History of South Africa
The history of South Africa is that of the extreme southern edge of the African continent between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans . It goes back to the beginning of hominization . South Africa is considered the cradle of mankind , the oldest fossil finds of direct ancestors of the genus Homo ( Hominini ) are dated to an age of around 3.5 to 4 million years.
During early history, the San people settled in southern Africa , and they have preserved remnants of Stone Age life to this day . About 2000 years ago the cattle breeding Khoikhoi differentiated themselves from the group of the Khoisan . From the north, probably since the third century, Bantu peoples migrated to the country and populated eastern South Africa. After Bartolomeu Diaz reached the southern tip of Africa in 1488, the Dutch East India Company founded Cape Town in 1652, the first settlement on the Cape, which quickly expanded into a Cape Colony . This was taken over by the British in 1806 . “ Boers ” of European descent who emigrated to the north then founded various Boer republics .
The Boer-English antagonism culminated in the First (1880–1881) and Second Boer War (1899–1902). After the Boer Republics were incorporated into the British Kingdom, the South African Union was established in 1910 as a self-governed Dominion in the British Commonwealth . In 1926, South Africa was given de facto sovereignty, and in 1931 also formally legislative independence from Great Britain. After the Second World War , South Africa embarked on a racist “special path” with the apartheid system , which was only overcome after 1989/90. In 1961, under pressure from foreign policy, the country left the Commonwealth of Nations because of the apartheid policy and founded the Republic of South Africa. The first democratic election took place in 1994.
terminology
During the apartheid period, the demographic divisions of South African society were particularly ideologically instrumentalized, so that it is difficult to describe the history of the country in unencumbered terms. This particularly applies to the distinction between “blacks”, “whites”, “ coloreds ” and “Asians”. The assignment of every South African to one of these groups had been regulated by law since 1950 by the Population Registration Act and the basis for the policy of strict racial segregation . The ethnic category " Bantu ", which was also abused by the apartheid regime, is merely an auxiliary construct , which is not a self-designation, but a collective term for those peoples who belong to the Bantu language family. The same applies to summarizing terms such as Nguni or Sotho . In the absence of suitable alternative terms, all of these terms are mostly retained today for pragmatic reasons. Disparaging names such as " Hottentots " ( Khoikhoi ), " Bushmen " ( San ) or " Kaffirs " (in the narrower sense the Xhosa , later extended to all Bantu-speaking peoples) have been considered " hate speech " since the end of apartheid and are no longer used.
The self-designation of the Afrikaans- speaking whites is "African". In the German translation this is usually transformed into "Afrikaans" in analogy to Afrikaans and to differentiate between black Africans. In English, the variant "Afrikaners" has prevailed. By contrast, “Africans” in German means the indigenous African peoples. A term used almost synonymously for the Afrikaans is the term " Buren ", which originally only referred to farmers of Dutch descent and was used as a dirty word by the British. The term “British” for English-speaking whites is clear on the matter and is therefore used even though they are not British citizens.
South Africa before colonization
Hominization, prehistory and early history
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Various prehistoric finds were discovered in South Africa, which are among the earliest evidence of hominization . Finds of early human ancestors, hominini of the species Australopithecus africanus , are dated to an age of around 3.3 to 3.5, according to a more recent estimate even around 4 million years. Particularly prominent finds of this fossil species are the " Child of Taung " and " Mrs. Ples "; the particularly complete fossil “ Little Foot ”, however, probably belongs to a second South African Australopithecus species. The caves of Sterkfontein , Kromdraai , Swartkrans and Makapansgat , which are known as the “ cradle of mankind ” and are part of the world cultural heritage , are the most important sites in South Africa. The species Homo naledi was discovered in the Rising Star cave . The oldest finds of Homo erectus from Swartkrans are around a million years old, the Paleolithic modern man ( Homo sapiens ) has been traceable in southern Africa - as the legacies of the so-called Pinnacle Point people show - for 165,000 years. The 36,000 year old Hofmeyr skull is considered to be the link to the non-African representatives of modern man .
With the transition from the Middle to the Neolithic Age , small groups of the San emerged as nomadic hunters and gatherers around 35,000-20,000 years ago . Rock paintings up to 26,000 years old have been preserved in many places in southern Africa.
About 2,000 years ago, groups of the San took over cattle breeding and ceramics from northern black peoples in the fertile regions and developed a differentiated social order for which personal property became important. The society of these Khoikhoi , later disparagingly referred to as the Hottentots by the Dutch , was, in contrast to that of the San, not only organized in small family groups and clans , but also through higher-ranking tribes . At the turn of the century they came south to what is now western South Africa, where they later took over metal tools and weapons from black peoples from the east. Since the way of life of the Khoikhoi made a greater population density possible and their cattle and sheep consumed the already thin sward of the semi-arid land, both groups increasingly got into conflict and competitive situations. As a result of this conflict, the San were pushed back into the arid areas, where remnants of Stone Age life have been preserved to this day. The various societies of the San and Khoikhoi are often grouped together as Khoisan .
Immigration of the Bantu peoples
Since there are no written sources on the early history of the southern Bantu and the South African research on the history of the blacks has always been politically instrumentalized, it is difficult to make reliable statements about the immigration of the Bantu peoples. Especially at the time of apartheid, South African historians vigorously advocated the thesis that the black African Bantu had only immigrated to the country since the 17th century, i.e. at the same time as the Europeans, so that the whites could not have taken any land from them. However, there is much to suggest that this migration was largely over by the year 1000. Around 600 smelters for iron and copper ore, pottery, fortifications and skeletons from the period between the third and twelfth centuries were found in the northern and northeastern parts of South Africa , which can with some certainty be assigned to representatives of the Bantu language family . Agriculture in the Transvaal and Natal has been traceable since around 200 AD. The settlement boundary in the eastern half of South Africa seems to have shifted slowly to the south along the coastline and watercourses and to have reached the highveld in the higher inland between 1300 and 1600 . The expansion ended at the Great Kei River , and settlement in the western half of the country prevented the drought, which prevented the cultivation of the plants introduced by the Bantu (especially sorghum ). The western part of South Africa therefore remained the land of the Khoisan. The fact that several South African Bantu languages, especially Xhosa and Zulu , adopted the characteristic click sounds of the Khoisan languages , speaks for a largely peaceful relationship between the ethnic groups. The Bantu peoples only expanded along the coast, certainly also violently against the competition of the Khoikhoi resident there. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Shona invaded the north of what is now the Republic of South Africa via the Limpopo . The southern Bantu differentiated themselves in the 18th century into the large groups of the Nguni , Tsonga , Sotho and Venda . These in turn were divided into the peoples of the Zulu , Xhosa , Swazi , Basotho , Batswana , Ndebele and Pedi .
European explorers
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach South Africa. Since the beginning of the 15th century they were looking for a sea route to India around Africa in order to eliminate the Arab, Turkish and Venetian middlemen on the spice route . Bartolomeu Diaz succeeded for the first time in 1488 in penetrating to the south-western tip of Africa, which he baptized the Cape of Storms . King Joao II of Portugal changed the name to Cape of Good Hope , as the way to India was now open. On 4 November 1498 the small fleet of reaching Vasco da Gama , the St. Helena Bay on the west coast of South Africa, were where the ships overhauled and linked with local business contacts. Then you drove in a wide arc around the southern tip of Africa and landed on November 25th in the Mosselbaai ( Angra de São Braz ). Here, at the start of the last stage of the sea route to India, a padrão was set up. At Christmas Vasco da Gama reached a stretch of coast in South Africa that he called Natal ( Christmas ). Many subsequent seafarers stopped at the Cape, but despite the strategic importance of the Cape, the Portuguese never established a permanent settlement there. In a clash with the Khoikhoi, the Portuguese viceroy Francisco de Almeida and around 50 companions were killed in 1510 - this was to remain the most losing battle for Europeans in the region and contributed to the fact that initially no permanent colony was established on the Cape .
Colonial times
Cape Colony
The Cape Colony under Dutch rule
In 1652 the Dutchman Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town on behalf of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) , the first permanent European settlement on South African soil. It was supposed to offer the ships on the way to and from Batavia and the other branches of the trading company in East India a safe haven for provisions and a hospital for the care of sick travelers. At first the presence of the Dutch was limited to supplying their ships, but with the fortified supply station, the first step towards European colonization of South Africa was taken.
A few years after the station was built on the cape, Jan van Riebeeck issued a decree in 1655 that forbade residents to pollute the natural waters in the Table Mountain area. Violations of these regulations were punishable by law. The VOC was dependent on safe drinking water to supply the ships and the local settlers. Later on, water consumption had to be regulated by the region's agricultural properties. According to an ordinance issued in 1661, farmers were forbidden to use the water for irrigation in years with little rainfall, so that drinking water production and mill operations could be maintained. In 1761 this restriction was relaxed again a little. Landowners in localities were allowed to irrigate for four hours a day according to a plan agreed in the respective settlements. Due to the seasonal water shortage, there were also difficulties in dealing with the sewage and cleaning the canals following the road system. A flushing action with pent-up water took place once a week. The residents were responsible for the maintenance of their canal section.
The increasing trade and the increasing need for provisions made it worthwhile to cultivate grain and, above all, to raise cattle on a larger scale since around 1680. Wine- growing had already developed around 1659, which was reinforced by the immigration of French Huguenots from Piedmont , which began a little later . As early as 1657, nine employees were dismissed from the services of the VOC and allowed to run small farms. These and subsequent settlers were called Vryburger and were independent of instructions from the company. The step towards the first African settlement colony was done, but the influx of immigrants from Europe was relatively weak compared to the population development in American colonies. When the VOC ended its rule in 1795, only about 15,000 Vryburgers lived on the Cape. Stellenbosch and Franschhoek are among the oldest Vryburg settlements . The immigrants were Dutch Calvinists , North German settlers and in 1689 a group of 180 Huguenot refugees from France. The newly formed population group of white settlers has been calling themselves Afrikaans since the beginning of the 18th century . While the country of origin was secondary, the VOC demanded the Reformed Confession from European settlers . Islam was widespread among black people and slaves , as Christianization was largely avoided in order to avoid releases.
