1016), had built a capital: Qal'at Banī Ḥammād arose in the mountains of the Ḥudnā in the south of Biğāya. It is possible that there was a separate, walled Christian quarter there, and Ḥammād even had relations with the Pope. His nephew was not supported by the Fatimids in the fight against Ḥammād, on the contrary.
The Fatimids took revenge by supporting a Zanata uprising in Tripolitania in 1027, which the Zirids had to give up just as definitively as Sicily. Above all, however, they later provided the Bedouin tribes of Banū Hilāl and Banu Sulaym from Egypt with property titles on land and let them go against the Zirids. In addition, the empire fell into a crisis from the forties of the 11th century, which was reflected in devaluation of money, epidemics and famine. One of the reasons for this could have been the high annual tribute of one million gold dinars that the Zirids had to pay to the Fatimids every year. When al-Muʿizz, under the influence of Sunni legal scholars in Kairuan, recognized the Abbasids in Baghdad as legitimate caliphs in 1045 , there was a final break with the Fatimids. In 1049 the first coins with Sunni formulas were minted. As a result of the break it came about that the Fatimids sent the said Banū Hilāl and Banu Sulaym westward. The invasion of these Bedouins in 1051 and 1052 led to massive devastation and significant migrations after the defeat at Jabal Haydaran.
In 1057, after the Bedouins had conquered Kairuan, the Zirids fled to Mahdia , while the conquerors moved on towards Algeria. There they ended the rule of the Banu Hammad. Only the coastal cities were still controlled, which resulted in a much stronger orientation towards the Mediterranean, but the Zirids came into competition with the up-and-coming cities of Genoa and Pisa.
The extensive migrations destroyed the balance between nomadic and sedentary Berbers and led to a mix of the population. The Arab , hitherto spoken only of the urban elite and the court began, the Berber influence. In addition, many Berbers fled west and south. On the other hand, Bedouin groups came to Algeria, such as the Cha'amba in the northern Sahara. They participated in the subjugation of the Tuareg during the French colonial period . In addition to camel breeding, date cultivation in the oases developed as an important basis for life.
Increased Arabization was accompanied by an intensification of Islamization. There were 47 bishoprics in North Africa around 1000, at the time of Pope Leo IX. only five left. In Tripolitania, Latin inscriptions on Christian tombstones go back to the 11th century, while the vulgar Latin dialect also disappeared in remote areas such as Gafsa during the 12th century.
Ḥammādids and independence of the central Maghreb (1007/14 to 1152)
To the north and northeast of the area between Jebel Aurès and Tinis lived peasants and shepherds of the Sanhadscha, in whose mountainous area there were no towns apart from market towns. Between the founding of Ashir in the second third of the 10th century and that of the Qal'a by Hammad ibn Buluggin , the central Maghreb was separated from Ifrīqiya . From 1007 to 1050 the empire of the Hammadids rose to rival Ifriqiya, turning to the Abbasids or the Fatimids, depending on the political situation. The incursion of the Banu Hillal initially brought refugees to the region, but then also brought destruction. While one branch of the Banu Hillal, the Aṯbağ, fought temporarily on the side of the Hammadids, another, the Riyāḥ, fought on the side of the Zirids of Tunisia.
In 1067 an-Nāṣir had to move to the small Biğāya or Bejaia , the ancient Saldae , and make it his capital. In 1088 the first group of Qal'a residents migrated to the Kabyle coast. In the meantime the Almohads continued their conquest and occupied 10081 Tlemcen, then Oran and Algiers. However, Algiers was recovered in 1102. Al-Mansur left half of all crop yields to the Bedouins and made Biğāya his sole capital in 1090. Trade was increasingly concentrated on the coast, and piracy also began to play a role. Under Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz (1121-1152) in 1145 western Algeria could not be defended against the Almohads . In 1151 the Almohads began attacking the Hammadid Empire and defeated Yahya in 1152 before Bougie.
Tuareg in the south (from the 11th century)
In 1925 archaeologists discovered the tomb of a woman in Abalessa in Ahaggar , about 80 km west of Tamanrasset . In addition to the well-preserved skeleton, the excavators found coins from the time of Constantine I , gold and silver jewelry as well as a burial chamber and furnishings, which are now in the Bardo Museum in Algiers. The finds were dated to the 4th or 5th century. The claim that it is about Tin Hinan , the mythical ancestor of the noble Tuareg, can hardly be substantiated.
In the 11th century, Tuareg migrated southward from the areas of the Mediterranean coast. They were driven southward from the Fessan by the Banū Hilāl , where they in turn displaced the Tubbu from the Tassili n'Ajjer, Aïr and Ahaggar towards the Tibetan Mountains . After the fall of the Songhai Empire in the course of the Moroccan War of Conquest in the 16th century, the Tuareg invaded the Sahel and gained control of Timbuktu and the Sultanate of Aïr , based in Agadez .
As a warlike Berber people, they subjugated their opponents and made them prisoners of war and slaves. Most of the slaves were taken among the sub-Saharan Africans, the Songhai , Zarma , Kanuri, and Hausa , but also among competing Tuareg confederations. These formed the Iklan communities. Either they were house slaves and lived as domestic servants like family members with their owners, or they were assigned to shepherds, farmers or for salt extraction. Both groups were thus, according to general legal principles, the belongings of the Tuareg authorities. Imajars (nobles) and Imrad (vassals) were allowed to marry enslaved women, with their children being free. Pure Iklan families retained serfdom status .
The Tuareg had a stratified social system. Until the colonial days of the French, the Tuareg tribes were preceded by the Amenokal . The highest social category was occupied by the Imajars (aristocratic class), who were responsible for the craft of war. The Ineslemen (Koran scholars) formed the core of the Tuareg society. Behind them, in turn, were the Imrad (vassals) who held functions as cattle breeders and soldiers and were under the command of the Imajars .
The Libyan script (also called Old Libyan or Numidian) is an alphabet script dating from around the 3rd century BC. It was used for the Libyan language in much of North Africa until the 3rd century AD. Possibly it goes back to the Phoenician alphabet. The Tifinagh script emerged from the Libyan script .
Almohads (1145/1152 to 1235)
Around 1035 a new religious movement arose in Mauritania within the Sanhajah Confederation under the leadership of Ibn Yasin . It was a response to the simultaneous threat from the Soninke of Ghana in the south and from Berber tribes from the north, and was influenced by Kairuan ideas. They were strict adherents of the Maliki school of law that prevailed there. The Sanhaja of Mauritania, especially the veiled Lamtunah , formed a kind of aristocracy with numerous privileges. Above all, they held all the important state positions. Under Yusuf ibn Tashfin they conquered Morocco and from 1086 large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, their capital was Marrakech, founded in 1070 . The Malkite legal scholars often gave instructions to civil servants, so that they gained considerable power. Mystical movements from Spain and the Islamic East turned against them, which the scholars fought with the support of the dynasty.
In 1121 Ibn Tūmart , a Masmuda- Berber from the High Atlas, founded a corresponding, theologically founded movement, the Almohads , for which he won followers from eight Masmuda-Berber tribes. He demanded a return to the Koran and tradition (Hadith) and opposed the dominance of the four schools of law; at the same time he opposed the literal interpretation of the Koran. In addition, they emphasized the absolute unity of God, which is why they called themselves "unity professors" (al-muwaḥḥidūn or Almohads). This teaching precluded the assignment of certain characteristics to God as well as the comparison with other beings. The holy war against the Almoravids was more important than against the unbelievers, i.e. the followers of other religions. In 1128/29 there was a violent argument, as a result of which Ibn Tumart's opponent was killed. On May 13, 1129 his army was defeated at al-Buhayra, and the siege of Marrakech failed. The Mahdi died on August 20, 1130. His death was reportedly kept secret for three years.
His successor, the Qumiya Berber Abd al-Mumin (1130–1163), succeeded in conquering Morocco from 1133 to 1148, Tlemcen fell in 1145, Fez and Marrakech in 1146, and from 1147 onwards al-Andalus , which had broken up into small states, succeeded Muslim domains on the Iberian Peninsula. In 1149 he overthrew the Almoravid dynasty in Morocco, after a rebellion on the Atlantic coast and in Sousse, a brutal purge took place, allegedly killing 32,000 people. The Almohads conquered the Hammadid Empire in Algeria in 1152, and finally that of the Zirids in Tunisia from 1155 to 1160. The Arabization of the Berbers was further accelerated by the resettlement of Arab Bedouin tribes from Ifriqiya and Tripolitania to Morocco . Banu Hillal from the Hammadid Empire were also resettled, replacing the destroyed "heretical" Barġawāṭa on the Atlantic coast. The Masmudah Berbers ruled the empire, but, unlike their predecessors, they had a less clearly defined religious goal. For the only time under the Almohads, the entire Maghreb was united under a Berber dynasty. In 1161 the caliph crossed to Spain and conquered Granada . In 1163 he died in Ribat, a huge army camp, to which today's capital of Morocco, Rabat , goes back. From 1172 the Muslim part of the Iberian Peninsula was an Almohad province.
The last phase of Almohad rule began when the Banu Ghaniyah, who ruled Muslim Spain for the Almoravids and occupied the Balearic Islands in 1148 , conquered Algeria in 1184 and Tunisia in 1203. In the widening anarchy, the Arab Bedouins gained in importance. By 1235, the Almohads lost control of the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the Maghreb, to three Berber tribes. Ifriqiya went to the Hafsides ; the Almohads could no longer prevent the Banu Marin, a group of the Zanata, from moving through northern Algeria towards Morocco and occupying Fez in 1248. In 1269 they also took Marrakech into their hands. As early as the 1230s, another Zanata group that ruled western Algeria, namely the Abdalwadids , had conquered Tlemcen , which they ruled until the mid-16th century.
Merinids and Abdalwadids in the west (1235 to 1554)
Dominance of the Merinids in the west, the Hafsids in the east
From the second half of the 14th century, the entire Maghreb came under the influence of the Moroccan Merinids of Abu Inan Faris . The Merinide Abu l-Hasan had conquered the kingdom of the Abdalwadids after a marriage alliance with the Tunisian Hafsids and subjugated the east of the Maghreb and Tripolitania from 1346 to 1347.
For their part, after the conquest of Algeciras on the Spanish mainland (across from Morocco), the Merinids were under pressure from the Reconquista states of the Iberian Peninsula from 1344 onwards . In 1348 the Merinid ruler had to flee Tunis after a severe defeat. His son Abu Inan attempted the conquest again from 1356 to 1357, but he too was subject to Arab tribal confederations and had to leave the country just as hastily as his father. At the same time, it was these tribes whose rivalries tore the Hafsiden Empire in two between 1348 and 1370. As a result, one ruling house resided in Bejaia in Algeria and the other in Tunis. In 1370 Abu l-Abbas Ahmad II succeeded in uniting the two domains. Despite the frequent power struggles, the stability of the dynasty allowed a steady cultural development, the most important representative of which was Ibn Chaldūn , a historian and politician.
Abdalwadid Empire of the Zanata, pressure of the Merinids and the North Iberian Empires
While eastern Algeria remained in the hands of the Tunisian Hafsids, in 1235 Abu Yahya Yaghmurasan ibn Zayyan made himself independent of the Almohads as the leader of the Berber Banu Abd al-Wad (also: Banu Ziyan / Zayyan) . The capital of the ruler, who ruled from 1235 to 1283, was Tagrart, today's Tlemcen or Berber Tilimsan, which was at the intersection of the streets of Hunayn and Oran in the Tafilalet . In the west, the Merinids conquered Fès in 1248, so that the Maghreb was again divided into three parts. Like the Moroccan Empire of the Merinids, the Abdalwadid Empire in western Algeria was a creation of the Zanata. The Abdalwadids now tried to prevent the Merinids from becoming overwhelming and they supported their former overlords. In 1250, 1260 and 1268 they invaded the Merinid Empire. Although they were repulsed in all three cases, the Merinids were thus deprived of the opportunity to take action against the Almohads in the south.