Relations with the Khoikhoi became increasingly problematic. After repeated conflicts over pastureland and water points, they drove the Vryburgers from their farms in 1659, but ultimately the Dutch held their own with their guns and horses and the Khoikhoi had to recognize the sovereignty of the VOC over the land cultivated by the Vryburgers. 1673–1677 the Dutch smashed the main group of the Khoikhoi, the Cochoqua. After the loss of land, cattle and water sources, the displaced carried the war further inland. The VOC headquarters in Amsterdam prohibited the transfer of the Khoikhoi into slavery, but they gradually became dependent workers and herdsmen. In addition, smallpox epidemics brought in from Europe - the worst in 1713 - decimated the Khoikhoi population on the Cape. After this disaster, the vast majority of the Khoikhoi found themselves dependent on Europeans.
From 1658/59 the VOC had begun to introduce slaves . At the beginning these came from Indonesia and India , Madagascar was an important country of origin throughout and since the late 18th century most of them came from Mozambique . Their legal status differed in some ways from the slaves of the plantation economy of American colonies, for example, according to Roman law, they were not allowed to be killed without reason, as they had a natural right to their life. The Cape Colony was the only African country with a European legal system where slaves were kept. Slavery practiced in the Cape became a central point of contention between the British and Afrikaans until it was officially abolished in 1834 after heated public debates. At that time the number of slaves on the Cape was around 40,000–60,000. Around half of the Vryburgers owned slaves, but mostly only five to ten. To a greater extent, the farmers used the labor of casual Khoisan workers. In Cape Town some of the slaves were owned by the VOC and used for public works. Another population group formed the growing number of colored people , which arose from the mixture of Europeans, Khoikhoi or Khoisan and the (partly released) slaves. Almost half of all slave children in 1685 had European fathers.
The large number of children among the Boers as well as their extensive forms of land use triggered demographic pressure that triggered expansion dynamics in the north of the Cape Colony. Since the end of the 17th century, individual farmers, the so-called Treckburen , broke in search of pastureland and cattle from the Cape north and east into the Overberg region and over the Hottentots-Holland Mountains. They drove out the local Khoisan or forced them to do wage labor. Against the resisting San, the commandos of the trekboys acted relentlessly, between 1785 and 1795 alone, according to official figures, they killed 2,504 San and took 699 prisoners. Before the Treckburen, the Griqua , "half-breeds" descended from Dutch and Khoikhoi women, had to retreat across the Orange River until the middle of the 19th century , where they destabilized the local societies.
In return for recognition of the land as owned by the VOC and the payment of an annual rent, the company granted the Treckburen the right to cultivate the land practically indefinitely. In order to evade the restrictive government of the VOC, numerous Boers became semi-nomadic cattle breeders who penetrated further and further inland. They developed a strong sense of independence and, in addition to a feeling of racial superiority, also a religious consciousness of being chosen. In the 18th century, the Treckburen extended the settlement border by more than 800 kilometers. In 1778 the VOC set the Bushman River as the natural boundary of the Cape Colony, but this shifted eastward to the Great Fish River until 1812 , to the Keiskamma River in 1847 and to the Great Kei River in 1865 . Around 1760 they first advanced eastward across the Orange River. This led to a clash with the Xhosa people , which culminated in the 100-year border wars . In 1795, 1799 and 1801 there were minor uprisings against the VOC by the Trek Boers, who were very keen on independence.
In 1787 the restrictions on irrigation periods were relaxed in the Cape Town region. Now the farmers were able to supply their crops with water from the rivers for up to 8 hours a day. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that industrialization brought about a need for fundamental regulation of the water issue. Until its dissolution in 1795, the VOC had considered the right to use water to be part of its sovereign sphere of activity and regulated private water consumption through an award with rent. This practice expressed itself in the granting of privileges and the arbitrary withdrawal of them. On this basis a system of corruption and nepotism had developed.
The Cape as a British colony
Great Britain , also engaged in the Indian trade , tried to capture the Cape with a fleet during the fourth Anglo-Dutch naval war in 1780, but was repulsed with French help. However, when the Netherlands was occupied by France in the course of the first coalition war in 1795 , the British took advantage of a rebellion in the Cape Colony to bring it under their rule and so forestall the French. Under the influence of the French Revolution, tensions between Boers and the VOC had led to uprisings in various places and in 1795 to the proclamation of the first two Boer republics in Graaff-Reinet and Swellendam .
In 1803, after the Peace of Amiens , the British initially withdrew and left the Cape to the Batavian Republic as the legal successor to the VOC, which was dissolved in 1798. As early as 1806 , Great Britain annexed the Cape Colony (as well as Ceylon and Dutch Guiana ) for good after the Napoleonic wars had flared up again in Europe. With 6,700 men, the British forced the Dutch to surrender the fort. In doing so, they invoked older rights at the Cape, since there was an English settlement there as early as 1620. In 1815 the cession to the British colonial empire was confirmed by the Netherlands at the Congress of Vienna , which received the former Austrian Netherlands as compensation .
If the British colonial administration initially left the administrative structure of the Dutch largely untouched, this changed when the " settlers of 1820 ", 4,000 to 5,000 British immigrants, reached the east of the Cape Colony. English became the official language of the country and with the introduction of the freedom of the press , political life began to develop.
In 1853 the Cape Colony received a limited representative self-government and a constitution approved by London. The parliament could not vote out the governor , who continued to exercise executive power , but had the budget right . This Legislative Council, as well as the Legislative Assembly, had universal suffrage for all British subjects over the age of 21 who either lived in a house worth £ 25 or earned at least £ 50 a year. The census right to vote did not in principle exclude blacks and people of color; skin color and denomination played no role in the right to vote. In fact, the proportion of African voters in the six constituencies of the Eastern Cape was 43 percent in 1886. The English law provided inter alia, equality between whites and free non-whites and banned the slave trade . The basic legal equality of the indigenous population proclaimed in Ordinance 50 in 1828 was, however, thwarted by special laws. A “passport law” abolished freedom of movement for Khoikhoi and tied them to a gentleman. In 1834 all slaves were released, although for many this meant a release into poverty. Paradoxically, the slavery exacerbated racial segregation. Multiracial marriages became rarer, the districts differed according to the skin color of their residents. In addition to representative self-government and basic legal equality, the introduction of a free economic system was an important aspect of “Cape Liberalism ”. Since the 1840s, the basis of the economy has been sheep farming on the dry pastures on the Eastern Cape and in the Karoo . The trade with the Bantu peoples in the eastern border region, which in 1875 already amounted to around 750,000 pounds , also gained in importance .
In 1869 the discovery of huge diamond deposits in Kimberley on the North Cape triggered a diamond rush. With the De Beers company , a monopoly soon developed that still dominates the worldwide diamond trade. In order to prevent the illegal trade in diamonds, the black workers were forced to live in isolated compounds , cage-like workers' settlements in the immediate vicinity of the mines with poor hygienic and social conditions. The phenomenon of migrant labor had a devastating effect on the social structure of black societies, destroying families and economies in rural areas and uprooting workers.
In 1872 Great Britain granted the Cape Colony internal autonomy. A Prime Minister elected by parliament and responsible for this took over the affairs of government and the governor withdrew to representative tasks. This was the first step towards an independent state of South Africa. The new independent Cape Government replaced British liberalism with strict racial segregation and excluded Africans in the conquered eastern border regions from the right to vote.
Under British rule there was also a strong Christian missionary activity which had hardly played a role under the Calvinist Dutch. The first mission since 1737 was that of the Protestant Bohemian Brethren , who took special care of the Khoikhoi. From 1799 the London Missionary Society was active in the troubled northern border areas, in 1823 the Methodist Wesleyan Missionary Society was added and proselytized among the Xhosa. The first Catholic missionaries began to invade the country in 1852. The first major mission school in Africa was built in Lovedale near Alice in 1841 , which later became the University of Fort Hare .
The Bantu peoples
Mfecane
The term Mfecane ( Nguni : "crushing") describes a process of violent change of rule among the black peoples of southeastern South Africa, which lasted from about 1817 to the mid-1840s. The Mfecane is just as difficult to grasp historically and was instrumentalized for propaganda as well as the colonization of South Africa by Bantu peoples. The causes of Mfecane are particularly controversial. Disastrous dry periods in the years 1800–1803, 1812 and 1816–1818, the Portuguese slave and ivory trade in Mozambique, rivalries between the Bantu peoples and the advance of the Trekking Boers from the west come into question. The trigger was the expansion of the Zulu under Shaka , which led to a chain reaction of wars and displacement among neighboring peoples and tribes. The expansion of the Zulu Empire forced the Xhosa chiefdoms westward into the Khoikhoi area. At the settlement boundary of the Cape Colony, the Xhosa encountered the Boers, which were expanding in the opposite direction. The Ndebele split off from the Zulu and also evaded westward. On their way they subjugated the Tswana , met the Boers advancing to the northeast in 1836/37 and were defeated by them. They then founded the Matabele Kingdom in what is now Zimbabwe . In the inland Highveld , one of the reactions to the armed conflict was the unification of the Basotho people under their chief Moshoeshoe . The Kingdom of Swazi was established in the north . Both Basutoland and Swaziland were later able to retain their independence from South Africa as British protectorates .
The submission of the Bantu people
On the eastern border of the Cape Colony, the British waged armed conflicts between 1778 and 1878 with great severity and a scorched earth tactic , including nine so-called border wars, primarily against the Xhosa. In the border war of 1811/12, Great Britain first deployed regular line troops , experienced in combat from the coalition wars, instead of armed settlers who waged a totalized war for the first time. In order to secure the Eastern Cape, the garrison town of Grahamstown was founded. These military and administrative innovations of 1812 can be seen as the real beginning of modern colonialism on the African continent. With every border war, the spiral of violence increased, the number of British soldiers deployed increased, the country was more devastated, and the fighting strength of the Xhosa improved through the use of firearms and guerrilla tactics. The catastrophe for the Xhosa was exacerbated by the Xhosa cattle killing based on a prophecy of a girl in 1857 . As a result of the famine that followed, the population of the Xhosa fell from around 105,000 to 38,500. White settlers poured into the depopulated region. The defeat of the Xhosa, who were tactically superior to the British, was ultimately due to the fact that their livelihoods were destroyed.
After the Xhosa people were broken, only Venda and Pedi in the Transvaal and the Basotho in the interior could hold their own against the Afrikaans. The Basotho under Moshoeshoe prevented the collapse by making their land, now Lesotho , a British protectorate in 1868 .
Only the Zulu state appeared to the British as a threat to their settlements in Natal. On December 11, 1878, colonial officials therefore handed over an ultimatum to the Zulu. The British called for the payment of taxes and the cessation of raids on English settlers. In January 1879, after the ultimatum had expired, English colonial troops under Lieutenant General Lord Chelmsford invaded the Zulu Empire from Natal. With that the Zulu War began . On January 22nd, Cetshwayo inflicted a catastrophic defeat on the British at the Battle of Isandhlwana . Lord Chelmsford began to restructure his troops in the summer. The British sent troops from across the Empire to South Africa during this period. In the battle of Ulundi on July 4, 1879, the technically superior British were able to defeat the Zulu. The Zulu king survived the battle and fled north while the remnants of his army scattered in all directions. Two weeks after the decisive battle, the British announced that the Zulu Kingdom no longer existed. Cetshwayo was captured a month later, on August 28th. The Zululand was divided into 13 separate kingdoms.
The expansion of the territory controlled by the South African British continued at an accelerated pace. In 1884 the Cape Colony annexed Pondoland , and in 1885 Bechuanaland , today's Botswana , became a British protectorate . Basutoland , today's Lesotho, became a British protectorate in 1868 and, after brief annexation to the Cape Province, became a crown colony in 1884 .
The resistance of the various Bantu races has often been broken by a number of other factors such as natural disasters and drought. The rinderpest for example, killed late 19th century, 80 to 90 percent of the cattle in the Transkei and almost as many in the Ciskei . Bantu crop yields fell sharply. The reasons for the losses in agriculture are varied. On the one hand, they faced stiff competition from major European farmers. In addition there was a general recession from 1873 to 1896 as well as internal and external pressure from diamond mining from 1860 and gold mining from 1880. The internal pressure was caused by the interest of many Bantu to participate in the mining, which weakened the traditional Structures and thus agriculture. External pressures arose from the value of diamonds and gold, which pushed the whites to more deliberate colonization.
The missionaries played a role in the colonization that should not be underestimated , although they operated with varying degrees of success. For example, where the Tswana responded quite openly to the missionary efforts, the Zulu showed little interest. Missionary efforts among the Xhosa made a remarkable development. With the Lovedale Missionary Institute it was already possible in the 19th century to establish a higher education for Xhosa and later to develop a college in Alice from it. James Stewart and Jane Elizabeth Waterston did a great job doing this .
The Boer Republics
Great trek
The abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834 deprived many Boers of their livelihoods. The legal equality of free non-whites (1828), a border war with the Xhosa in 1834/35, the Anglicisation tendencies at the Cape and the accompanying dwindling influence of the Boers also contributed to the discontent of the Afrikaans. In order to escape the sphere of influence of British law, they once again avoided the hinterland as so-called Voortrekkers . In the large trek , around 12,000 Boers (according to Albrecht Hagemann at least 6000 by 1840, according to Jan Visagie between 1835 and 1845 more than 20,000) emigrated in several waves to the areas north of the Orange River, where they met Bantu, whose power of resistance by which Mfecane was weakened. However, violent armed conflicts broke out with the Ndebele and the Zulu in Natal. In 1838 the Zulu murdered the Voortrekker leader Pieter Retief , after he had brought them 700 cattle, with his companions and shortly afterwards killed another 400 settlers. The decision in favor of the Boers brought the Battle of the Blood River , in which on December 16, 1838 the Zulu under Dingane were defeated by the Boer general Andries Pretorius .
The establishment of the Boer Republics
As the first of the large Boer republics , the Voortrekkers founded Natalia in 1839 on the east coast, south of the Zulu Empire , which was annexed by the British in 1843. The Boers, who dodged inland to the north, then founded the Orange Free State between the Oranje and Vaal rivers and the Transvaal north of it. In the Sand River Convention of 1852 the British regulated the division of land with the Boers, gave them all the land north of the Vaal and recognized the independence of the Transvaal as a South African Republic . Two years later, the Orange Free State was recognized in the Bloemfontein Convention .
Around 1870, only about 45,000 whites lived in the two purely agricultural presidential republics . Relatively stable conditions returned in the Orange Free State after 1864 under the presidency of Johannes Henricus Brand . Economically, the wool export determined the Free State. In contrast, the Transvaal remained without a real government and was marked by armed conflicts between various trekker groups. In both states racist suffrage existed only for whites.
The discovery of the largest gold deposits in the world in 1886 on the Witwatersrand completely changed the economic and social structure of the Boer republics, which had been remote until then and were mainly used as farmland. Since the gold content in the deposits was low, huge amounts of rock had to be moved. The increasingly capital-intensive industrial gold extraction resulted in a gradual concentration of gold mining on a few strong companies that merged in the powerful Chamber of Mines . Mining drew thousands of mostly British workers and fortune-tellers to the Boer-dominated areas, and by the mid-1870s around 50,000 blacks were working in diamond mining. Ten years after Johannesburg was founded, the city with 100,000 inhabitants, half of them black, was already the largest in South Africa.
The claim of the republics in the First Boer War
Efforts by London to unite all British colonies in southern Africa into one territory aroused Great Britain's interest in the Boer republics. In 1877 the Empire used the loss-making struggles of the Boers against the Pedi, led by Sekhukhune , to annex the politically unstable South African Republic. After the British had laboriously but successfully ended the difficult battle against Pedi and Zulu, the Boers rose up under Paul Kruger in 1879 . With the declaration of independence by the South African Republic on December 16, 1880, the First Boer War broke out. The Afrikaans achieved decisive success in February 1881 in the battle of Majuba Hill . The peace treaty of March 23 guaranteed the Boers in the Transvaal self-government under formal British rule. In 1884 the South African Republic regained its full independence with the London Convention , Paul Kruger became its president.
The dispute over railways and freight tariffs caused a dispute between the British Cape Colony under Prime Minister Cecil Rhodes and the Transvaal. Since the gold discovery in 1886, large numbers of British workers have poured into the Afrikaans territory, creating additional tension with their presence. On January 2, 1896, the Afrikaans were able to repel a British attack, the Jameson Raid , which was planned by Cecil Rhodes . In Europe, the Krüger Depesche , a letter of congratulations from Kaiser Wilhelm II to Paul Kruger after the attack was successfully repelled, led to strong German-British tensions.
The Second Boer War
With the gold discoveries in the Transvaal and the appearance of the German Empire as a colonial power in German South West Africa , the Boer states played a key economic and strategic role for the British Empire. In 1899 Great Britain took the political and legal disadvantage of the British known as uitlanders , who at that time already made up the majority in the Transvaal, as an opportunity to take action again against the independence of the Boer republics. On October 11, 1899, the Second Boer War broke out; it is now often referred to as the 'South African War'.
By June 1902, the British troops were able to take the capitals Bloemfontein and Pretoria and annex both republics. The war seemed to have been won for the Empire, but now the Boers resorted to guerrilla tactics, which the British responded to with scorched earth warfare . Ultimately, in the battles waged with extreme cruelty, the military superiority of the Empire prevailed against the highly motivated, disciplined Boer commandos that used their knowledge of the country. A total of around 450,000 soldiers fought on the British side, of which around 21,000 were killed. The Boer War was the bloodiest, longest, and costliest war Britain has been involved in since the Napoleonic Wars . On the Afrikaans side, around 7,000 gunmen and around 28,000 civilians died, including many women and children who were rounded up in what was first called concentration camps . Several thousand black people died from starvation and epidemics in the devastated country. Contributing to the victory of the British was the fact that the blacks mostly sided with their side in the hope of being able to regain the land that had been lost to the Voortrekkers in the past decades.
The course of the war was closely followed in Europe and America. In the second Boer War, foreign volunteers fought on the side of the Boers against the British troops, including Irish, Americans, Germans and Russians. The young communist movement of Russia was among the Boers' supporters . In Great Britain, the adventurous escape of the young war correspondent Winston Churchill from a Boer POW camp kept the public in suspense.
On May 31, 1902, both sides signed the Treaty of Vereeniging . The Orange Free State and the South African Republic were converted into the British colonies of Orange River Colony and Transvaal. The Afrikaans received all the rights of British citizens, Afrikaans was allowed as the official language in schools and for negotiations in courts, and Boer participants in the war were guaranteed freedom from persecution. As early as 1907, the Orange River Colony and Transvaal were granted self-government and their own governments.
natal
On the east coast, south of the Zulu Empire, the Voortrekker founded Natalia in 1839, the first Boer republic with the capital Pietermaritzburg . As early as 1843 this republic was annexed by the British, initially incorporated into the Cape Colony and converted into the independent colony Natal in 1856 . In Natal, sugar cane cultivation dominated the economy. Here, with the Native Administration, a system of territorial racial segregation was introduced, in which one sees today a model for the later apartheid policy, but which was based on the intention to preserve the culture and social structure of the Africans. The British set up locations , reservations, for the Zulu . As a result, white farmers lacked cheap labor. Therefore, from 1860 Indian contract workers were recruited from their homeland, who immigrated mainly via Durban and after their contract period had the right to stay in the colony and receive a piece of land as property as a substitute for the free return trip. About half of the 100,000 Indians living in South Africa at the end of the 19th century chose this option. In addition to the contract workers, Indian merchants immigrated from the 1880s to compete with the white traders. Since Natal became a settler self-government in 1897, the Indian merchants were exposed to discriminatory measures.