Initially, the rulers relied on the Banu Hilal, more precisely the Zuġba, then, in order to be able to withstand the Merinids in Morocco and the Hafsids , they bound themselves to the Nasrids of Granada and to the Kingdom of Castile . From 1283 the empire was exposed to four attacks by the Merinids. In 1295 the Merinids attacked their neighbors, besieged Tlemcen from May 1299 to 1307 and built a rival city called al-Mansura, the victorious. With the assassination of the Merinid ruler in May 1307, the siege ended and the Abdalwadids destroyed the competitor.
As early as the Treaty of Monteagudo of December 1291, a kind of spheres of interest between the two Spanish powers Aragon and Castile had been agreed. Aragon, which had diplomatic and trade relations with the Hafsids and the Abdalwadids since about 1250, claimed privileges there, while Castile claimed the same in Morocco's Merinid Empire. In addition, the Merinids had refused in 1276 to conclude a peace and trade treaty with Aragon. When the two Iberian powers were at war, Aragon tried in 1286 to achieve an alliance with the Merinids against Castile, but this was also refused. The Merinids remained neutral, as did the Iberian Nasrids, but they saw the conquest of the Abdalwadid Empire as an opportunity to defend themselves against the continued pressure of the two Christian states.
But this empire was able to stabilize under Abu Hammu I Musa (1308–1318) and Abu Tashfin I (1318–1337), the viziers of these rulers were Muslims from Spain. But the Abdalwadids, who wanted to take action against the Hafsids, soon faced a coalition of the Hafsids with the Merinids. For their part, the Zayyanid Abdalwadids supported powers from Tripolitania, and Ibn Abi 'Umran even managed to conquer Tunis in 1329 with their help. In return, from 1335 to 1337, Tlemcen was besieged again by the Merinids, this time successfully. The victor, Abul-Hassan, not only occupied Algiers and subjugated the surrounding tribes, but he also married a sister of the Hafsid ruler. However, she died in a battle in Spain, and instead he married a daughter of Hafsiden in 1346.
From 1337 to 1348 the Merinids succeeded in occupying the Abdalwadid Empire, and the rival city of al-Mansura was rebuilt. In 1352 there was another invasion, the Merinids defeated an alliance of Abdalwadids and Arabs in the Angad plain north of Wujda. The Abdalwadide Abu Sa'id 'Utman was captured and killed. Tlemcen was reoccupied, Oran and Algiers were already occupied during the first invasion, Constantine fell in 1356, and in 1357 the Merinid army was in Tunis. However, they soon had to withdraw and give up Tunisia, even if the vast majority of Algeria remained in their hands.
These attacks were probably related to the fact that in the course of massive political changes south of the Sahara , including the intrusion of Arab tribes into the Draa Valley in the 13th century, the collapse of the Empire of Ghana and the resulting relocation of gold and trade flows to the east , came to strong competition for Sidjilmassa from Algerian and Tunisian cities.
But under Abu Hammu II Musa (1359-1388), the kingdom of Tlemcen regained its independence after an uprising. With the help of the Arab tribes of the Dawawda and the Awlad Sa'id, Abu Hammu was able to conquer Tlemcen in February 1359. The Abdalwadide resisted the Merinids for decades, but had to flee from its capital in 1359, 1360, 1370 and 1383. In 1366 he attacked Bijaya and thus acquired the enmity of another powerful enemy. The Hafsid ruler of Bijaya and Constantine, Abul 'Abbas, who later became the Sultan of Tunis, allied himself with a relative of the Abdalwadid, with Abu Zayyan. The ongoing dispute between the Abdalwadids was only interrupted in 1370 by an invasion of the Merinids, which temporarily forced the two Abdalwadid princes to flee into the desert. Abu Zayyan had himself proclaimed Sultan in Algiers, but Abu Hammu managed to conquer the city shortly afterwards in 1378, which ended the twelve-year conflict.
But now the Merinids reappeared, conquering Tlemcen in 1383. Abu Hammu now planned to relocate his capital to Algiers in order to evade the nearby Merinid Empire. To this end, he wanted to send his court treasure to Algiers in 1386, but one of his sons feared that he would be excluded from the succession. Abu Tashfin, who had received the relevant letters, had both his brother and father arrested in January 1387. But Abu Hammu managed to escape and in July 1388 he was back in Tlemcen. In turn, his son allied himself with the Merinids, who did not miss the opportunity to intervene. The army leaving Fez succeeded in killing Abu Hammu. Abu Tashfin received Tlemcen, but now the Abdalwadids became vassals of the Merinids, from 1424 of the Hafsids.
During this time, the Berbers in western Algeria were almost completely Arabized by the Bedouins. Minarets from mosques in Agadir and Tlemcen and three small mosques in the capital date from the time of the Abdalwadids . The tomb mosque of the mystic and city patron Abu Madyan (1126–1198), built by the Merinids in 1339, is particularly important.
In 1390 a coalition of Christian powers, mainly French, English and Genoese, occupied the arsenal of the Hafsid Mahdia. But the branch of the Hafsiden residing in Constantine was able to secure the rule of the dynasty. In 1424 and 1432 they were able to defend themselves under Abu Faris from the threat of the Iberian kingdom of Aragon . Between 1450 and 1494 the capital was shaken by family feuds and the country by plague epidemics and famine. Nevertheless, the country achieved a supremacy in Western Islam and dominated economically and culturally.
Conquest of coastal cities by Spaniards, suzerainty, increasing piracy
At the same time, Moors and Jews began to immigrate from Andalusia , whose last Muslim rule had been conquered by the Spanish in 1492. The latter conquered under Ferdinand II and Isabella I the cities of Mers-el-Kébir in the Algerian northwest, the port of Oran , in 1509 Oran itself, Bejaia and the island of Penon (today Ilôt de l'Amirauté), Ténès and Mostagamen.
In 1509 the Abdalwadids had to recognize Spanish sovereignty when Oran's fleet conquered; From 1543 to 1544 it was occupied by the Spaniards. Until 1554, Catholic Spanish and Sunni corsairs , supported by the Ottomans, fought for the empire. The corsairs were finally able to conquer Tlemcen in 1550, a few years later the Abdalwadid Empire disappeared.
Ottoman rule (1519/74 to 1830)
Spanish-Ottoman contrast
Algeria came into conflict between the great empires in the 16th century. Spain and the Ottoman Empire, which fought each other mainly on the Mediterranean, formed a conflict zone here, in which their conflicts mixed with religious and local conflicts. Society and economy were oriented towards this struggle and provided the resources for holy wars on both sides. Castile took advantage of the internal disputes in Granada , which was Muslim until 1492 , to gain a foothold there. At the beginning of 1492 his army finally entered the last Muslim city on Iberian soil without a fight. The Muslims were encouraged to emigrate and in 1493 6000 of them left the peninsula for the Maghreb. After failed attempts at conversion, the Castilian government switched to forced conversions in 1499, and the Jews had to leave the country as early as 1492.
At the same time, Castile was preparing to expand to the other side of the Mediterranean, but was held up for a few years by clashes with France over the Kingdom of Naples . In addition, there was the surprising opportunity to expand to America from 1492, which soon tied up enormous forces, and which made the expansion to North Africa appear secondary. The Moroccan Malila ( Melilla ) was not occupied until 1497. The Wattasids of Morocco tried to prevent this, but the Spanish cannons kept their army at a distance from the coast.
The death of Queen Isabella (1504) and the associated shift in focus to the Aragonese part of the empire led to Aragonese interests - especially towards Italy rather than towards the Maghreb - being given greater consideration. Spain did not establish a Castilian-Maghreb empire, but contented itself with occupying bases (presidios) along the African coast. These were supposed to help permanently prevent the reconquest of the 8th century Muslim territories on the Iberian Peninsula, as had happened earlier. Salim Al-Toumi, the leader of the Arab Tha'aliba around Algiers - a subgroup of the Arab tribe of the Maqil - negotiated with the Spaniards in Béjaia. He undertook to pay tributes and allowed the Spaniards to build a fortress on one of the islands off Algiers. But the presidios remained dependent on Spanish food and arms deliveries.
All in all, the empires of the Maghreb, which had neither the technology nor the population, which also had neither the resources of large urban conurbations nor adequate centralization, had little opportunity to openly defend themselves. Instead, corsairs under Arudsch and Khair ad-Din Barbarossa organized this resistance . The latter recognized the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul in 1519 after Hugo de Moncada, the viceroy of Sicily, attacked Algiers in August 1519. But before the promised 2,000 men of Janissaries and artillery reached Algeria, Barbarossa had to defeat the politico-religious leader of Kuku in the Great Kabylia, Ahmad b. al-Qadi, take it off before Algiers. Barbarossa, however, established himself in Jijel , Annaba and Constantine in the next few years and was able to recapture Algiers in 1525. In 1529 he was also able to conquer the Spanish fortress on one of the four islands in front of the city. He now connected the islands with the city and turned Algiers into a sea fortress. Its territory ranged from Mostaganem in the west to Jijel in the east and Constantine in the south. He reinstated local leaders, and it was enough for them to remain loyal to him, and thus to Istanbul. Even his opponent's brother, Ahmad b. al-Qadis, he tolerated as ruler of the Great Kabylia and demanded only tributes. In 1533 Khair ad-Din Barbarossa was called to Istanbul, the next raised to Admiral (Kapudan Paşa), with the order to retake Tunis. He succeeded in doing this in August 1534, but a Spanish fleet of 300 ships and 30,000 men captured the city in June 1535.
Under the Spanish presidios, only Oran managed to cooperate with local tribes, in this case the Banu 'Amir. The Spanish nobleman Martín Alonso Fernández de Córdoba Montemayor y Velasco, temporarily Viceroy of Navarre, or Alcaudete for short, became captain general of Oran in 1534. He received extensive rights to organize the local tribes against the Ottomans. 'Abdul-Rahman b. Radwan, the leader of the Banu 'Amir, suggested that Muhammad, the Sultan of Tilimsan ( Tlemcen ) should be replaced by his younger brother' Abdullah. This agreed to a vassal status. Alcaudete made the Banu 'Amir available to 600 of his men for the attack on Tilimsan in 1535. But the attack failed, the army fell into a trap near the Tibda fortress, from which only 70 men came out as prisoners; only a few managed to escape. Despite this catastrophic defeat, the Spanish recapture of Tunis in 1535 caused Sultan Muhammad to declare himself ready to become a vassal of Spain in September 1535. He wanted to ensure that all goods that passed Tilimsan were directed towards Oran and also paid tribute. In return, Spain should provide him with 500 soldiers. Alcaudete made no move to have the king ratify the treaty, nor did he intend to alienate the Banu 'Amir.
The struggle between Madrid and Istanbul between 1536 and 1544 took a new turn. In 1536, Paris and Istanbul signed a treaty which provided in secret clauses that the two sea powers would support each other against Habsburg Spain. Emperor Charles V offered Khair ad-Din for his part the rule from Algiers to Tripoli under Spanish sovereignty, but this offer had no consequences due to mutual mistrust. In 1541 Karl decided to attack Algiers with a huge fleet. This consisted of 500 ships with a crew of 12,000 and 24,000 soldiers on board. But the attack failed, and Khair ad-Din continued to capture on behalf of Istanbul. Only after France and the Habsburg Empire made peace in 1544 did the steep rise of Khair ad-Din, who died in 1546, end. His son Hassan followed him as Beylerbey of Algiers. Such Beylerbeys ruled Algiers until 1587, when Istanbul introduced a proper Ottoman administration.
During this period, between 1557 and 1584, when the Spaniards and Ottomans vied for rule in the Old World, the pirate war between the corsairs and the Christian states of the Mediterranean was also at its height. In 1558 corsairs captured a fleet of 150 galleys in the Balearic waters , and in 1560 they defeated the fleet under the leadership of the Genoese Andrea Doria off Djerba . In return, the Spanish fleet was able to inflict heavy defeats on the corsairs in 1563 and 1564 and venture back into the central Mediterranean to defend Malta . From 1568 to 1570 there was a revolt of the Muslims in Spain, which perhaps numbered 250,000 members. These “moriscos” had officially converted to Christianity in 1502, but they had continued to be harassed by the Inquisition. In 1571 the Spanish-Venetian fleet defeated the Ottoman fleet at Lepanto , but in 1573 Cyprus finally fell to the Greater Istanbul Empire, and in 1574 Tunisia became a province of the Ottoman Empire.