Independent South Africa
The South African Union
The founding of the South African Union
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The possibility of forming a common state between the four British colonial areas Cape Colony , Natal , Transvaal and Orange River Colony was first suggested in 1908 at the level of their governments. This idea was discussed in detail at an intercolonial ministerial conference in Pretoria. In the same year parliament representatives from all four colonies met for a national convention in Durban and Cape Town to work out a concrete proposal for a resolution. The four parliaments subsequently met to initiate the relevant legislative procedure on the basis of the previous convention discussions. In Natal the demand arose to take the step towards a common union only after a successful referendum. Thereupon a new convention met in Bloemfontein in 1909, which gave in to the request from Natal and accepted a change in the joint proposal. In 1909 all four parliaments of the colonies Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and the province of Orange Free State made a positive decision and the necessary referendum was held in Natal. With this decision, delegations from the four colonial parliaments turned to England to obtain final legislative approval from the British parliament . With the Act to constitute the Union of South Africa by the British Parliament on September 20, 1909, the still-to-be-established establishment of the South African Union was finally decided. Article 4 of this law stipulated that the King would issue a proclamation in the Privy Council , which had to specifically regulate the formation of the legislative and executive organs of the South African Union.
On May 31, 1910, the Union of South Africa was established as a self-governed Dominion in the British Commonwealth . The four colonies became the provinces of Cape Province , Natal , Transvaal and Orange Free State . Important components of the association were a strong central government, the legal equality of the English language and Dutch language (only from 1925 Afrikaans ) and the retention of the respective right to vote in the four provinces. This meant that blacks and coloreds only had limited voting rights in the Cape. The rivalry between the provinces for the seat of the capital resulted in the distribution of legislative, executive and judicial branches to three provincial capitals, which is still valid today. Cape Town became the seat of parliament, Pretoria the seat of government and Bloemfontein the seat of the supreme court. The British crown was represented by a governor general. The former Boer General Louis Botha became the first Prime Minister as a representative of the South African Party (SAP), which pursued a policy of reconciliation between the British and Boers. He was followed by his party friend Jan Christiaan Smuts , who ruled from 1919 to 1924.
Also in 1910 the South African Union, Bechuanaland , Swaziland and Basutoland founded the Customs Union of Southern Africa (SACU), which still exists today . South West Africa (now Namibia ) has been a de facto member of the SACU since it was under the administration of South Africa from 1918. South Africa dominated its neighboring countries due to its economic power, but also due to the railway network reaching into the other countries, which was longer than that of the rest of the African continent combined (see also: History of rail traffic in South Africa ). With the formation of the South African Union, a new legal regulation of water use in an agricultural country with rapidly increasing industrialization in some centers became necessary. The Union Irrigation Act of 1910 and the Irrigation and Conservation of Water Act of 1912 were also the starting point of a state water agency. In the years 1915 and 1916, droughts that had a devastating effect on livelihoods in the Cape region followed.
First World War and the interwar period
In the First World War, South Africa fought on the side of Great Britain. 140,000 white South Africans took part in the fighting in German South West Africa , German East Africa and northern France, supported by 80,000 black auxiliary troops who remained unarmed. Against the support of London in the war against Germany there was a rebellion of some Afrikaaner generals ( Maritz rebellion ), who were put down by units of the South African army . After the end of the war, the League of Nations placed the former German colony of South West Africa under the mandate administration of the South African Union. The later Namibia was administered by the Union as South West Africa as a fifth province.
The SAP had been opposed to the National Party since 1914 , which fueled anti-British resentment and advocated the superiority of white Afrikaans over blacks. For decades, the two defining themes of South African politics remained the Afrikaans-British antagonism and dealing with non-whites. This friction led to a pronounced Afrikaaner nationalism among the Boers, which found its clearest expression in the cultural nationalist Afrikaner Broederbond . This secret society later exerted significant influence on apartheid policy.
After the war, a recession weakened the country's economy. The gold mine owners took advantage of the situation, lowered wages and hired more black workers. In Johannesburg , there were unrest among white workers in 1922, the so-called Rand Revolt (around 150 dead and around 600 wounded). The anger over the bloody suppression of the uprising hit the Smuts government, which had not only intervened militarily, but had also merged with the Unionists , the party of South Africans loyal to England, and was therefore linked to the powerful, English-dominated mine chamber. The National Party used the term Poor Whites , whose rights were to be defended against British capital. The group of whites living in poverty was estimated at 300,000 in 1930, one sixth of white South Africans. However, due to the Mines and Works Act of 1911, white miners earned significantly better than their black counterparts. With an extension to that law, the Mines and Works Amendment Act of 1926, the white miners even became the highest paid workers in the country.
In 1924 the National Party was elected to government. In coalition with the South African Labor Party , Barry Hertzog's government had a two-thirds majority. The two very different parties were united by the goal of putting white workers at the center of politics. In order to reduce unemployment among white workers, jobs in administration and industry were created for them. The coalition created legal foundations and thus embarked on the path of racial segregation , such as the later expanded Immorality Act in 1927 , which made sexual contact between whites and blacks a criminal offense. While white women were given the right to vote, only men were allowed to vote from the colored group. The Native Urban Areas Act had already been passed under Smuts in 1923 , which basically reserved the South African cities as a place of residence for whites and gave blacks only limited right of residence there. Since 1913, the Natives Land Act regulated the distribution of land in South Africa and banned land transfers between members of different population groups. After that, the blacks, who made up 70 percent of the population, were only allowed to purchase land in areas designated as reserves, which made up only 7.13 percent of the total area. The scarcity of land in the reservations was later recognized. In 1936, the Native Trust and Land Act nominally increased the land quota to 13.6 percent of the land, which, however, was only followed by small actual increases. The Mines and Works Act , enacted in Transvaal in 1911 and renewed in 1922 , excluded non-whites from large parts of economic life.
In South Africa of all places, however, the later University Fort Hare was founded in 1916 , one of the few academic educational institutions for black people in Africa; it would later become extremely important for the development of a black leadership elite. In 1912 black notables founded the 'South African Native National Congress', which was later renamed the African National Congress (ANC). This moderate interest group initially relied entirely on petitions . More radical was the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union (ICU) , which was founded in 1919 and at times had 100,000 members . Since the late 1920s, the ICU lost its influence.
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With the Balfour Report , South Africa gained de facto sovereignty in 1926. Britain allowed South Africa to open embassies in other countries; an independent South African Foreign Ministry was created. In 1931, the Westminster Statute also gave the Union formal legislative independence from Great Britain. After South Africa had left the gold standard based on the British model in 1932, parts of the coal and steel industry and heavy industry began to slowly stabilize, with an increasing trend towards growth, which continued until after 1960.
This took place within a development in which the interests of whites, preferably in metropolitan areas, had been favored by appropriately designed legislation since the 1930s, which formed the core of their industrial policy . The necessary “black” labor was obtained at the expense of the “white” farm economy. In 1930 white women were given the right to vote for the first time .
On May 21, 1930, white women were granted active and passive women's suffrage (Women's Enfranchisement Act, No. 41 of 1930). Property barriers still applied to white men, but not to women. In 1933, SAP and NP surprisingly formed a coalition and in 1934 they formed the United South African National Party (United Party). The right to vote was standardized nationwide in that in the Cape Province blacks were deprived of their right to vote and only left with the right to send three whites on a separate electoral list to represent their interests in parliament. In 1938 the United Party won another election. The South African communists of the CPSA , who during the Rand revolt of 1922 had idiosyncratically transformed the slogan from the Communist Party's manifesto into “Proletarians of all countries unite and fight for a white South Africa!”, Changed course since 1924 and opened up the black and cooperated with the ANC. The All African Convention , founded in 1935, tried partly in personal union with the ANC to represent the interests of the black majority of the population. Alongside these political movements, Christian splinter groups, many of them Chiliastic end-time congregations , broke away from the white minority rule.
South Africa during World War II and the late 1940s
However, with the outbreak of World War II , the alliance broke up. Prime Minister Hertzog was for South African neutrality, Justice Minister Jan Christiaan Smuts for South Africa's entry into the war on the side of Great Britain. Quite a few of the Afrikaans sympathized with National Socialism and the German Reich . The hostility to Jews had increased in the course of the 1930s and with the cultural organization Ossewabrandwag , an African contact for Berlin was established. Hertzog was defeated in the parliamentary vote on September 4, 1939 and South Africa declared war on Germany . Prime Minister was again Smuts, who was re-elected in 1943. Despite his anti-British stance, he was highly regarded in Great Britain as a member of Churchill's war cabinet . After the war, Smuts was instrumental in drafting the United Nations Charter . South African soldiers fought in Abyssinia , Madagascar , North Africa and Italy . They were supported by unarmed black auxiliaries.
In the meantime, the South African economy grew through the arms contracts. Since there were many whites at the front, but the number of workers in industry rose by 60 percent, more black workers had to be hired, which ensured their rapid urbanization in the industrial centers. The manufacturing industry in particular benefited from the impetus caused by the war. At the same time, there was a shortage of goods and, as a result, a price increase that had a negative impact on the economy. The cost of living went up and wages did not. The country's economic conditions remained characterized by massive unemployment and under-consumption until the end of the 1940s . As a result, the impoverishment of the non-European population in the industrial centers and in the rural reserves, the regions of origin of the omnipresent migrant workers , continued to increase. Nationwide unrest between 1940 and 1949 accompanied by strikes were the result. The political organizations and trade unions of the black population gained in importance. At the same time, alliances were formed with similarly active organizations and political groups of the Indian and colored population. In the course of the worsening situation in South African society, the rulers looked for effective means to contain and combat the resulting deterioration in the economic sector. Their concepts were essentially oriented towards a future more efficient, imaginative and as complete as possible control of the non-European population able to work as well as their final political disenfranchisement, the practice of which was implemented systematically from 1948 as a policy of "separate development" and with considerable institutional and financial effort. This political concept was intended to secure a wide-ranging and cheap labor pool in the future, which was not based solely on local people. Migrant workers from neighboring regions of the South African Union have long been the focus of employment agencies with a special recruitment system and formed a tactically well-balanced complementary share of the workforce in industry and mining.
The ANC tightened its policy since 1940 Alfred Bitini Xuma was chairman, who, however, came under internal criticism because of excessively liberal positions. The driving force and proponent of tactics such as boycotts , civil disobedience , illegal strikes , refusal to collaborate and mass demonstrations has been the ANC Youth League founded by Nelson Mandela , Walter Sisulu , Oliver Tambo and others since 1944 . This was partly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi , who had worked as a lawyer in South Africa from 1893 to 1914 and had campaigned strongly against the discrimination of the local Indians. The Non-European Unity Movement , founded by Trotskyists in 1943, advocated similar tactics, which , however, remained largely unsuccessful.
The establishment of the apartheid regime
Against the foreign policy respected Smuts and against the Labor Party, the National Party oriented its election campaign in 1948 entirely on the motto of apartheid , the radical racially motivated separation of all South Africans, and thus won the election. The new Prime Minister Daniel François Malan formed a coalition with the African Party , which joined the NP in 1951. Apartheid policy began unsystematically, was initially not based on a sophisticated program and initially did not mean a reorientation according to the indirect rule policy practiced by the previous governments. Rather, the NP expanded existing laws and codified existing rules. Political administrative tasks for the non-white population were carried out in continuity, just as under the British colonial administration. However, the apartheid concepts did not come from the Native Administration , which was occupied by British officials , but was based on preparatory work from the circle of intellectual members of the Broederbond , who later came together in the South African Bureau of Racial Affairs . In strategically important positions in public life, English speakers were replaced by Afrikaans and sympathizers wherever possible. Max eiselen was involved since the 1930s with anthropological work at the University of Stellenbosch and now his work as Secretary of State to a radical change in the South African education system in terms of a separate development ( separate development led), which is called "effective reform of the Bantu education system" called . Public service positions have been created for uneducated whites. Multiracial marriages were banned in South Africa in 1949 by the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act .
In 1950 the government set up a commission under the leadership of the ethnologist and agricultural economist Frederik Rothmann Tomlinson to obtain the basis and recommendations for its racial segregation policy. This Tomlinson Commission drew up a comprehensive report that was already entitled, Commission for the socio-economic development of Bantu areas within the Union of South Africa (German: Commission for the socio-economic development of the Bantu areas within the South African Union ) Objectives made clear In 1950, the NP set out to lay the foundation for strict apartheid with a series of drastic laws. The organizational prerequisite was the precise definition of the membership of every South African to an "ethnic or other group" by the Population Registration Act . An early legislative act to restrict the political rights of non-white population groups is the Separate Representation of Voters Act , according to which in the Cape Province the Coloreds were only allowed to elect four representatives, as was already the case for blacks.
With the expansion of the Immorality Act , sexual relations between whites and members of all other races became a criminal offense. The Group Areas Act established specific residential areas for each ethnic group. In Johannesburg, the black district was Sophiatown completely destroyed from 1955 to 1963 and the inhabitants in the south-west, later as Soweto summarized townships forcibly relocated. About 120,000 Africans had to leave the Durban district of Cato Manor . The vaguely worded Suppression of Communism Act served to suppress practically all resistance. In 1953, the Bantu Education Act made higher education difficult for blacks. Over time, over 1,000 different racial segregation regulations should be enacted. The Strijdom government (1954–1958) continued Malan's policy without a break. Apartheid policy separated the population groups it classified in all of public and private life, obviously visible in train stations, post offices and schools, but also through separate beaches, sanitary facilities and park benches.
The Verwoerd era
Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd , Minister for Native Affairs since 1950, rigorously implemented the apartheid concept as Prime Minister from 1958 to 1966. He strove to redefine blacks out of the South African state. To this end, he transformed the old reservations and tribal areas into isolated homelands ("Bantustans"), following the policy of the native administration that had been common in Natal since the 19th century , which he established when the powerful Bantu administration was founded in 1958 raised to general government policy. With the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act 1959, the basis was laid to combine the 42 previous reservations in eight homelands. Under Verwoerd, the first homeland was established with the Transkei . The states were formally sovereign, but in fact fully dependent on South Africa economically, financially and militarily. Survival was hardly possible in the homelands with their dry, sterile soils, but the homelands working in South Africa were foreigners without rights. A total of around 3.5 million blacks had been forcibly resettled to the homelands by around 1985. No state except South Africa recognized the homelands and their puppet regimes paid by the South African state.
In 1956, 156 activists who had participated in the adoption of the Freedom Charter a year earlier were arrested for high treason. After a five-year trial, the Treason Trial , all of the defendants were acquitted. Nelson Mandela went underground immediately after the verdict was pronounced. Walter Sisulu had been under house arrest since 1958, and Oliver Tambo from 1959. In 1959, the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) split off from the ANC as a radical, purely black African-oriented rival organization . The state apparatus, which had been acting legally until then, switched to illegal methods in the fight against the resistance through psychological intimidation, rape and torture. With the so-called 90-day detention law, the government also created the possibility of detaining political suspects at any time without a court order. A feature of the legal system of the time can be seen as the fact that corporal punishment was a mandatory instrument of the South African courts until 1965 in addition to imprisonment in the punishment of violent crimes and property crimes. After that year, this form of punishment was a measure left to the respective judge in the case law, which was also practiced until the 1980s.
The South African government responded to the increasing international criticism with euphemistic renaming and comparisons. The term “separate development” replaced the term “apartheid” and in 1978 the “Ministry for Cooperation and Development” became the “Ministry for Bantu Affairs ”. Education spending for a black student made up about 6.5 percent of what was spent for a white student in the 1960s, but for propaganda purposes it was euphemistically compared to what other black African countries spent. With the expansion of apartheid, South Africa fell more and more into international isolation. Calls by the United Nations in 1946 to give South West Africa independence were ignored by South Africa. This led to considerable tension with the UN and the withdrawal of the international legal mandate in 1966.
The Republic of South Africa until the end of apartheid
From the Sharpeville massacre to Verwoerd's death
The Sharpeville massacre of March 21, 1960, in which 69 black demonstrators were shot by the South African police , marked a turning point for the apartheid regime. The government issued a state of emergency for a few months and the ANC and PAC were banned.
After a referendum held on October 5, 1960, the result of the referendum on May 31, 1961, resulted in the “Republic of South Africa” and thus South Africa left the British-led Commonwealth. In 1961, as a result of the lack of international investment and the outflow of capital abroad as a result of the escalating attacks by South African security forces on the non-European civilian population, the country introduced exchange and export restrictions on the local currency, the South African rand . This later resulted in a two-part exchange rate system that existed from 1979 to 1995 with a unit of book money called the financial rand , through which activities by foreigners on the South African financial market were subject to special regulations.
Albert John Luthuli , the President of the ANC, was the first African to receive the Nobel Peace Prize in 1960 for his peaceful resistance to racial discrimination . With the founding of the underground organization Umkhonto we Sizwe , the “spear of the nation”, the ANC and the Communist Party switched from the politics of nonviolent resistance to armed struggle in the same year . In August 1962, Nelson Mandela, the leader of Umkhonto we Sizwe, was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison for illegally traveling abroad and calling for strikes. In the 1964 Rivonia Trial, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for planning armed struggle. The main place of his imprisonment was the prison island Robben Island . With the conviction of important leaders of the ANC or their flight into exile, Pretoria succeeded in bringing the resistance to a standstill for several years.
On September 6, 1966, Verwoerd died in an assassination attempt in the session room of the Parliament in Cape Town. Verwoerd's successor was Justice Minister Balthazar Johannes Vorster .
The Vorster government
The overthrow of the Carnation Revolution in Portugal on April 25, 1974 was an external impetus for a changed balance of power in southern Africa. The independence of the previously Portuguese colonies Mozambique and Angola in 1975 suddenly confronted South Africa with neighboring states that opposed the apartheid regime openly, at least with the support of the ANC. Until then, the two Portuguese colonial areas were foreign policy buffer zones for South Africa, with which it had maintained close military ties. Only Rhodesia was now an ally characterized by white sovereignty. After the outbreak of the civil war in Angola , the South African army marched into Angola on October 23, 1975 with the approval of the USA, where they also encountered Cuban troops . One of the goals was to simultaneously fight the Namibian SWAPO , which began the armed struggle against South Africa in 1966 and was operating from Angola. After withdrawing from Angola, South Africa continued the war from occupied Namibia.
In the mid-1970s , the Inkatha Freedom Party founded by the Chief of the KwaZulu Homeland, Mangosuthu Buthelezi , and the Black Consciousness movement initiated by Steve Biko were responsible for a newly flared up, but qualitatively and quantitatively further developed awareness of resistance . The blacks in high schools in particular became radicalized, the number of which had risen from 35,000 to 1,474,300 between 1955 and 1987. When the "Ministry of Native Affairs" wanted to make the hated Afrikaans compulsory as the language of instruction in high schools for blacks, a riot broke out in Soweto on June 16, 1976 , which ended in a massacre when the security forces shot around 600 black people. The protests lasted for several months. In 1977 Biko died of severe head injuries that had been deliberately inflicted on him in police custody. The ANC acted from exile and demonstrated its ability to act with bomb attacks.
In parallel to the spiral of violence driven by the state and the opposition, the self-confidence of the black population group had meanwhile expanded to other levels of action, especially within cultural and religious fields of activity that ultimately developed political forms of expression for them. Under these conditions, organizations emerged that expressed a new diversity of opposition attitudes towards the ruling system. Examples of this are the Black Community Programs (BCP), Association for the Educational and Cultural Advancement of African People of South Africa (ASSECA) or Interdenominational African Minister’s Association (IDAMASA).
Prime Minister Vorster tightened the measures of his repressive apparatus against resistant institutions, which were shaped by white participants. In February 1972 he appointed a parliamentary select committee ( Parliamentary select committee of inquiry into organizations ), whose task it was to examine the sources of finance, goals and fields of action of four organizations. Vorster justified his approach with the danger of international communism. The aim of the study concerned the University Christian Movement (UCM), the Christian Institute of Southern Africa (CI), the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) and the South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR). The institutions protested openly supported by the parliamentary opposition leader De Villiers Graaff , but the Investigative Committee received more competences and transformed into a Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry Schlebusch -Commission ( Schlebusch Commission of Inquiry ). In 1977, after several amalgamations of small liberal parties, the Progressive Federal Party emerged , which in 1981 became the strongest opposition party in parliament, to which only white parliamentarians belonged. It was unable to influence government affairs, but it did reflect the attitude of English-speaking voters in particular.