But its influence did not extend to Morocco, where Sherif , who were considered the descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, rose from an influential group to the ruling one. This, in turn, was prevented in Algeria by the dominant pirates there. In 1552 Hassan, the son of Khari ad-Din and lord of Algiers, was recalled because there were repeated conflicts with the Saadians of Morocco, who ruled the country to the west between 1549 and 1664. But Istanbul had an interest in bringing together all Muslim forces. So Salah Ra'is obtained rule over Algiers, but he did not succeed in working with the Saadians either. Finally, Salah Ra'is conquered the Moroccan Fez in early 1554 and left 'Ali Abu-Hassun there with some Janissaries. But this conquest triggered a quick reaction: Already in September, the troops under Muhammad al-Sheikh recaptured the city. He made contacts with Alcaudete in Oran in order to prepare a joint attack on Algiers. But at first Spain refused, but changed course when the Ottomans captured Béjaia and attacked Oran. When the Ottomans broke off the siege of Orange in August 1556 - in the meantime the Moroccans had conquered Tilimsan - Alcaudete traveled to Spain and his envoys to Morocco, where they reached an agreement to work together. The Ottomans, for their part, reinstated Hassan as Beylerbey in Algiers in 1557. At the same time, envoy Muhammad al-Sheikh asked to mint coins in the name of the Ottomans and to submit to the sultan in public prayer. However, this refused. In October of that year he was murdered by alleged Turkish deserters. Hassan then succeeded in occupying Tilimsan, but neither party could decide the battle in Wadi al-Laban north of Fez in their favor. Hassan had to return to Algiers in 1558. Alcaudete had recruited 11,000 men in Spain, with whom he now attacked Mustaghanem instead of Algiers. On 25/26 August he was defeated and killed, and half his army was taken captive to Algiers. Hassan, who got into a dispute with his army, was recalled, but reinstated in 1562. From February to June 1563 he besieged Oran, but the city remained Spanish until 1708, then again from 1732 to 1792. Like his father, Hassan was appointed Kapudan Paşa in 1567.
In 1576 the corsairs tried again to gain a foothold in Morocco; 'Abd al-Malik was installed there as an ally of Istanbul. Spain, for its part, became increasingly embroiled in the struggle for the Reformation in northern Europe, especially in the Netherlands, and the crown was faced with a new Atlantic rival, namely England. Its dealers even appeared in Morocco, which in turn brought Portugal onto the scene, which took its new rivals very seriously. In addition, people in Lisbon mistrusted Venice , which they trusted to interfere in the Atlantic trade. Spain also tried to destabilize the country in 1595/96.
In 1578, Spanish negotiators appeared in Istanbul to negotiate an armistice. Although the conclusion was delayed by fighting between the Portuguese and the Moroccans, but in August 1580 Istanbul accepted a treaty in which the two great powers undertook not to attack their territories and subjects any more.
As a result, from the armistice of 1581 onwards, there was a tendency between Spain and the Ottoman Empire to spatially separate the great powers and to avoid contact areas. After the old rivals Philip of Spain in 1598, Elizabeth of England in 1603 and Murad III. Having died in 1595, the prospects of a lasting peace improved. France and Habsburg closed it in 1598, the Habsburgs and Ottomans in 1604, and Habsburg and the Netherlands in 1609.
The social and technical-military development in Algeria, which was greatly accelerated under external pressure, only slowed down in the 17th century. The extreme tension of all forces not only gave the increasingly centralized states great external power. The enormous need for soldiers, but above all for funds, gave the states access to the resources of the productive sections of the population, a realization that in turn led to attempts to strengthen this economic power. Analogous to European mercantilism, there was also an interest in the Maghreb in strengthening economic power in order to supply the state with more funds.
At the same time, Istanbul recognized that Algeria was organized in a tribal way and that it was enough to keep the local authorities in power. They were only required to act in the interests of the Ottomans, pay tributes and accept rule by the military (ujaq) who took over the external defense. These troops, in turn, showed no signs of integration into Algerian society. In the 17th century they comprised about 12,000 men. In the middle of the 18th century there were only 7,000 men, at the beginning of the 19th century only 4,000. Traditionally, the Ottoman troops were only recruited in Anatolia, with kulughli , descendants of Turkish men and Algerian women, being accepted into the Janissaries only rarely .
In addition to these Anatolian troops, there was an ethnically mixed group of seafarers, the ta'ifa (community) of seafarers. The seamen trained by them and by prisoners who converted to Islam, but also by numerous adventurers, were the basis for a state monopoly of capers (in contrast to Tunisia, where this was also allowed on private account), which was long known as the "holy war". was issued.
Reign of the Deys (from 1659)
Military supremacy, administration
The Ottomans installed pashas as regents in Algiers , but they lost effective control of the country in 1659 at the latest. That year the Ujaq took power in Algiers. Four aghas of the Janissaries now ruled the country one after the other, but all were murdered. After the loss of seven ships in the fight against an English fleet under Edward Spragg, a rebellion broke out in the course of which the last Agha named Ali (1664–1671) was killed. The Rais now appointed the Dey (maternal uncle) of Algiers as ruler, similar to the one in Tunisia, where this office had existed since 1591. From 1689 the Dey was elected by the military (Ujaq), but the Agha was no longer automatic, qua office, ruler of the country. Istanbul continued to send pashas, but their main task was to maintain communication between Istanbul and Algiers. It was not until 1711 that the Dey also received the title of pasha, so that the offices were merged again.
The Dey's first minister was the treasurer, who usually followed him in office. The second minister was the Agha, who ruled in Dar al-Sultan, that is, in Algiers and its surroundings. He moved up to the treasurer when he moved up to the ruler at the death of Dey. The military council (diwan al-'askar) lost its initially dominant influence in the course of this sequence of offices. The naval commander, the leader of the cavalry and the four secretaries protruded below this top level. Overall, the office system showed great continuity and lasted until 1830.
In addition to the district around Algiers, the Dar al-Sultan, Algeria consisted of three provinces. These Beyliks were subordinate to Beys in Constantine in the east, Tittari with the capital Midya in the center and Muaskar in the west, which was relocated to Oran in 1792 after the Spaniards had finally vacated it. Below this level, smaller units were formed, each headed by a Qa'id. The Bey was responsible for the military command and collecting the taxes. A number of tribes that were exempt from paying taxes for their services provided assistance in the form of auxiliary troops and by collecting taxes from other tribes. They were also used to fight rebellions.
State Revenue and Economy
In addition to taxes based on Islamic law, taxes were also collected to support the war against the Christians. In addition, there were taxes that were used to finance the half-yearly gifts of the Beys to the Dey and his advisors. Each Bey had to deliver this levy personally every three years, otherwise his deputy brought it to Algiers. Larger gifts were expected from Constantine's Bey, including those from Tunisia, while those further west had to pay less. The gifts included slaves, silk, horses, jewelry, but also money.
The Beys of Constantine, who were subordinate to the Deys of Algiers and owed tribute to them, developed from mere governors into real entrepreneurs through intensive use of their wheat and barley crops. In the beginning, the Janissaries adopted the system of mixed taxes in cash and in kind. Only as much as was required to support the rulers and their helpers was collected as a contribution in kind. For their part, the farmers sold so much of what they did not use themselves on the market that they could raise the money. Now the taxes in kind were increased so that the rulers themselves could act as traders, namely as sellers to French wholesalers. The best land around Constantine was only built on to deliver these taxes. In olive oil , the Beys had a virtual monopoly. With these parallel developments to European processes, however, the Maghreb remained comparatively poor in population, the leveling of weapons technology did not initiate technological development in rural areas, interventions by the tax authorities often overwhelmed local economic power and the number of urban centers remained small. Here, spread muskets from practically all over the country, which some populations the opportunity in hand was to make against the rulers resistance, such as the late 18th century in the sectarian riots against the Beys in western and south-western Algeria.
With the strengthening of the Christian seafaring powers, especially England, France and the Netherlands, piracy against Christian trade in the Mediterranean became increasingly less important. In addition, the price of piracy was high. So Algiers was bombed by the French fleet in 1661, 1665, 1682, 1683 and 1688. Soon trade with Europe, especially France, gained in importance, but it suffered from the capturing Maltese, but even more from the fact that Muslim ships were only allowed to call at a few of the European ports. In addition, piracy was a state monopoly that generated important income - for example from ransoms, slave sales, etc. But their scope decreased massively. At the beginning of the 17th century, Algiers still had around 75 ships that took part in pirate voyages, in the second half of the 18th century there were only 20. After a schooner from Boston was captured by pirates, the Americans behaved hardly had sufficient sea power, so conciliatory that they were accused of making life difficult for all other seafarers. Only during the Napoleonic Wars did piracy reappear on a larger scale. Here, Ra'is Hamidu stood out, who received numerous prizes.
Around 100,000 people lived in Algiers in the 17th century, plus perhaps 20-25,000 prisoners from pirate trips. Constantine, Oran and Tilimsan had about 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants. While Algiers economy was based on privateer and foreign trade, Constantine and Tilimsan participated in the caravan trade. But the quality of the goods made in Algeria fell behind that of Tunisia and Morocco. Growing imports, such as silk, headgear, shoes and saddles, were at the expense of local producers. Western Algeria, like the south, continued to live from nomadic forms of production, while the more densely populated east was sedentary. The land, often owned by the state or by wealthy residents of the cities, was spent under the Khammas system. The khammas were farm workers who were paid a fifth of the harvest, sometimes more, depending on how the harvest turned out. By 1830 Algeria had perhaps three million inhabitants.
Internal and external conflicts
The decline in revenue brought conflicts between the military and the political leadership, between Ujaq and Dey. Eventually there were massive pay cuts, to which the sailors responded in 1784 by allowing the Spanish ships to sail close enough to the Dey's palace in Algiers that they could shell the building. Since, on the other hand, the Deys faced falling revenues from piracy and, at the same time, higher defense costs, they burdened practically every branch of the economy with various taxes. The Ujaq thus contributed to ever greater burdens, and at the same time prevented any development.
In order to generate income from the export of wheat, the Deys allowed the Jewish families of the Buschnaq and Bakri, who originally came from Livorno , to export to Europe. But this brought new conflicts, as Algiers repeatedly suffered from drought and poor harvests. On June 28, 1805, Naphtali Busnash, who had come to great influence with the Dey and enjoyed a trade monopoly, was murdered by a Turkish soldier, whereupon a kadi congratulated the perpetrator. Now there was looting, in the course of which around 200 Jews were murdered. A little later, Mustafa Dey was also murdered by the troops. To be Dey meant to live in dire danger: By 1816, all six Deys were killed by soldiers.
At the same time, there was considerable unrest in the west and south-west of the country, led mainly by members of the Sufi orders. They peaked in 1805 with the Darqawiyya Tariqa rebellion . The Darqawa , a branch of the Schādhilīya that originated in the 13th century , go back to the Moroccan Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi (1760–1823), who renewed this Tariqa , a Sufi order . This order gained considerable influence in Morocco, but also in western Algeria. One of their most important leaders was' Abdul Qadir ibn al-Sharif, who was in constant conflict with the Ottomans from 1783 to 1805. He called on the entire west of the country to revolt and announced that he would conquer the whole country. Muaskar opened the gates for him without a fight, and in Tilimsan too, apart from the kulughli , the population was on his side. However, the new Bey Muhammad al-Muqallash forced him to lift the siege of Oran and flee to Morocco.