The state responded to the foreign policy threats with its own nuclear weapons program . Since January 1978, the enrichment plant in Pelindaba has been delivering weapons- grade uranium , from which South Africa built six operational nuclear weapons. Defense Minister Pieter Willem Botha supported a nuclear weapons program and the military's preparations for a nuclear test during his tenure.
The Vorster government responded to internal resistance by expanding the security apparatus, which increasingly used torture methods. The tightening of state security strategies was reflected in the State Security Council founded in 1972 . This development was approved by the white electorate. In the 1977 election, the NP received 65 percent of the vote. Among the Afrikaans the share was 85 percent, among the English-speaking whites it received 33 percent of the vote. In 1979 a member of the Umkhonto we Sizwe was executed for the first time. The attempt by the Vorster government to use the Defense Ministry's budget to finance a series of covert propaganda projects aimed at influencing public opinion at home and abroad from 1973 onwards led from 1977 to 1979 to the Muldergate affair, named after the then Information Minister Cornelius Petrus Mulder . As a result, Vorster gave up the office of Prime Minister and took over the representative and largely uninfluenced role of President, from which he also resigned a year later in the course of the affair. As a political consequence of these developments, the Steyn Commission was formed in 1979 .
The Botha government
Pieter Willem Botha , who took over the office of prime minister in 1978 and combined this with that of the president in 1984, initiated the abolition of several apartheid laws after taking office under pressure from foreign policy. The Immorality Act, the Group Areas Act, the so-called color barrier in business and the ban on black trade unions were repealed. In order to increase the social support class of the apartheid system, the Coloreds and Indians were privileged over the blacks. From 1984 a new three-chamber parliament represented whites, coloreds and Asians, with whites always retaining the parliamentary majority. According to the new constitution in 1984, women and men of the Colored and Indian population groups were eligible to vote, but they were only allowed to vote for their respective chambers in the national parliament. Their effectiveness remained low, as the elections to these two chambers were already rejected by the majority of the population who were recently entitled to vote. A collaboration with the apartheid government was not a majority. As a result, voter participation remained very low: Colored 17.6% and Indians 8%. The affected groups had seen through the government's deceptive maneuver, which had been propagated as a reform of the social system. In September 1983, President Botha justified the fact that the black population was not taken into account in parliamentary representation in the National Assembly with the argument that they already had their political organs in the homelands and that the aim with them was to form a federation similar to the European Community.
In the 1980s, however, the apartheid regime hardened and the persecution of political opponents by an increasingly inflated security apparatus was persistent. Generals and officials of the security services increasingly determined the politics of the state. On January 30, 1981, South African Army commandos launched an attack on the accommodations of refugee members of the ANC in Matola, Mozambique, killing at least 15 people. On December 9, 1982, 42 people died in a similar attack on ANC members in Lesotho's capital, Maseru .
In terms of foreign and military policy, South Africa found itself in a very tense situation at that time. The concept attributed to the Prime Minister of the permanently expected "total attack" on the country had developed over a long period of time. The security strategists identified a connection between the East-West conflict and a feared Soviet-led world domination, the development of power by Mao Zedong since 1949 and the communist-stimulated takeovers of power in Greece, Korea, Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries on the one hand and with the Formation of Marxist governments in Mozambique and Angola seen in connection with the increasingly escalating South African border war (1966–1989). In Pretoria, those responsible for their specific war tactics, according to the assessment of the political scientist and secret service chief Niel Barnard, relied on the experiences and writings of the French general André Beaufre from the Algerian war of independence . Beaufre had already visited South Africa in 1974 on an official invitation and presented his core theses on combating liberation movements by means of a “total strategy” to leading military officials in Pretoria. Magnus Malan was very impressed by this and transferred his approaches to the military-political approach in South Africa.
A wave of strikes and unrest hit the country in 1984 and many townships were occupied by the military. There were clashes also within the black population between the opposition, led by the United Democratic Front (UDF) and the trade union umbrella organization COSATU , and so-called vigilantes supported by the government and the secret service such as the Witdoeke , who acted as a strategy of tension and violence Should stir up terror in the strongholds of the resistance. The UDF had over 700 trade union, church and political anti-apartheid groups with over a million members, including the Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu , who was awarded the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize . The unrest that broke out caused the government to declare a state of emergency in 36 districts on July 20, 1985 . This was limited until 1986, then nationwide until 1990. High-ranking representatives of the UDF were tried , including the Delmas Treason Trial from 1985 to 1988 , the conviction of which was overturned for 11 defendants in 1989.
Botha's generally uncompromising apartheid policy, which was expressed in his Rubicon speech in 1985, and the nuclear weapons program in cooperation with Israel, as well as the adherence to the occupation of neighboring Namibia, resulted in trade sanctions for numerous states. The UN Security Council demanded on April 30, 1981 majority a complete rupture of diplomatic and economic relations, an arms embargo and oil boycott , but was up against a veto of the United States , Britain and France not prevail. Under the code name Project Coast , the government pursued the armament with chemical and biological weapons from 1983 . At the beginning only defense measures were to be researched, but soon there was also the development of ethnic weapons , which should only kill black Africans.
As became known from 1989 onwards, the government took action against the black resistance, especially in the 1980s, with illegal covert operations . The methods of the dirty war , later also called by former government representatives , included torture , political murder , extortion, the disappearance of political opponents and the staging of terrorist attacks . The symbolic figure for these activities later became the police colonel Eugene de Kock , who from 1985 had headed the secret special unit C1 of the police (also known as Vlakplaas after its headquarters ). After the change of government he was tried and sentenced to 212 years in prison for multiple murders and other offenses; his numerous incriminating statements against the former government were largely without consequences for those affected. Among other things, he had accused Botha of personally ordering a bomb attack; He also weighed heavily on the last white president, Frederik Willem de Klerk, and several police generals.
In 1983 the United Nations passed a resolution calling on South Africa to release Mandela, among other things. At the urging of important groups of shareholders, banks demanded the return of medium-term loans. The sanctions also affected cultural and sporting exchanges. The cultural isolation of South Africa was intensified by the fact that important artists went into exile , including the musicians Abdullah Ibrahim , Chris McGregor and Miriam Makeba as well as the writers Breyten Breytenbach and Mazisi Kunene . Breytenbach returned incognito in 1975 to commit acts of sabotage, was arrested and sentenced to seven years in prison. In South Africa itself, writers were among the most influential critics of the regime. The Afrikaans-speaking novelist André Brink was a member of the avant-garde group Sestigers in the 1960s and taught at the University of Cape Town . The two English-speaking authors Nadine Gordimer and JM Coetzee received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991 and 2003, respectively . Ezekiel Mphahlele , who returned from exile in 1977, was the first black professor at the Witwatersrand University in Johannesburg. Even before the Summer Olympics in 1964 , South Africa had been excluded from the Olympic movement and most international competitions and only returned after the end of apartheid in 1992. The sports boycotts hit the sports-loving white South Africans more severely than any other sanctions.
Since the administration of the homelands, the suppression of unrest in the townships, strikes, boycotts and acts of sabotage caused immense costs by the black population, the state found itself increasingly in serious financial difficulties in the mid-1980s. In addition, the army, which had long been operating in Angola mainly from south-west Africa, suffered a severe defeat against the Cuban troops in 1988 in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale , the largest armed conflict on African soil since the end of the Second World War, which ultimately led to the adoption of Resolution 435 of the UN Security Council and thus Namibia's independence in 1990. With SWAPO , a close ally of the ANC came to power there. Many members of the National Party, especially the South African entrepreneurs, recognized that Botha's strategy had led to an impasse in domestic and foreign policy. In the ongoing debate in parliament in February 1988 on the motion of censure against him, Botha tried to offer accommodation to the politically marginalized black population. He brought up the idea of “independent black” city-states again, but found insufficient support for it. There followed further, but less successful, efforts on his part to involve blacks in political decision-making. This included the establishment of a National Council proposed by him and the creation of a fourth chamber of parliament possible through a constitutional amendment . The discussion about a possible political participation for the black majority population had a strong influence on the run-up to the parliamentary elections in 1987 and their outcome. After suffering a stroke in January 1989, the president, who had finally become unpopular, resigned in August of the same year.
South Africa after 1989
Overcoming apartheid
Only after Frederik Willem de Klerk , who was initially considered an advocate of apartheid, was elected President in 1989, he signaled reforms that marked the beginning of the end of apartheid policy. In his sensational speech at the opening of parliament on February 2, 1990, de Klerk announced that he would lift the ban on the ANC, PAC, SACP and other banned groups and enter into serious negotiations. Nelson Mandela was released a few days later . The government and the ANC negotiated a peaceful transition to democracy and a new constitution. An all-party congress prepared a constituent national assembly from 1991. The Group Areas Act, the Land Acts and the Population Registration Act have all been deleted.
The rapprochement process has repeatedly been overshadowed by power struggles between the Xhosa-dominated ANC and the Zulu party Inkatha, which killed around 30,000. Buthelezi, leader of the Inkatha, but also an informal ally of the government, saw his own ambitions threatened by the role of the ANC and responded with a violent Zulu nationalism. Given the initial situation, a change of power without a civil war, but despite the deaths, appeared to the South African and the world public as a political miracle. This was made possible by existing secret contacts that the Botha government had made with the ANC since the mid-1980s in order to sound out strategies for the medium-term hopeless situation. In addition to the troubled domestic political situation, the global political upheavals of 1989 also contributed to the readiness for reform, which led to a disappearance of fears of communism. In February 1992 a majority of almost 69 percent approved the policy of rapprochement in a referendum restricted to white voters . Mandela and de Klerk received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993.
A proposal by communist Joe Slovo envisaged a government of national unity for a transitional period, security officers should also be granted amnesty and employment contracts in the public sector should remain in effect. Out of anger at this compromise, the Inkatha allied themselves with the right-wing extremist whites and formed the “Group of Concerned South Africans” ( COSAG ). South Africa was close to civil war, especially after a right-wing extremist shot dead ANC hopefuls Chris Hani on April 10, 1993 .
South Africa since 1994
The women's suffrage was extended in January 1994 to black women. It was not until 1994 that universal suffrage for both sexes and all ethnicities was achieved. The 1996 Bill of Rights laid down the right to vote, but women and men exercised the right as early as 1994. From April 26th to 29th, 1994, the first elections took place with the participation of the black majority. As expected, the ANC won an overwhelming election and received 62.6 percent of the vote.
On April 27, 1994, a transitional constitution came into force, which also created the Constitutional Court of the Republic of South Africa . Nelson Mandela took office on May 10 of the same year as the first black president of South Africa , de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki became his deputies. The National Party (20.4 percent) and the Inkatha Freedom Party (10.5 percent) were included in the government as agreed. This succeeded in ending the outbreaks of violence that regularly began with the Inkatha and also with white right-wing extremists.
After overcoming international isolation, the Republic of South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth in 1994 and was again admitted to the UN General Assembly . The new government dissolved the Homelands and divided South Africa into the nine provinces of KwaZulu-Natal , Limpopo , North Cape , Northwest , Free State , Eastern Cape , Mpumalanga , Gauteng and Western Cape . In May 1996, the National Assembly passed the final constitution, which is considered to be one of the most liberal in the world. The NP left the transitional government in 1996 in order to raise its profile as an opposition party. However, this calculation did not work out; it lost more and more importance since 1994, renamed itself in 1997 to New National Party and finally dissolved in 2005.
Mandela became an integration figure whose leitmotif was reconciliation and who promoted multicultural patriotism to the “rainbow nation” South Africa. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission should deal with the crimes committed in the name of apartheid and in the name of the fight against it. For the purpose of reconciliation, the accused could apply for an amnesty for even the most serious crimes if they could convince the commission of their sincerity in the public meetings. Listening to the detailed reports of the brutalities committed and forgiving the crimes demanded a great deal of strength from the victims, relatives and listeners. In a total of 31,000 cases, 849 people were granted impunity and 5,392 were refused. Many whites, including Botha and de Klerk, felt innocent and therefore did not seek impunity, but were not charged by the criminal justice system either.
It was possible to win the white officials and the security apparatus largely for loyalty to the predominantly black government. The expected flight of capital did not begin. Despite all the optimism and international recognition, problems arose from the fact that many new ministers and administrative officials were not prepared for the tasks assigned to them. The bureaucratic apparatus was greatly expanded through affirmative action regulated by the constitution and through the allocation of offices to deserving people, especially at the local and regional level, and corruption increased. The difficult transformation of the entire state system therefore in some cases did not meet the pressing expectations for rapid change, especially among black voters.
In response to the growing threat of AIDS , Zackie Achmat and others founded the Treatment Action Campaign in 1998 , the work of which led to corrections in the country's health policy in the following years.
Mandela's successor was Thabo Mbeki in 1999, whose government majority was confirmed in the third free election on April 14, 2004 . The ANC strengthened initially to 66.4, then to 69.7 percent of the vote. Despite the originally left-wing ideology during the apartheid period, the ANC governments pursue a more liberal economic policy. On September 25, 2008, Mbeki, little rooted in the ANC base, resigned on charges of influencing the trial of ANC chairman Jacob Zuma , who was accused of corruption . Kgalema Motlanthe served as interim president until the April 2009 elections. The power struggles between Mbeki and Zuma, political-ideological disputes and ethnic tensions led to the separation of the Congress of the People from the ANC in December 2008 . The largest opposition party is the liberal Democratic Alliance , which, however, was largely limited to white members and voters.
The historical development of land rights continues to give rise to disputes: Blacks are demanding back their land that was confiscated during apartheid; the whites, for their part, often enforce a legal contract of sale. As a result, the possibility of expropriating white farm owners was increasingly discussed in 2006 after the previous principle of the willing buyer, willing seller had failed. There are also several lawsuits pending against corporations and banks suspected of supporting the apartheid regime.
Last but not least, at the beginning of the 21st century, South Africa is fighting against the immune deficiency disease AIDS , which President Mbeki had long termed a “Western plot”. Another pressing problem is violent crime. South Africa is considered to be the most violent country not at war. The statistical numbers are particularly high for murder, rape, kidnapping and robbery. In mid-May 2008 there were considerable xenophobic attacks by black South Africans, especially against refugees from Zimbabwe, in the townships in particular . The prosperity gap within South African society may have contributed to the causes of the brutal violence. Other factors that led to the attacks were, however, both the own power interests of local actors who wanted to improve their own image by taking action against foreigners, who were often unpopular in South Africa, and a historically based, fundamental understanding of country and identity as a prerequisite certain rights in South Africa. The failure of South African politicians to address xenophobic violence in the past also contributed to the 2008 attacks. In the 2009 parliamentary elections , the ANC under Jacob Zuma narrowly missed a two-thirds majority, but continued to provide the government.
On May 15, 2004 in Zurich , South Africa was chosen by the FIFA delegates to host the 2010 World Cup . It was the first country on the African continent to host this tournament. The World Cup, which began on June 11, 2010, was associated, especially by the black population, with the hope of reducing the still large social disparities in the country. South Africa was eliminated in the preliminary round.
In mid-May 2008 there were considerable xenophobic attacks by black South Africans, especially against refugees from Zimbabwe and Somalia, especially in the townships. The failure of South African politicians to tackle xenophobic violence in the past also contributed to the events of 2008.
On September 25, 2008, President Mbeki resigned after speculation that he had influenced the trial of his party rival Jacob Zuma . Kgalema Motlanthe was installed as interim president. The elections in spring 2009 were again won by the ANC. Jacob Zuma was then elected President and took office on May 9, 2009.
On August 16, 2012, the so-called Marikana massacre occurred in which 34 striking miners were shot by the South African police . As a result, the Economic Freedom Fighters (EFF) party was founded. Nelson Mandela died on December 5, 2013 at the age of 95. His work has been recognized as exemplary in obituaries around the world; Numerous heads of state came to South Africa for the funeral ceremonies. The ANC won the parliamentary election in May 2014 with Zuma again, albeit with slight losses. The Democratic Alliance (DA) increased its share of the vote and benefited from non-white voters. The EFF became the third largest party.
On May 7th, 2014 was elected again . The ANC was again able to achieve an absolute majority with around 62 percent of the vote, but lost a few percentage points. Zuma was confirmed in his office. The Democratic Alliance was the second strongest party with around 22 percent, ahead of the newly founded Economic Freedom Fighters .
In 2015 there were again xenophobic attacks on African migrant workers, whose center was the industrial region of Durban. In the course of this unrest , several thousand people were killed, looted and displaced.
In mid-January 2018, President Zuma resigned under pressure from his ANC party. He was succeeded by Cyril Ramaphosa .
See also
literature
- Jörg Fisch : History of South Africa . dtv, Munich 1990. ISBN 3-423-04550-7 .
- Albrecht Hagemann: Small history of South Africa . Beck, Munich 2004. ISBN 3-406-51101-5 .
- John Iliffe : History of Africa , 2nd edition: CH Beck, Munich 1997 ISBN 3-406-46309-6 .
- Ernst Klimm, Karl-Günther Schneider, Bernd Weise: Southern Africa . Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft , Darmstadt 1980 ( Wissenschaftliche Länderkunden Volume 17) ISBN 3-534-04132-1 .
- Andrea Lang: Separate Development and the Department of Bantu Administration in South Africa. History and analysis of the special administrations for blacks (work from the institute for Africa customer, 103), Hamburg 1999. ISBN 3-928049-58-5 .
- Christoph Marx : History of Africa. From 1800 to the present . Schöningh UTB, Paderborn 2004. ISBN 3-8252-2566-6 .
- Christoph Marx: South Africa. History and present. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2012, ISBN 978-3-17-021146-9 .
- Martin Pabst: South Africa . 2nd, completely revised and expanded edition. Beck, Munich 2008. ISBN 978-3-406-57369-9 .
- John McAleer: Representing Africa: Landscape, exploration and empire in Southern Africa, 1780-1870 . Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-8104-0 . (the author is curator of the exhibition 'Eighteenth-Century Imperial and Maritime History' at the National Maritime Museum , Greenwich)
-
George McCall Theal (1888):
- History of the Emigrant Boers in South Africa. The Wanderings and Wars of the Emigrant Farmers from Their Leaving the Cape Colony to the Acknowledgment of Their Independence by Great Britain. Swan Sunshine, London 1888 ( PDF; 26.5 MB )
- History of South Africa Swan Sunshine, London
- Volume 1. 1486-1691. 1888 ( PDF; 11.7 MB )
- Volume 2. 1691-1795. 1888 ( PDF; 10.6 MB )
- Volume 3. 1795-1834. 1888 ( PDF; 13.1 MB )
- Volume 4. The Republics and Native Territories from 1854 to 1872 1900 ( archive version at archive.org )
- Volume 5. From 1873 to 1884, Twelve Eventful Years, with Continuation of the History of Galekaland, Tembuland, Pondoland, and Bethshuanaland until the Annexation of those Territories to the Cape Colony, and of Zululand until its Annexation to Natal . 1919 Volume 1 ( PDF; 19.3 MB ), Volume 2 ( PDF; 15.4 MB )
- Anthony Trollope : South Africa Chapman & Hall, London 1878.
- Volume 1 PDF; 7.4 MB
- Volume 2 PDF; 8.5 MB
- GW Eybers (Ed.): Select Constitutional Documents Illustrating South African History, 1795-1910. Routledge, Dutton, London / New York 1918 ( PDF; 31.8 MB )
- Nelson Mandela : The Long Road to Freedom (autobiography), Fischer, ISBN 978-3-596-13804-3 .