The Tijaniyyah -Tariqa stood from 1784 in conflict with the Ottomans. Muhammad al-Kabir Bey subjugated the tribes of al-Aghwat ( Laghouat ) at this time . After a second expedition in 1788, the Sufi leader Ahmad al-Tijani had to leave Algeria in 1789. He spent the rest of his life in Fez, where he died in 1815. However, his son Muhammad al-Kabir formed a tribal alliance to drive the Turks out of western Algeria. This source of conflict, namely the attempt of the Beys, especially in the west, to subjugate the tribes, had been simmering for half a century. Bey 'Uthman (1747–1760) had begun military submission. Muhammad al-Kabir (1780–1797) had succeeded in forcing the powerful A'shash, al-Hasham and al-Aghwat to pay the required taxes. Now the Banu Hashim joined Sufism. In 1827 Muhammad al-Kabir led his followers to the Gharis plain in front of Muaskar and attacked the Ottoman troops there. But the Banu Hashim ultimately refused to support him, so that he succumbed, was captured and killed. Supporters of the Tijaniya-Tariqa saw the fulfillment of the founder's prayers for the expulsion of the Turks in the French occupation of Algiers in 1830.
In addition to a large number of internal conflicts, the supremacy of Istanbul in no way prevented open disputes with Morocco and Tunisia. In 1756, Bey Ali I al-Husain, who had ruled Tunisia since 1736, was overthrown by the sons of his predecessor. These conquered Tunis with Algerian help. With Hammuda al-Husain (1782-1814), ruler of Tunisia, from 1807 to 1812 war even broke out. It was ended under Ottoman mediation, but the treaty was not ratified until 1821.
French colonial rule (from 1830)
In competition with Spain and England, the French appeared early on off the Algerian coast. From 1560 they received fishing rights in front of Algiers, in 1564 Paris set up a consulate. In 1628 and 1694 trade agreements were concluded between Paris and Algiers. The Deys had implemented an economic system that had mercantilist traits. For example, they enforced the olive oil trade as a monopoly. In terms of weapon technology, too, they were for a long time on a par with the Europeans, to which small armories in Kabylia made a particular contribution. With the industrial revolution, in addition to a larger population - Algeria had perhaps 1.5 million inhabitants in the first half of the 19th century - the Europeans had better weapons, better and cheaper goods and more credit. In addition, there was a lack of urban centers in Algeria, with fewer than 100,000 people living in the few cities.
The Dey of Algiers supported Napoleon with wheat from 1793 to 1798 , but the payment dragged on for many years, so that the debt amounted to 8 million francs, which the Bakri and Bushnaq families still had to get. Due to the lack of repayments, they had financial difficulties with the Dey. In addition, the Dey found that the nephew of the ambassador who had been in the country since 1815, Alexandre Deval, who had himself been Vice-Consul in Annaba since 1823, had armed the trading posts there with cannons contrary to the contract. On April 29, 1827, finally, the Dey replied in a dispute over the French debt to the French Consul Pierre Deval a blow with a fly whisk . At first Paris wanted to leave it with a gun salute on the French flag as a diplomatic gesture by the Dey, but he declined, perhaps encouraged by the British consul. From June 16, France blocked Algerian ports and tried to give in in 1829. But the traders in Marseille complained about the damage, the piracy continued, so that the Dey also saw no reason to give in. Prime Minister Polignac was now running the plan to get Muhammad Ali Pasha to take possession of the land. Ali Pasha was governor of the Ottoman province of Egypt from 1805 to 1848 , but ruled relatively independently of the central government. In contrast to England, France was already pursuing a policy of dissolving the Ottoman Empire at this time (e.g. the Morea expedition ). Great Britain did not agree to this until 1878. Although Muhammad Ali accepted the plan in October 1829, Polignac changed his plans under public pressure to the extent that Pasha should only occupy Tripolitania and Tunisia; Algeria should now go to France. Pasha had to reject this plan because it would have done him serious damage in the Islamic world. The domestic political pressure came on the one hand from Marseilles traders who got into trouble because trade with Greece was also interrupted. On the other hand, Minister of War Bourmont and circles loyal to the king demanded heroic deeds. After all, they wanted to show some success against the Liberals. Charles X announced the invasion of Algiers on March 10, 1830 when he opened Parliament, which he later dissolved. After a quick victory, they hoped for a success in the elections that were scheduled for July. Algiers was captured on July 5, 1830 by French troops under General Bourmont. Charles X did not achieve this goal; he lost the election. On August 2, he abdicated, also because of the July Revolution of 1830 . The military machine was not to give up the chosen direction for more than a century.
On June 14, 1830, 37,000 men landed on almost 700 ships at Sidi Ferruch (Sidi Fredj). Algiers was conquered from the land after only ten days. The Dey had 26,000 Janissaries and Qulogli (Kuloglu), descendants of Turkish fathers and North African mothers, as well as 16,000 to 18,000 Kabyle infantrymen. On July 5, he signed a treaty that handed Algiers over to the French. He himself went into exile in Naples ; a month later Karl X. had to abdicate. Of the state treasury estimated at 150 million, only 40 million reached the French treasury, 50 million disappeared without a trace, 60 million disappeared in Paris. The costs of the blockade and the capture amounted to 75 million francs. Bourmont, who was planning to bring his king back to office by force, was faced with such strong forces within the army that he went into exile in Spain.
Resistance to the occupation (1830 to 1848)
In 1830 French troops occupied Oran and Beleb el-Anab (Bône) and began to conquer the country. They were opposed by Abd el-Kader , who successfully resisted the French in western Algeria; he was also supported by the Qādirīya . In November 1836, an attack by French troops on Constantine ( Siège de Constantine / Siege of Constantine) failed . France recognized Abd el-Kader on May 30, 1837 in the treaty on the Tafna as emir of Algeria. However, there was no collaboration between him and Ahmad ibn Muhammad, Bey of Constantine , who fought against France in eastern Algeria. After the French troops had captured Constantine on October 13, 1837, they invaded western Algeria and forced Abd el-Kader to flee to Morocco in 1844. This was all the easier since Abd el-Kader was not recognized by everyone. For example, he was fought by the Tijaniya Tariqa , whose most important city, 'Ayn Madi, he besieged for five months. Even after the city was conquered, they refused to submit to him. He himself never had more than 10,000 men at his disposal, but depending on where he was going with his camp, auxiliary troops from the tribes were available to him. When the French demonstratively traveled the route between Algiers and Constantine with the heir to the throne, el-Kader realized that the French wanted to stay permanently. 108 settlers were killed in an attack on settlers in the al-Mitija plain and the Algerian cavalry stood in front of Algiers. But France did not dare to evacuate Algiers, so a tough war ensued. It was not until 1847 that he gave up the resistance. At that time there were already 109,380 Europeans in Algeria. The confiscated lands of the opponents were soon all taken, so they looked for new land for the settlers. The land known as habus , which had previously been inalienable, was privatized from October 1, 1844 and could be acquired by settlers. A legal continuity of the Arab-Ottoman conquest of the country was constructed, which has now passed to France. On July 21, 1846, all land that was not in use, that is, was used economically, was quickly confiscated. Of the 200,000 hectares of land thus obtained, only 32,000 went to Muslims. In the 1850s, land was added that the tribes used, often the most fertile. Without pastureland, the first tribes ran into massive difficulties. Between 1853 and 1863 51 Subsidiaries alone received 50,000 hectares of land; an enormous land grab took place here. In many cases, nothing changed in that the new owners did little and instead let the local farmers do the work.
Part of France, settlement colony (from 1848)
After the February Revolution of 1848 , the colonial status of the northern part of Algeria ended - it became an integral part of metropolitan France and defined as a settlement colony . From November 1848, Algeria was declared French territory. Three departments of Algiers , Constantine and Oran were established. French and other European settlers (mainly Italians and Spaniards) came into the country, for whom other lands of the local population were expropriated. Wherever there were enough Europeans, French law should be introduced; the rest of the land was to be assimilated through the expansion of settlement. From 1848 to 1850 alone, Paris brought 20,500 French who had recently stood on the barricades of the capital to Algeria. In 1856 there were 2,496,067 inhabitants. In 1871 the government offered the 8,000 emigrants from Alsace, annexed by Germany , 100,000 hectares of land. The number of settlers grew from 7,812 to 984,031 between 1833 and 1954. Each new settlement was at the expense of the previous land users and owners.
The resistance in Kabylia was violently broken many times. Religious leaders like Bu Bahla, who claimed to be a Sherif , fueled resistance. In 1852 a rebellion broke out further south, also in al-Aghwat. Muhammad b. 'Abdulla of the Awlad Sidi al-Shaykh also claimed he was Sherif. He had to flee to Tuggurt in December 1852, but the French occupied it in December 1854, so that resistance throughout the Suf collapsed.
Napoleon III , who argued with people who were familiar with the country and Muslims, asserted that the tribal use of the land was on a par with property, that the constructed continuity of land ownership was unsustainable, and above all that Algeria was an Arab kingdom. But arrogant treatment of Algerians by civil servants, including public flogging, triggered an uprising in the eastern branch of the Sidi al-Shaykh in 1864. Although the Algerians and the Jews living there were offered the option of taking French citizenship, only 398 Jews and 194 Muslims had made use of it by 1870.
However, the settlers feared they might become a minority and lose their economic prerogatives. The Archbishop of Algiers , Charles Martial Lavigerie , appointed in 1867 , on the other hand, demanded conversion to Christianity as a condition for equal rights and in order to break free from barbarism.
Kabyle uprising (1870 to 1871), proletarianization, colonial system
The uprising directed against these expropriations led by Mohamed el-Mokrani (1815–1871) in Kabylia from 1870 to 1871 was suppressed by the French with the deployment of 80,000 soldiers. Algeria lost 25% of its population and another 70% of land ownership to the French settlers. 665,591 hectares of land were sequestered, and war compensation of 68 million francs was estimated. In order to be able to pay off the debts, the farmers now had to sell their products immediately after the harvest, which drastically reduced prices. In order to survive anyway, they took out loans. So they got into deeper and deeper debts until they had to sell their land. This created an extensive proletariat, which was available to the incipient industrialization at low wages. But the demand for labor rose even faster in the colonial sector, but also seasonally in the traditional agricultural sector. There the families were split up, so that some migrated to the cities. Overall, Algeria, after a decline until 1876, saw a significant increase in population, with the native population growing even faster than the French. In addition, more and more forest areas were cleared in order to withstand government demands for cash payments.
Raids by looters from Kroumirie to Algeria provided the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry with the pretext to annex Tunisia as well. In April 1881, troops entered Tunisia and captured the country within three weeks.
After 1871, the so-called Code de l'indigénat was first installed in Algeria in 1881 and later introduced in all French colonies . He forced the local population under a "special jurisdiction" so that they lived in a permanent state of emergency. The code was valid until 1946, but was not overridden for Algerians until 1962 with the end of the Algerian War.
A decree of 1870 granting Algerian Jews French citizenship was only repealed by the Vichy government . This was followed by the confiscation of their property and property, but the local administration delayed implementation.
On the basis of statistical back calculations, it is assumed that the native population of the country fell from around 3 million in 1830 to 2.1 million due to fighting, hunger, illness or flight. While the population began to recover from the losses of the uprisings and economic marginalization - it rose from just under 2.9 million to over 6.5 million between 1876 and 1931 - the agricultural economy gradually collapsed. While there were 8 million sheep in Algeria in 1867, there were only 3.3 million in 1927; the number of goats fell from 3.7 to 2.1 million between the 1880s and 1927; the number of cattle fell from one million to 707,000 between 1887 and 1927. The connection between the figures for the human population and those of domestic animals shows the drama: Whereas in 1871 there were 1533 sheep, 694 goats and 200 cattle for every 100 inhabitants, these figures fell to 631, 330 and 90 by 1953, with a slight decrease in the proportion of the rural population meant that the base of agricultural production had more than halved. The same applies to wheat production, and even the olive oil harvest fell from 3.5 million liters to 1.65 million liters between 1910 and 1940.