Web links
- South Africa Yearbook (official reference work of the government of South Africa as PDF)
- Information from the South African government on the history of South Africa ( Memento from October 4, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni: Africa for Africans or Africa for “Natives” Only? “New Nationalism” and Nativism in Zimbabwe and South Africa , Africa Spectrum , Vol. 44 No 1 (2009), Hamburg
Individual evidence
- ↑ Marx, p. 265ff.
- ↑ For terminology see Fisch, p. 17ff .; Hagemann, p. 7f.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 7.
- ↑ According to a resolution of the South African Parliament of April 9, 2000 ( Act No. 4 of 2000: Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act ) .
- ↑ Fisch, p. 19.
- ↑ Ulrich Jürgens, Jürgen Bähr, Das Südliche Afrika , Klett-Perthes, Gotha 2002, p. 39.
- ^ Martin Pabst: South Africa. 2nd, completely revised and expanded edition, Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2008, p. 20.
- ↑ Fisch, p. 31; Hagemann, p. 11.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 12.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 13f.
- ↑ Fisch, p. 34.
- ↑ See Hagemann, p. 15.
- ^ Franz Sprenger, Geschichte Afrikas , Beck, Munich 2002, p. 22.
- ↑ Hagemann, pp. 16f; Fish, p. 38.
- ↑ Fisch, p. 38.
- ↑ Fisch, p. 53.
- ↑ Traugott Molter: Water balance and irrigation agriculture in the Cape . Franz Steiner Verlag , Wiesbaden, 1966, p. 152
- ↑ Ernst Klimm / Karl Günther Schneider / Bernd Weise p. 58.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 25.
- ↑ a b c Hagemann, p. 26.
- ^ Franz Sprenger, Geschichte Afrikas , Beck, Munich 2002, p. 56.
- ↑ Marx, p. 45.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 167.
- ↑ Iliffe, pp. 167f.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 27.
- ↑ a b Iliffe, p. 168.
- ↑ a b Marx, p. 44.
- ↑ Iliffe, p. 237 names the number 39,021 for the year 1834, Hagemann, p. 27, gives about 60,000 for the abolition of slavery.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 169.
- ↑ a b Marx, p. 54.
- ↑ a b Iliffe, p. 170.
- ^ Franz Ansprenger, Geschichte Afrikas , Beck, Munich 2002, p. 57.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 38.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 171.
- ^ Molter: water balance . 1966, p. 154
- ^ Matylda Wlodarczyk: Community or communities of practice? 1820 petitioners in the Cape Colony. In: Joanna Kopaczyk, Andreas H. Jucker (Ed.): Communities of Practice in the History of English. John Benkamins Publishing, Amsterdam 2013, ISBN 9789027271204 , see excerpts from books.google.de
- ↑ Marx, p. 84.
- ↑ a b c d Marx, p. 85.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 40.
- ↑ a b Iliffe, p. 238.
- ↑ Marx, p. 109.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 237.
- ↑ a b c Iliffe, p. 239.
- ↑ Marx, p. 172f.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 241.
- ^ Marx, p. 92.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 240.
- ↑ a b cf. Hagemann, p. 30.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 233.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 38f.
- ↑ a b Marx, p. 49.
- ↑ Marx, p. 49f.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 39.
- ↑ Marx, p. 121.
- ↑ Christoph Marx : In the sign of the ox wagon: the radical Afrikaaner nationalism in South Africa and the history of the Ossewabrandwag. LIT, Münster 1998, ISBN 3825839079 , p. 1. Excerpts from books.google.de
- ^ Albrecht Hagemann: Brief history of South Africa. Verlag CH Beck, 2007, p. 36, ISBN 978-3-40645949-8 .
- ↑ Jan C. Visagie: Voortrekkerstamouers 1835-1845, Protea Boekhuis, Pretoria, 2010. pp. 14-15, ISBN 978-1869193720
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 45.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 371.
- ↑ a b c d e Hagemann, p. 53.
- ↑ Hagemann, pp. 54f.
- ↑ a b c Marx, p. 179.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 41.
- ^ Robert Redslob : Dependent Countries. An analysis of the concept of the original ruling power . Leipzig 1914, pp. 337-338
- ↑ Marx, pp. 186f.
- ^ Molter: water balance . 1966, p. 155
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 60.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 61.
- ↑ Iliffe, p. 369.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 66.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 62.
- ↑ Manfred Kurz: Manfred Kurz: Indirect rule and violence in South Africa . Work from the Institute for Africa Customer No. 30. Hamburg (Verbund Stiftung Deutsches Übersee-Institut) 1981, p. 27 and footnote 4 on this page
- ↑ Iliffe, p. 372.
- ^ RA Pelletier: Mineral Resources of South-Central Africa . Oxford University Press, Cape Town etc. 1964, pp. 40, 77, 104
- ↑ Andrea Lang, 1999. pp. 43-44, 98-100
- ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 437
- ↑ Ulf Engel: South Africa. In: Dieter Nohlen, Michael Krennerich, Bernhard Thibaut: Elections in Africa. A data handbook. Oxford University Press, New York 1999, pp. 817-842, p. 820.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 70.
- ↑ Iliffe, p. 370.
- ^ Ralph Horwitz: The Political Economy of South Africa . London 1967, pp. 260-261
- ↑ Gottfried Wellmer: The historical development of the migrant work system . In: Francis Wilson et al .: Migrant Work in Southern Africa. A reader . Informationsstelle Südliches Afrika eV, Bonn 1976, pp. 22-23, 27-28
- ↑ Andrea Lang, 1999. pp. 1-2
- ^ Commission on Native Education is appointed. on www.sahistory.org.za (English)
- ↑ Andrea Lang, 1999. pp. 2, 63-64
- ↑ Hegemann, p. 72f.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 378.
- ^ Marx, p. 266
- ^ Marx, p. 268.
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 88.
- ↑ Christoph Sodemann: The laws of apartheid. Bonn 1986 . Pp. 173-174 ISBN 3-921614-15-5
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 78.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 86
- ^ Ronald Meinardus: The Africa policy of the Republic of South Africa. Bonn 1981, ISBN 3-921614-50-3 , p. 85.
- ^ Iliffe, p. 382.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 91.
- ^ Reinhard Rode: Change in South Africa . Institut für Afrika-Kunde, Hamburg 1976, pp. 81–82
- ^ SAIRR: A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1972 . Johannesburg 1973, pp. 52-54
- ↑ Rudolf Weßler (ed.): South Africa's Christians in front of court. The Beyers Naudé case and the Christian Institute . Jugenddienst-Verlag , Wuppertal 1977, p. 22
- ^ NUSAS: Analysis of the Interim report of the Schlebusch ( Memento of May 26, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Commission of Inquiry. 1973. online at www.disa.nu.ac.za (English)
- ↑ Thomas B. Cochran: Highly Enriched Uranium Production for South African Nuclear Weapons . In: Science & Global Security, 1994, Volume 4, pp. 161–176 (English; PDF; 1.9 MB)
- ^ Director of Central Intelligence: The September 22, 1979 Event . at www.gwu.edu (George Washington University) (English; PDF; 1.3 MB)
- ↑ Iliffe, p. 380.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Nations: South Africa National Security Management System (English), accessed on February 6, 2012
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 92.
- ↑ a b Marx, p. 323.
- ↑ a b - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. Retrieved October 6, 2018 .
- ^ Christoph Marx : South Africa. Past and present . Verlag W. Kohlhammer , Stuttgart 2012, p. 270
- ↑ Christine Lienemann-Perrin, Wolfgang Lienemann (Ed.): Political Legitimität in South Africa. Charter of freedom against minority rule . Heidelberg 1988, pp. 43-51
- ↑ John Kane-Berman: South Africa's Discreet Change . Edition Interfrom, Zurich 1992, p. 88
- ↑ Niel Barnard : Secret Revolution. Memoirs of a Spy Boss . Tafelberg, Cape Town 2015, ISBN 9780624074571 , pp. 133-134.
- ↑ Marx, p. 323; Hagemann, p. 92.
- ↑ Augsburger Allgemeine from July 20, 2010, column: The date
- ^ History of South Africa: Code name "Project Coast" ( Memento from December 9, 2016 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Yolandi Gronewaldstraße, Tumi Makgetlavlok: My role in dirty was. Mail & Guardian, September 8, 2006
- ↑ a b Hagemann, p. 94.
- ^ Pabst, p. 174.
- ↑ Hagemann, p. 96.
- ^ SAIRR: Race Relations Survey 1987/88 . Johannesburg 1988, pp. 104, 112
- ↑ Marx, p. 325; Hagemann, p. 97.
- ↑ Marx, p. 325.
- ↑ Hagemann, pp. 98f.
- ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 351.
- ↑ Caroline Daley, Melanie Nolan (Eds.): Suffrage and Beyond. International Feminist Perspectives. New York University Press New York 1994, p. 352.
- ^ The Election of Nelson Mandela
- ↑ Pabst, p. 121.
- ^ Pabst, p. 120.
- ^ South African History Online: HIV / AIDS in South Africa . on www.sahistory.org.za (English)
- ↑ Tagesschau.de : "South Africa: Mothlanthe becomes transitional president" ( Memento from November 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) from September 25, 2008.
- ^ Christian von Soest & Jérôme Cholet: South Africa: Expropriations as a new way in land reform? ( Page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 470 kB), GIGA Focus Africa 7/2006, Institute for Africa Studies of the GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies , Hamburg
- ^ Pabst, p. 139.
- ↑ Spiegel Online : "Mad Mob burns immigrants" on 19 May 2008
- ↑ Loren B Landau / Jean Pierre Misago: Who to Blame and What's to Gain? Reflections on Space, State, and Violence in Kenya and South Africa Africa Spectrum Vol. 44 N ° 1 (2009), Institute for Africa Studies of the GIGA German Institute of Global and Area Studies , Hamburg
- ↑ Video Hope World Cup - Soweto in Football Fever in the ZDFmediathek , accessed on January 26, 2014. (offline)
- ↑ Group A
- ↑ www.rmg.co.uk ( Memento from May 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
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