Politicians used existing systems to deal with the labor shortage. This is how the Khammas system was continued. About a third of the settler land was farmed in this way by Algerian farmers or was leased to them. Of the 617,544 Algerian landowners in 1930, 434,537 owned less than 10 hectares - the average was 4 hectares. As a result, around 40% of the landowners lost their property by 1960. This further increased the rural proletariat and caused migration to the cities enormous growth in the rural population. It grew from 4.5 to 7 million between 1931 and 1959. The number of Khammas rose from 350,715 in 1901 to 713,000 in 1938. The mechanization of agriculture that followed, but above all emigration, ensured that their number fell to 132,000 by 1948, only to become practically insignificant in 1954 at 60,500. On the other hand, the number of farm workers rose from 152,108 to 534,000 between 1901 and 1930, a level that remained until the end of the colonial era. They mostly worked on settler land, which mainly produced for export. The 22,007 French settlers owned a total of 2,726,700 hectares of land, which corresponded to an area of 124 hectares of prime land per farm. In contrast, the 630,732 Algerian farmers owned 7,348,700 hectares, which corresponds to 11.5 hectares per farm, i.e. less than a tenth. From 1932 to 1955 the value of Algeria's agricultural products rose from 130 to 155 billion old francs. In addition to grain, these were mainly wine, tobacco, fruit and vegetables, halfa and cork. Wine and grain produced more than two thirds of this income. In 1914, almost 122,000 of the 386,000 Algerian farm workers worked in grain and just under 108,000 in viticulture. Their wages were about half that of their European counterparts, which explains why they continued to be used despite rapidly growing mechanization. In 1954, however, only 200,000 workers worked more than 90 days in the factories, because the majority of the work was seasonal.
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In the cities, the colonial administration fought Algerian competition in the craft sector. The number of craftsmen, which had been 100,000 in the mid-19th century, fell to 3,500 by 1951. They were ousted by French industrial products. In addition, the traditional education sector, financed by corporations and certain lands (habus), collapsed. Rural schools like the zawiyas first disappeared in the war zones until 1871, then followed the neglect of the Koran schools, finally the loss of basic texts. The French education system stipulated that only the notables participated, while several generations were cut off from the literacy, which was quite high before 1830. Efforts have been made to provide elementary schools in rural areas as well, but only 8% of pupils attended these in 1944. In 1954, 85% of the Algerian population was considered illiterate, with women ranging from 95 to 98%. At that time, of the approximately 1.9 million children, just 320,000 had attended school; There were only 1700 students in the country, 589 of them attended the University of Algiers. One in 227 French people was a student, but only one in 15,341. Algerian. At the same time, attempts were made to tie education to the suppression of Arabic. It was only from 1936 that it was permitted to teach the language from a foreign language.
Immigration to the cities also affected the settlers. Between 1911 and 1921 alone, their number in the cities rose from 460,000 to 512,218. 65% of them lived in the cities of Algiers, Oran and Constantine. In total, 38% of the European population lived there. The increase in the Algerian population only accelerated with the global economic crisis. Between 1930 and 1954, 1.5 million of them moved to the cities. In 1936 the cities had only 722,800 inhabitants, then there were 1,129,000 in 1948 and 1.6 million in 1954. This corresponded to almost 19% of the population. Another 300,000 Algerians went to France. On the other hand, over 1.4 million men were unemployed in the countryside. The suburbs, cut off from any supply, grew. In 1954, of the 293,470 inhabitants of Algiers alone, 86,500 lived in such slums.
These people could not be absorbed by any adequate industrial development. Industrial production grew very slowly, but was strongly promoted by the Second World War and the occupation of France. While their total value in 1930 was still 44 billion old francs, by 1955 it had risen to 170 billion. But only 7.8% of the population worked in the industrial sector, 70% in agriculture. Above all Charles de Gaulle operated with the Plan de Constantine a turn towards the industrialization of Algeria.
The raw materials were controlled by French corporations, such as the mines of El Houenza (Union Parisienne), the iron ore of Mokta El Hadid (Mirabaud) or phosphate mines (Union des Mines). In addition, the banking and transport system was controlled from Paris. As in all colonies, Algeria was given the task of supplying raw materials and labor, the income of which flowed increasingly to the metropolises, where the French population increasingly lived, and to purchase products from France.
The first Algerian emigrants appeared in Europe as early as 1871, from 1876 a travel permit was required if an Algerian wanted to go to France. In 1911 there were 3,000 of them in France. A total of 173,000 Algerians fought in World War I, plus 80,000 Tunisians and 40,000 Moroccans on the French side. In addition, 180,000 Algerians went to France to work in arms factories, in agriculture and in transport.
Resistance of the Tuareg, French North Africa colony
After the race for Africa began in 1880 and the French conquest of West Africa began, there was an increased interest in France in physically connecting its Algerian territories with French Sudan . After the conquest of Mzab , Ouargla and Touggourt by 1885, a strategic line of defense with forts south of the Great Erg was built. During the subsequent advance on today's Tamanrasset province , however, the Tuareg met with fierce resistance .
After In Salah could be conquered in 1900, the Tuareg were defeated in 1902 in the decisive Battle of Tit , 60 km northwest of Tamanrasset , with 93 dead. This opened the way to the south for the French. The young amenokal (king) Moussa ag Amastan signed an armistice with the captain Métois in 1904, which made the Kel Ahaggar allies of France. In the following year, however, Métois' successor made it clear that Amastan was a subordinate of France and not an ally. In the course of the “Kaocen uprising” in the Aïr in 1916, clashes between French troops and Tuaregs also occurred in southern Algeria, and the city of Djanet was not under French control for four years. Above all, the Dag Rhali tribe in the Ahaggar Mountains continued the resistance. The latter inflicted a severe defeat on the 80 French under General Laperrine on April 5, 1917 on Mount Ilamane in northern Atakor . A peace treaty was not concluded until 1917.
Until 1917, the Algerian part of the Sahara was also subject. Algeria, together with Tunisia and Morocco, formed the French North Africa colony , which became the theater of war for the British-American Operation Torch during World War II .
Struggle for independence, emigration of Europeans
With the founding of the Young Algerian Party in 1911, a different kind of struggle against the colonial power began. The moderate supporters of the Friends of the Freedom Manifesto (AML), who had previously advocated assimilation to France, radicalized around Ferhat Abbas from 1943 onwards . Abbas, son of a peasant dispossessed in 1871, joined Messali Hadj, the leader of the Algerian People's Party (PPA). Hadj migrated to Paris after the First World War, was active in the communist party PCF and in 1926 was one of the founding members of the organization Étoile Nord-Africaine (ENA), which demanded the independence of Algeria. ENA merged with the PPA in 1937. The PPA was banned in 1939 after the start of World War II. In September 1944, General Georges Catroux was replaced as Governor General by the more liberal and Islamic Yves Chataigneau . The boom in the independence movement came when, immediately after the end of the war in 1945, demonstrators demanded the release of Hajj and "Algeria for the Arabs", who had been banished to Brazzaville . On May 8, 1945 , clashes broke out in the course of which 28 Europeans were killed, and a total of 103 settlers were killed in unrest and raids. After further unrest in Guelma and murders by French settlers, at least 6,000–8,000 Algerians, many more according to other sources, were killed by the French army in the massacres of Sétif and Guelma . It was not until 2005 that the French government at the time recognized responsibility for this. Chataigneau tried to counteract the emerging demands for independence through various social measures and by changing the right to vote. The two constituencies, the so-called 1er and 2e collège , received the same number of votes. In the first post-war elections in July 1945, the authorities did not intervene under the pretext of “Islamic error,” but the PPA and Friends of the Manifesto called on people not to participate in the October 1945 constituent assembly elections. The moderates under Bendjelloul won 7 of the 13 seats, the socialists 4, the communists 2. Now Bendjelloul demanded the same free suffrage as in France. Ferhat Abbas founded the Democratic Union Party of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA) in March 1946 . The UDMA calls on the French to give up their "colonial complex" and their "conquering pride", the Algerians, their "medieval theocratic ideas". As a supporter of Ataturk , he rejected Arabism and advocated a peaceful solution that saw Algeria in free alliance with France. In the elections, Abbas' UDMA received 71% of the vote, or 11 of the 13 seats. The socialists received the other two. His constitutional proposal did not go before the French National Assembly. Messali Hadj was released before the next election; he founded the movement for the triumph of democratic freedoms (Mouvement pour le triomphe des libertés démocratiques). Some of his supporters were already planning actions, and very young supporters founded the organization spéciale in February .
In September 1947, the National Assembly decided on the status of Algeria. The two classes of voters, one for the French and one for the Algerians, were updated. The governor-general and his six advisory councils led the government; in the legislative branch, the French parliament retained its predominance over the Algerian assembly. The Algerians were disappointed and Messali Haj's movement won almost all of its votes. The polarization increased, for which the governor general was held responsible. He was replaced on February 11, 1948 by the socialist and education minister Marcel-Edmond Naegelen . On April 15, 1948, this was again replaced by Roger Léonard. Both fought the MTLD by all means including rigged elections. On August 5th, the Algerian Front for the Defense and Respect of Freedom (Front algérien pour la défense et le respect de la liberté) was founded by UDMA, MTLD, Communists and Ulema.
In November 1954, the War of Independence ( Algerian War ) against France began under the leadership of the National Liberation Front (Front de Liberation Nationale, FLN), which had emerged from 1947. On May 13, 1958, French Algeria was founded after the general government had been established in the course of a demonstration. On June 1st, de Gaulle took over the people's assembly and said ambiguously on June 4th in Algiers: “I understand you”. In fact, in the 1958 constitution, there was only one electorate. A provisional government was set up on September 19, with Ferhat Abbas as head of government. The government pursued the policy of complete integration into metropolitan France . On September 16, 1959, de Gaulle announced, probably under pressure from the strengthened anti-colonial and just becoming independent states, that the Algerians themselves should decide on their form of government and their relationship with France. The settlers felt betrayed and founded the French National Front (Front National Francais). They organized a large demonstration in Algiers on January 24, 1960. This resulted in 26 deaths, and the rebels who holed up behind barricades could be persuaded to give up. On January 8, 1961, the referendum announced by de Gaulle took place. 69.09% of the voters in Algeria voted for independence, and even 75.25% in France. But on the night of April 21-22, a coup took place in Algiers: four retired generals and parachutists took control of the government. The navy and part of the air force refused to participate. After three days, the coup collapsed. Some of the fugitives joined the Organization de l'armée secrète (OAS). Ferhat Abbas has now been expelled from the government that Youssef Ben Kedda took over. Meanwhile, the rural areas increasingly fell into the hands of the FLN and the army was gradually withdrawn. The OAS tried to dissuade de Gaulle from his Algerian policy or to persuade him to resign. It now ruled the north, the governor general had fled. However, Paris increasingly viewed the OAS as a terrorist organization. On March 18, 1962 Algeria became independent with the treaties of Évian , 90% of the French approved the treaty on April 8. But the Algerian political parties continued to fight. That is why there had been speculation in Paris about a division of the country. On July 1, 1962, 99 of the voters voted for Algeria's independence in the referendum on the adoption of the Évian Treaties . Two days later, France declared Algeria independent. 800,000 people left Algeria, most of them migrated to France . In August 1962, the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria was proclaimed, power passed from the provisional government GPRA to the FLN. Ben Bella became head of government on September 27, 1962. He was President of Algeria from September 15, 1963 to June 19, 1965.
Sacrifice, Flight and Consequences of War
According to French figures, the number of victims of the war on the part of the Muslim Algerians was 300,000, while Algerian sources estimate one million. In addition to the French soldiers, around 10,000 Europeans were killed in acts of terrorism. According to official information, 17,456 French soldiers died, almost 65,000 were injured and 1,000 remained missing. The insurgents estimated their losses between 300,000 and 1,000,000. 90% of the more than one million French settlers left the country.
Of the roughly 250,000 Muslim Algerians who had worked for the French, only 15,000 escaped the country. Many of those who stayed behind were disarmed, extradited and tortured under mostly unexplained circumstances; between 30,000 and 150,000 of them were murdered. France estimated the number of war opponents killed at 141,000, plus 12,000 FLN fighters killed in internal fighting, 16,000 civilians killed by the FLN and a further 50,000 Muslims killed. This does not include those identified as Harkis and murdered as collaborators, nor the 4,300 fighters who perished in France. 1.8 million Algerians have been driven from their homes.
In total, the war cost France 50 to 55 billion new francs. Added to this were the economic losses due to the absence of 500,000 men and the associated unproductivity, which were estimated at 3 to 4 billion per year. In addition, there were significant drops in population development, which had already experienced stagnation and decline during the Second World War. Between 1962 and 1965 alone, 324,000 returnees ( rapatriés ) and 110,000 Muslim Algerians came to France.
The Algerian Republic since independence in 1962
Algerian socialism (until 1989)
On July 1, 1962, 99.7% of the Algerians who voted voted for the independence of their country; on September 25, the Democratic Republic of Algeria was proclaimed. After eight years of war, the country faced major problems. In 1967 the last French army units left the bases of Reggane and Béchar, in 1968 from Mers el-Kebir. Near In Ekker , on the western edge of the Hoggar Mountains , about 150 km north-north-west of Tamanrasset , France operated an experimental center (Center d'expérimentations militaires des oasis) until 1966. Thirteen nuclear weapons tests were carried out there between November 7, 1961 and February 16, 1966 .
There were considerable economic problems, among other things because most of the French skilled workers had left the country with the independence of the state. In addition, the former colonial government allowed industrialization very late and imposed a colonial legal, property and economic structure on the country. Many Algerians also emigrated. Power struggles broke out in the FLN over the political course. Ahmed Ben Bella , president from 1962 to 1965, pushed through that the FLN became a socialist-oriented unity party, which should control all authorities and the nationalized economy. This one-party system was confirmed by a referendum on September 8, 1963.
Ben Bella was overthrown on June 19, 1965 in a coup by Houari Boumedienne . Under the leadership of Boumediennes (1965–1978), the country's mineral resources, especially oil and natural gas, were increasingly extracted in order to promote the country's industrial development and “Algerian socialism”. He nationalized the oil industry and parts of agriculture and tried to protect the burgeoning industry through high tariffs. The 1976 constitution confirmed Boumedienne's position of power and the elimination of all opposition.
Successor to Boumedienne, who died in 1978, was Chadli Bendjedid (1978–1992), who eased control of the economy and society a little. In 1980 there was a first wave of protests, in November 1986 Constantine initiated a youth revolt that spread across almost all of eastern Algeria. It was directed against the government's austerity policy , which complied with the requirements of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank . The protests were directed against the cultural and social undersupply of the cities. During the serious social unrest in 1988, security forces fired at the demonstrating crowd. The causes were high youth unemployment, the housing shortage (both exacerbated by strong population growth ) and the lower oil price . Chadli had to initiate democratization and in February 1989 agree to constitutional changes (separation of party and state, parliamentary responsibility, pluralism , political freedoms and guarantees of human rights ).
Military coup, civil war (1992 to 2002)
As in the rest of the Arab world, this was countered by a different development. After the radical Islamists of the “ Islamic Salvation Party ” (FIS) won the first round of free elections in 1991 and won 188 of the 430 seats, the military under War Minister Khaled Nazzar took over power before the second round in 1992 and canceled the election. He dissolved parliament, declared a state of emergency, banned the FIS and forced Chadli to resign on January 12th.
On January 14, Muhammad Boudiaf took over the leadership of the High Council of State, who had returned from exile in Moroccan. His planned reform policy could no longer be implemented because he was assassinated on June 29, 1992. The High Council of State ruled until 1994 under the leadership of Ali Kafi (July 2, 1992–1994).
When the FIS was banned, the majority of its members went underground and a civil war began. Since then, over 120,000 people have been killed in this conflict between radical Islamists and the army. Even after the government was handed over to President Liamine Zéroual (1994–1999) on January 30, 1994 , the terrorist acts of the Islamists continued. The security forces have had some successes since 1995. There were several divisions among the Islamists, the most radical of which was the Groupe Islamique Armé . She was responsible for the most brutal terrorist attacks; even the FIS distanced itself from the group. In 1996, after a referendum, a new constitution came into force.
Even under President Abd al-Aziz Bouteflika (election on April 15, 1999), the problem of terror could not be eliminated, nor was the very high unemployment among young people. In 1998 the GIA became the Salafist Group for Preaching and Struggle. In 2001 there was renewed unrest across the country. After protests by the Berbers in Kabylia , the Berber language Tamazight was declared the national language on May 2, 2002 , and it has been ousted since the founding of Algeria.
After the civil war subsided, the government initiated a referendum on a policy of reconciliation in 1999. In January 2000, an amnesty for repentant Islamists expired , which Bouteflika extended indefinitely in March 2000 following the dissolution of the Armée islamique du salut (Islamic Salvation Army, AIS), the armed arm of the Front islamique du Salut (Islamic Salvation Front, FIS). Now the former unity party FLN was confirmed in the 2002 parliamentary elections.
Bouteflika, amnesty, Mediterranean union, Salafism
Another presidential election took place on April 8, 2004. Since the military had assured neutrality this time, the election was considered the freest since independence. A total of six candidates ran. Abd al-Asis Bouteflika , who was elected with the backing of the military in 1999, was considered the favorite. Ex-Prime Minister Ali Benflis was considered the only significant challenger. Bouteflika received 83% of the vote in the first round of the presidential election. He was the first president of Algeria to receive a second mandate. In a referendum in 2005, the Algerians voted on a general amnesty . As a result, the GIA founder Abdelhak Layada was released from prison in March 2006 - along with 2,200 former Islamists and 37,800 other prisoners. In 2009 , Bouteflika was confirmed for a third term. In 2008 Algeria became a member of the Mediterranean Union .
The Salafists networked with al-Qaeda at the beginning of 2007 and formed an alliance with other North African Islamists, which became part of the AQIM (al-Qaeda in Maghreb). Its sphere of influence extended to Spain, France and Central Africa; The number of al-Qaeda fighters in Africa was estimated at 20,000 in 2012, while AQIM's only 800. Financing is provided through cocaine trafficking and the extortion of ransom money .
Boutefklika suffered a stroke in 2013 and has hardly appeared in public since; nevertheless he was confirmed in office in the 2014 election . The real government power, however, lay in the hands of relatives, the military and businessmen who were called le pouvoir ("the power"). After Bouteflika also wanted to run for the 2019 election, there were mass protests until he resigned on April 2, 2019 and Abdelkader Bensalah became interim president. The presidential elections of 12 December 2019 won Abdelmadjid Tebboune .
swell
- Sallust : Bellum Iugurthinum / The war with Jugurtha . Latin / German. Edited, translated and commented by Josef Lindauer, Düsseldorf 2003.
- Paul Pandolfi: Une correspondance saharienne. Lettres inédites du général Laperrine au commandant Cauvet (1902–1920) , Karthala, Paris 2006.
literature
Overview works
- Martin Hofbauer and Thorsten Loch (eds.): North Africa (= guide to history ). Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn 2011, ISBN 978-3-506-77326-5 .
- Harry H. Johnston: A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-23128-2 .
- James McDougall: A History of Algeria . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2017, ISBN 978-0-521-61730-7 .
- Corisande Fenwick: Archeology and the Search for Authenticity. Colonialist, Nationalist, and Berberist Visions of an Algerian Past . In: Corisande Fenwick, Meredith Wiggins, Dave Wythe (Eds.): TRAC 2007. Proceedings of the Annual Theoretical Roman Archeology Conference . Oxbow Press, Oxford 2008, pp. 75-86, doi: 10.16995 / TRAC2007 75 88 .
Prehistory and early history
- Isabelle C. Winder: Looking for problems: A systems approach to hominin palaeocommunities from Plio-Pleistocene Africa . In: International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 22, 2012, pp. 460–493, doi: 10.1002 / oa.1219 .
- Kenneth W. Russell: After Eden: The Behavioral Ecology of Early Food Production in the Near East and North Africa . British Archaeological Reports, Oxford 1988.
- Jörg W. Hansen: Art rupestre dans les tassilis de l'ouest et du sud algérien . Paris 1975, 2009.
- Slimane Hachi: Les cultures de l'homme de Mechta-Afalou. Le gisement d'Afalou Bou Rhummel, massif des Babors, Algérie: les niveaux supérieurs, 13,000–11,000 BP . CRAPE, Algiers 2003.
- Louise T. Humphrey, Emmy Bocaege: Tooth Evulsion in the Maghreb: chronological and geographical patterns . In: African Archaeological Review 25, 2008, pp. 109–123.
- Mary Jackes, David Lubell: Early and middle holocene environmental and Capsian cultural change: evidence from the Télidjène Basin, eastern Algeria . In: African Archaeological Review 25, 2008, pp. 41-55.
- Claire Manen, Grégor Marchand, Antonio Faustino: Le Néolithique ancien de la péninsule ibérique: vers un nouvelle evaluation du mirage africain? In: J. Evin (ed.): XXVIe Congrès Préhistorique de France , Paris 2007, pp. 133–151.
- Katherine E. Hoffman, Susan Gilson Miller: Berbers and Others. Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib . Indiana University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-253-22200-8 .
- Heinz Günter Horn , Christoph B. Rüger : The Numid. Horsemen and Kings north of the Sahara , exhibition catalog Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn , Rhineland, Cologne 1979.
- Soubila Merzoug: Faunal remains from Medjez II (epipalaeolithic, Algeria): Evidence of ostrich consumption and interpretation of Capsian subsistence behaviors . In: Hélène Jousse, Joséphine Lesur (eds.): People and Animals in Holocene Africa. Recent advances in archaeozoology . Africa Magna Verlag, 2011, pp. 123-131.
- Noura Rahmani, Jacques Tixier: Le Capsien typique et le Capsien supérieur. Evolution ou contemporanéité: the données technologiques . Archaeopress, 2003.
- Henri Lhote: Les gravures rupestres de l'Oued Djerat (Tassili-n-Ajjer) , Mémoires du Center de Recherches Anthropologiques, Préhistoriques et Ethnographiques. SNED, Algiers 1976.
Phoenicians and Carthaginians
- Dexter Hoyos: A Companion to the Punic Wars. John Wiley & Sons, Oxford a. a. 2011, ISBN 978-1-4051-7600-2 .
- Werner Huss : History of the Carthaginians . CH Beck, Munich 1985.
Numidia, Mauritania, Berbers
- Mokhtar Ghambou: The 'Numidian' Origins of North Africa . In: KE Hoffmann, SG Miller (Ed.): Berbers and Others. Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghreb . Indiana University Press 2010, pp. 153-170.
- Malika Hachid: Les Premiers Berbères . Aix-en-Provence 2000.
- Abdelmajid Hannoum: Historiography, mythology and memory in modern North Africa: the story of the Kahina . In: Studia Islamica , 85 1997, pp. 85-130.
Rome, Vandals, Byzantium
- Elizabeth Fentress: Rommanizing the Berbers . In: Past & Present , 190, 2006, pp. 3-33.
- Helmut Castritius : The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues. Kohlhammer-Urban, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-17-018870-9 , from p. 76.
- Leslie Dossey: Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley-Los Angeles-London 2010. ISBN 978-0-520-25439-8
- Charles-André Julien : Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc des origines à la conquête arabe (647 ap. J.-C.) , Payot, Paris 1961.
- Walter Emil Kaegi : Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge u. a. 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-19677-2
- Dennis P. Kehoe: The Economics of Agriculture on Roman Imperial Estates in North Africa , Habil., Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1988. ISBN 978-3-525-25188-1
- Anna Leone: Changing Townscapes in North Africa from late Antiquity to the Arab Conquest. Edipuglia, Bari 2007. ISBN 978-88-7228-498-8
- E. Lennox Manton: Roman North Africa . Trafalgar Square, London 1988, ISBN 978-1-85264-007-1
- Georges Tirologos (ed.): L'Afrique du Nord antique. Cultures et paysages, Colloque de Nantes - May 1996 , Presses Univ. Franche-Comté, 1999. ISBN 978-2-913322-47-9
- Christian Witschel: On the situation in Roman Africa during the 3rd century . In: Klaus-Peter Johne, Thomas Gerhardt, Udo Hartmann (eds.): Deleto paene imperio Romano. Transformation processes of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century and their reception in modern times . Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 978-3-515-08941-8 , pp. 145-221.
- Paolo Odorico: L'image des Berbères chez les Byzantins. Le Témoignage de Corippe . In: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'ètudes berbères 40–41 (2009-10) 161–169)
- Mohand Tilmatine: L'image des Berbères chez les auteurs arabes de l'époque médiévale , in: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'ètudes berbères 40–41 (2009-10) 171–183)
Muslim dynasties and minorities, Ottomans
- Ulrich Haarmann (ed.): History of the Arab world . Beck, Munich 2001 (pp. 312-314 (Abdalwadiden), see from p. 264 (Maghreb), from p. 576 (1950–1985), p. 618 (1988–1992)).
- Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period . Cambridge University Press 1987.
- Mohamed Talbi : L'Émirat aghlabide. 184-296 / 800-909. Histoire politique. Paris 1966.
- Emily Benichou Gottreich, Daniel J. Schroeter (Ed.): Jewish Culture and Society in North Africa. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2011.
- Daniel Panzac: Barbary Corsairs. The End of a Legend 1800-1820. Brill, Leiden 2005.
- Jacqueline Guiral: Les relations commerciales du Royaume de Valence avec la Berbérie au XVe siècle , in: Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez , Vol. 10, 1974. pp. 99-131. doi: 10.3406 / casa.1974.897
- David S. Powers: Law, Society and Culture in the Maghrib, 1300-1500 . Cambridge University Press 2002.
- Catherine Donnadieu: Habiter le désert. Les maisons mozabites: research on a type d'architecture traditionnelle pré-saharienne . Editions Mardaga, Brussels, Liège 1977.
- Mouloud Gaïd: L'Algérie sous les Turcs . Société nationale d'édition et de diffusion, Algiers 1975.
Colonial history
- Jan C. Jansen: Conquering and remembering. Symbol politics, public space and French colonialism in Algeria, 1830–1950 . De Gruyter Oldenbourg, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-486-72361-8 .
- Bernhard Schmid : Colonial Algeria . Unrast, Münster 2006, ISBN 3-89771-027-7 .
- Yves Maxime Danan: La vie politique à Alger de 1940 à 1944 . LGDJ, Paris 1963.
- Diego de Haedo: Histoire des rois d'Alger . Topographia e Historia general de Argel. Valladolid, 1612, Traduction d'HD de Grammont, Bouchène, Paris 1998.
- Fabian Klose: Human rights in the shadow of colonial violence. The wars of decolonization in Kenya and Algeria 1945–1962 . Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-486-58884-2 (publications of the German Historical Institute London 66).
- Pierre Denis: L'Armée française au Sahara. De Bonaparte à 1990 . l'Harmattan, Paris 1991.
- Jean-Louis Gérard: Dictionnaire historique et biographique de la guerre d'Algérie . Editions Jean Curtuchet, 2001.
- Kurt Hochstuhl: The Baden emigration to Algeria . Kohlhammer 2007.
Recent history
- Bernhard Schmid: Algeria. Frontline State in Global War? Neoliberalism , Social Movements and Islamic Ideology in a North African Country . Unrast, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-89771-019-6 .
- Duel in Algiers . In: Die Zeit , No. 6/2004.
- Roman Hagelstein: The Civil War in Algeria. Political, Economic and Institutional Background . Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen 2010.
- Mahfoud Bennoune: The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987 . Cambridge University Press 2002.
Web links
- North Africa , Encyclopedia Britannica
- Bibliography du Maghreb antique et médiéval
- Algerian history through its buildings
Movie
- Gillo Pontecorvo : The Battle of Algiers (The Battle of Algiers ). 1965. About the Algerian struggle for independence in the city of Algiers.
Remarks
- ↑ On the prehistory of Algeria cf. Ginette Aumassip: L'Algérie des premiers hommes , Paris 2001.
- ^ Mohamed Sahnouni, Jean de Heinzelin: The Site of Aïn Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria , in: Journal of Archaeological Science 25 (1998) 1083-1101. Otherwise I am following Mohamed Sahnouni: The North African Early Stone Age and the Sites at Ain Hanech, Algeria . In: Nicholas Toth, Kathy Schick (Eds.): The Oldowan. Case Studies into the Earliest Stone Age . Stone Age Institute Press, Gosport IN 2006, pp. 77-111.
- ↑ The site was discovered in 1947. See Camille Arambourg: Du Nouveau a l'Ain Hanech , in: Bulletin de la Société d'Histoire Naturelle de l'Afrique du Nord 43 (1952) 152-169. On Arambourg cf. Djillali Hadjouis: The Paleontology of North Africa vertebrates through Camille Arambourg's research: a report on vertebrates' faunae of the North Africa Neogene / La Paléontologie des vertébrés du Nord de l'Afrique à travers les recherches de Camille Arambourg. Bilan des faunes de vertébrés du Néogène du Nord de l'Afrique . In: historical Biology: An International Journal of Paleobiology 22,1-3 (2010).
- ↑ Denis Geraads, Jean-Paul Raynal, Vera Eisenmann: The earliest human occupation of North Africa: a reply to Sahnouni et al. (2002) , in: Journal of Human Evolution 46 (2004) 751-761.
- ↑ Merouane Rabhi: Étude de l'Industrie Lithique du level "A" de Ain Hanech: Approche Expérimentale , in: Athar, Revue Scientifique d'Archéologie et du Patrimoine, Institut d'Archéologie, Université d'Alger 8 (2009) 13- 37.
- ↑ John G. Fleagle , John J. Shea , Frederick E. Grine, Andrea L. Baden, Richard E. Leakey : Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia , Springer, 2010, p. 193, ISBN 978-9048190355 .
- ↑ A. Gragueb, A. Oueslati: Les formations quaternaires des Côtes nord et nord-est de la Tunisie et les industries préhistoriques associées , in: L'Anthropologie 91 (1990) 259-292.
- ↑ Joachim Hahn : Recognizing and determining stone and bone artifacts. Introduction to artifact morphology , Archaeologica Venatoria, Institute for Prehistory of the University of Tübingen, Tübingen 1991, 2nd edition 1993.
- ↑ G. Laplace-Jauretche: Découverte d'un gisement à galets taillés (Pebble Culture) dans le Quaternaire ancien du Plateau de Mansourah (Constantine), in: Bulletin Société Préhistorique Française 53 (1956) 215f.
- ↑ C. Roubet: Découverte de nouveaux galets aménagés dans la région sétifienne in: libyca 15 (1967) 9-14.
- ^ G. Thomas: Découverte d'industrie du groupe de la “Pebble Culture” sur le versant north des monts du Tessala (Algérie). Sa place dans la stratigraphie du Pleistocène inférieur et moyen de l'Oranie , in: Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences 276, serie D (1973) 921-924.
- ^ Henri-Jean Hugot: Un gisement de pebble tools à Aoulef , in: Travaux de l'Institut de Recherche Saharienne 8 (1955) 131-153.
- ↑ L. Ramendo: Les galets aménagés de Reggan (Sahara) , in: Libyca 11 (1963) 42-73.
- ^ MH Alimen, J. Chavaillon: Presentation de “galets aménagés” des niveaux successifs du Quaternaire ancien de la Saoura , in: Bulletin Société Préhistorique Française 57 (1960) 373f.
- ↑ AEK Heddouche: Découverte d'une industrie à galets aménagés au Sahara North Oriental , in: libyca 28 (1980) 105-112.
- ↑ Silvia Tomášková: What Is a Burin? Typology, Technology, and Interregional Comparison , in: Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 12.2 (2005) 79-115.
- ↑ Mohamed Sahnounia, Jordi Rosell, Jan van der Made, Josep María Vergès, Andreu Ollé, Nadia Kandi, Zoheir Harichane, Abdelkader Derradji, Mohamed Medig: The first evidence of cut marks and use traces from the Plio-Pleistocene locality of El-Kherba (Ain Hanech), Algeria: implications for early hominin subsistence activities circa 1.8 Ma , in: Journal of Human Evolution 64.2 (February 2013) 137–150.
- ↑ Camille Arambourg: Récentes découvertes de paléontologie humaine réalisées en Afrique du Nord française (L'Atlanthropus de Ternifine - L'Hominien de Casablanca) , in: JD Clark, S. Cole (ed.): Third Panafrican Congress on Prehistory. Livingstone 1955 , London 1957, pp. 186-194.
- ↑ D. Geraads: The Faunal Context of Human Evolution in the Late Middle / Late Pleistocene of Northwestern Africa , in: Jean-Jacques Hublin, Shannon P. McPherron (ed.): Modern Origins. A North African Perspective , Springer 2012, pp. 49–60, here: p. 54.
- ^ Ian Shaw, Robert Jameson (eds.): A Dictionary of Archeology , Wiley & Sons 2002, p. 570.
- ↑ I am following Mohamed Sahnouni, Sileshi Semaw, Michael Rogers: The African Acheulean , in: Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of African Archeology , Oxford University Press 2013, pp. 307–323.
- ↑ O. Oussedik: Les bifaces acheuléens de l'Erg Tihodaine (Sahara Central Algérien): analyze typométrique , in: Libyca 20 (1972) 153-161.
- ↑ I am following Nick Barton, Francesco d'Errico: North African Origins of Symbolically Mediated Behavior and the Aterian , in: Scott Elias (ed.): Origins of Human Innovation and Creativity , Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxfort 2012, p. 23– 34, here: p. 26.
- ↑ Harold L. Dibble , Vera Aldeias, Zenobia Jacobs, Deborah I. Olszewski, Zeljko Rezek, Sam C. Lin, Esteban Alvarez-Fernández, Carolyn C. Barshay-Szmidt, Emily Hallett-Desguez, Denné Reed, Kaye Reed, Daniel Richter , Teresa E. Steele, Anne Skinner, Bonnie Blackwell, Ekaterina Doronicheva, Mohamed El-Hajraoui: On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb. In: Journal of Human Evolution. Volume 64, No. 3 (2013) 194-210.
- ^ John Donnelly Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (Eds.): The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press 1982, p. 262.
- ↑ RNE Barton, A. Bouzouggar, SN Collcutt, JL Schwenninger, L. Clark-Balzan: OSL dating of the Aterian levels at Dar es-Soltan I (Rabat, Morocco) and implications for the dispersal of modern Homo sapiens. In: Quaternary Science Reviews. Volume 28, No. 19-20, 2009, pp. 1914-1931, doi: 10.1016 / j.quascirev.2009.03.010
- ↑ Abdeljalil Bouzouggar, Nick Barton, Marian Vanhaeren, Francesco d'Errico, Simon Collcutt, Tom Higham , Edward Hodge, Simon Parfitt, Edward Rhodes, Jean-Luc Schwenninger, Chris Stringer, Elaine Turner, Steven Ward, Abdelkrim Moutmir, Abdelhamid Stambouli: 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104 (2007) 1964-1969.
- ↑ Nick Barton, Francesco d'Errico: North African Origins of Symbolically Mediated Behavior and the Aterian. In: Scott Elias (Ed.): Origins of Human Innovation and Creativity. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Oxford 2012, pp. 23–34.
- ↑ I'm following Nick Barton, Abdeljalil Bouzouggar: Hunter-gatherers of the Maghreb 25,000 to 6,000 years ago , in: Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of African Archeology , Oxford University Press 2013 (ebook).
- ↑ Latifa Sari: Technological change in Iberomaurusian culture: The case of Tamar Hat, Rassel and Columnata lithic assemblages (Algeria) , in: Quaternary International, April 25, 2013.
- ↑ LC Biggs: The Stone Age Races of Northwest Africa , in: American School of Prehistoric Research Bulletin 18 (1955), p. 28.
- ↑ For discussion: PM Vermeersch: Palaeolithic Quarrying Sites in Upper and Middle Egypt , Leuven University Press, 2002, p. 321f.
- ↑ Something similar is stated for the Italian Neolithic (John Robb: The Early Mediterranean Village. Agency, Material Culture, and Social Change in Neolithic Italy , Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 38.)
- ↑ I am following Simone Mulazzani (ed.): Le Capsien de Hergla (Tunisie). Culture, environnement et économie , Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt 2013, here: p. 13.
- ^ Noura Rahmani, David Lubell: Early Holocene Climate Change and the Adoption of Pressure Technique in the Maghreb: The Capsian Sequence at Kef Zoura D (Eastern Algeria) , in: Pierre M. Desrosiers: The Emergence of Pressure Blade Making. From Origin to Modern Experimentation , Springer 2012, pp. 139–155.
- ^ François-Xavier Le Bourdonnec, Gérard Poupeau, Simone Mulazzani, Lotfi Belhouchet: Origine de l'obsidienne des sites SHM-1 et SHM-12 (Hergla, Tunisie) , in: Simone Mulazzani (ed.): Le Capsien de Hergla ( Tunisie). Culture, environnement et économie , Africa Magna Verlag, Frankfurt 2013, pp. 240–244.
- ↑ Julie Shipp, Arlene Rosen, David Lubel: Phytolith evidence of mid-Holocene Capsian subsistence economies in North Africa , in: The Holocene 23,6 (June 2013) 833-840.
- ↑ Ginette Aumassip: Les Imazighen: Questions sur les origines. Les données de la préhistoire , in: Créer et transmettre chez les Berbères (= AWAL, Cahiers d'ètudes berbères 40-41 (2009-10) 131-144)
- ↑ Jörg Linstädter: The Epipalaeolithic-Neolithic-Transition in the Mediterranean region of Northwest Africa , in: Quartär 55 (2008) 41-62.
- ↑ Les Mausolées Royaux de Numidie, de la Maurétanie et les monuments funéraires pré-islamiques .
- ↑ Peter Riedlberger: Philological, historical and liturgical commentary on the 8th book of the Johannis des Goripp along with a critical edition and translation , Egbert Forsten, Groningen 2010, p. 306f.
- ↑ This and the following according to Elfriede Storm: Massinissa. Numidia on the move , Steiner, Stuttgart 2001. She names the work by Poland Tadeusz Kotula, which was practically not received and published in 1976, as the only comprehensive work on Massinissa before her own work.
- ^ Paul-Albert Février: Castellum Tidditanorum (Tiddis) Algeria . In: Richard Stillwell et al. a. (Ed.): The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1976, ISBN 0-691-03542-3 .
- ↑ Joseph von Kolb: Sabinianus. A forgotten Roman emperor , Vienna 1878.
- ^ Karlheinz Dietz: Senatus contra principem , Beck, Munich 1980, p. 337.
- ↑ Dominique Borne, Benoît Falaize: Religions et colonization. Afrique-Asie-Océanie-Amériques XVIe-XXe siècle , Editions de l'Atelier, Paris 2009, p. 129.
- ↑ On the disputes between the African churches cf. Brent D. Shaw: Sacred Violence. African Christians and Sectarian Hatred in the Age of Augustine , Cambridge University Press 2011.
- ↑ The still fundamental work is the dissertation of Fatima Kadria Kadra: Les Djedars. Monuments funéraires Berbères de la région de Frenda , Office des Publications Universitaires, Algiers 1983. The contribution by Jean-Pierre Laporte is based on this work: Les djedars, monuments funéraires des Berbères de la région de Frenda et de Tiaret , in: Claude Briand- Ponsart (ed.): Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique , University of Rouen 2005, pp. 321–406. The same applies to Gabriel Camps : Article “Djedar”, in: Encyclopédie berbère , Vol. 16, pp. 2049–2422.
- ↑ After Victor von Vita . Compare Jakob Haury: About the strength of the Vandals in Africa , in: Byzantinische Zeitschrift 14 (1905) 527f.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 79.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 96.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 100-102.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 107.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, map on p. 111.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 126.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for traces , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, pp. 128–130.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 131.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 132.
- ↑ Helmut Castritius: The Vandals. Stages of a search for clues , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2007, p. 135.
- ↑ Wolfgang Kaiser: Authenticity and Validity of Late Antique Imperial Laws , CH Beck, Munich 2007, pp. 105-107.
- ^ Berthold Rubin : The Age of Justinian , Vol. 2, de Gruyter, Berlin 1995, pp. 38-47. The work was only published posthumously and comes from the time when he was still taken seriously as a scientist.
- ^ Andy H. Merrills: Vandals, Romans and Berbers. Understanding Late Antique North Africa , in: Ders .: (Ed.): Vandals, Romans and Berbers. New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa , Aldershot 2004, p. 6.
- ↑ Yves moderan: Les Maures et l'Afrique romaine. 4e-7e siècle . Rome 2003, pp. 398-412; different Pierre Morizot: Masties at-il été imperator? , in: Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 141 (2002) 231–240.
- ↑ See The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire , Cambridge University Press 1980, p. 734 and Yves Modéran: De Julius Honorius à Corippus: la réapparition des Maures au Maghreb oriental , in: Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 147 (2003) 257-285, here: p. 274; different reading: AE 1945, 97
- ↑ Yves moderan: Les Maures et l'Afrique romaine (IVe au VIIe siècle) , Rome of 2003.
- ↑ Peter Riedlberger: Philological, historical and liturgical commentary on the 8th book of the Johannis des Goripp along with a critical edition and translation , Egbert Forsten, Groningen 2010, p. 49.
- ↑ Yves Modéran: Les Laguatan: leproblemème des migrations des neo-Berbères , in: EB 28/29 (2008) 4318-4321.
- ^ John Robert Martindale: The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire. Volume 3A, pp. 127-128; Volume 3B, pp. 1048-1049; John Bagnell Bury : History of the Later Roman Empire. From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Volume 2, Mineola 1958, p. 67.
- ↑ The Shiite tradition, which is hostile to the Umayyads, regards Umayya only as an adopted son of Abd Shams, so he and his descendants are not related by blood to the family of the Prophet.
- ^ Archives polonaises d'etudes orientales 23 (1957) 323.
- ↑ G. Camps: Essai de cartographie culturelle: A propos de la frontière de Numidie et de Maurétanie , in: Claude Lepelley, Xavier Dupuis (ed.): Frontières et limites géographiques de l'Afrique du Nord antique. Hommage à Pierre Salama , Paris 1999, pp. 43–70, here: p. 55.
- ^ Jonah Steinberg: Isma'ili Modern. Globalization and Identity in a Muslim Community , University of North Carolina Press 2011, p. 37.
- ↑ René Basset: Étude sur la Zenatia du Mzab de Ouargla et de l'Oued-Rir (PDF; 8 MB), Paris 1893.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 287.
- ^ Gabriel Camps: L'âge du Tombeau de Tin Hinan, Ancêtre des Touareg du Hoggar , in: Zyphyros 25 (1974).
- ↑ Thomas Krings, p. 33 (see lit.)
- ↑ NIGER: Slavery - an unbroken chain
- ^ Reuben Lévy, The Social Structure of Islam: Being the Second Edition of The Sociology of Islam, p. 87.
- ↑ Arthur Köhler, Constitution, social structure, law and economy of the Tuareg: Third chapter: Social structure , p. 20ff.
- ↑ In Morocco, as in other Saharan countries, the use of writing was made a criminal offense until the 1990s. Today Tifinagh is taught in schools and can be seen again and again in the streets of Moroccan cities.
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 306.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, p. 112.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, p. 141.
- ↑ This and the following according to Jamil M. Abun-Nasr: A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period , Cambridge University Press 1987, here: p. 146. Peter von Sivers: Nordafrika offers an overview of the history of North Africa up to 1985 in the modern era , in: Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, pp. 502–603.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, pp. 153f.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, p. 159.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, p. 165.
- ↑ Lucette Valensi: Fellahs tunisiens. l'économie rurale et la vie des campagnes aux 18e et 19e siècles , de Gruyter, Berlin 1977, p. 143.
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 532.
- ↑ a b Oliver Schulz (2011): A victory of the civilized world ?: The intervention of the great European powers in the Greek War of Independence (1826-1832) , ISBN 978-3-643-11314-6 , page 377
- ↑ Ulrich Haarmann (Ed.): History of the Arab World , Beck, Munich 2001, p. 552.
- ^ Contemporary report
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, p. 261.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, p. 52.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, Table 3.1, p. 53.
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, p. 265.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, p. 58.
- ↑ Mohammed Harbi: L'Algérie en perspectives , in: Mohammed Harbi, Benjamin Stora (ed.): La guerre d'Algérie , Paris, 2004, p. 48.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, p. 59.
- ↑ This and the following figures are from Mahfoud Bennoune, pp. 63–65.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, p. 67f.
- ↑ Mahfoud Bennoune, p. 72.
- ^ Sonja Klinker: Maghrebians in France, Turks in Germany. A comparative study on the identity and integration of Muslim immigrant groups in European majority societies , Diss. Hildesheim 2009, Peter Lang 2010, p. 85.
- ^ Paul Pandolfi: In-Salah 1904 / Tamanrasset 1905: les deux soumissions des Touaregs Kel-Ahaggar . In: Cahiers d'études africaines . tape 38 , no. 149 , 1998, pp. 43 ( persee.fr ).
- ↑ Pandolfi, p. 74
- ↑ May 1945: les massacres de Sétif et Guelma ( memento of September 6, 2013 in the Internet Archive ), website of the Ligne des droits de l'homme (LDH).
- ^ Sonja Klinker: Maghrebians in France, Turks in Germany. A comparative study of the identity and integration of Muslim immigrant groups in European majority societies , Diss. Hildesheim 2009, Peter Lang 2010, p. 91.
- ^ Algeria ( Memento of February 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), University of Hamburg.
- ↑ This and the following information from Alistair Horne: A Savage War of Peace. Algeria 1954-62 , New York 1978.
- ^ Sonja Klinker: Maghrebians in France, Turks in Germany. A comparative study of the identity and integration of Muslim immigrant groups in European majority societies , Diss. Hildesheim 2009, Peter Lang 2010, p. 51.
- ↑ Proclamation of the result (pdf)
- ^ Capcom Espace, encyclopédie de l'espace
- ↑ election result
- ↑ Thomas Hasel: Power Conflict in Algeria , Verlag Hans Schiler 2002, p. 54.
- ↑ Der Spiegel 37/1965: Operation Gibraltar
- ↑ Dirk Axtmann: Reform of Authoritarian Rule in North Africa: Constitutional and electoral reforms in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco between 1988 and 2004 . Dissertation University of Heidelberg, 2004; VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften 2007, ISBN 978-3-8350-6073-9 , p. 172 ( online ).
- ↑ The Trace of the Young Radical . In: Der Tagesspiegel , March 23, 2012.
- ↑ Hans Krech: The Growing Influence of Al-Qaeda on the African Continent . In: Africa Spectrum , 46,2 (2011) pp. 125–137, here: p. 126 - from the perspective of the leadership academy of the Bundeswehr.
- ↑ tagesschau.de: Tebboune wins presidential election in Algeria. Norddeutscher Rundfunk , December 13, 2019, accessed on August 4, 2020 .
- ↑ See Lasse Heerten: Review of: Klose, Fabian: Human rights in the shadow of colonial violence. The wars of decolonization in Kenya and Algeria 1945–1962. Munich 2009 . In: H-Soz-u-Kult , March 18, 2010.
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Central African Republic
Other areas:
Ascension |
Ceuta and Melilla |
Canary Islands |
Madeira |
Mayotte |
Réunion |
St. Helena |
Tristan da Cunha
Disputed areas:
Puntland |
Somaliland |
Western Sahara
History of the States of:
Asia |
Europe |
North America |
Oceania |
South America