South African Police

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A SAP Casspir , used as an armored rail vehicle in South West Africa

The South African Police (SAP or SAP; Afrikaans : Suid-Afrikaanse Polisie ) was the national police force in South Africa and was largely influenced by military policy. It existed from 1913 to 1994. In South West Africa (now Namibia ) it also provided the police between 1939 and 1981. After the end of the apartheid policy , the SAP was transformed into the South African Police Service (SAPS; roughly: " South African Police Service "). To this end, the South African Police Service Act (Act No. 68) was issued in 1995 .

During the apartheid period, the SAP worked closely with the South African Defense Force (SADF), founded in 1958, to suppress political opposition activities and unrest within the population. In this part, covert methods of counterinsurgency applied. The SAP is responsible for numerous human rights abuses , including murders , bombings and kidnappings. Most of the units were barracked and had military training. In crisis situations she was subordinate to military command levels. The linking of the police with military and intelligence tasks intensified in 1972 with the establishment of the State Security Council . From the report of the "Potgieter Commission" ( Commission to Inquire into Certain Intelligence Aspects of State Security ), which has been active since 1969, the direct secret service use of the existing police structures developed.

In addition, the SAP also performed classic police tasks, such as maintaining public order and prosecuting crimes. The SAP motto was Servamus et servimus, German for example: "We protect and serve".

history

Police unit at Fort Nongquai, Zululand

prehistory

Until 1899, the Cape Colony , the Colony Natal , the Orange Free State and the Transvaal each had their own police organizations. With the Second Boer War , the police officers of the two colonies were drafted into the British troops, the others to the Boer troops. After the end of the war, the Transvaal Town Police was established in Johannesburg and Pretoria , while the rural areas were now subordinate to the South African Constabulary . In 1908, the police in the Transvaal and Orange River Colony were converted to the Transvaal and Orange River Police Forces . In 1910 the Commissioner of Police of this police force, Theodorus Truter, was appointed Commissioner for all of South Africa with the establishment of the Union of South Africa. At the end of 1911 it was planned to split the South African police into the South African Police (SAP) and the South African Mounted Riflemen (SAMR, afrikaans: Zuid-Afrikaanse Berede Schutters ). SAP police officers could be drafted in the event of war, while SAMR men were members of the military who took on police tasks in peacetime, for example in the residential areas of blacks.

The finally comprehensive regulation was met by the Police Act ( Act 14 of 1912 ), which came into force on April 1 of the following year. Units of the Cape Mounted Police (CMP), Cape Mounted Rifles (CMR), Natal Police (NP) and Transvaal Police (TP) have now been combined under the South African Mounted Rifles . These were paramilitary groups, mostly made up of poorly educated and poorly paid people, whose common characteristic was expressed in a racist prejudice towards the non-European population. The new South African Police was made up of all other previous colonial police groups, with the exception of the Pietermaritzburg and Durban District Police .

From the foundation to the parliamentary elections in 1948

In 1913, under General James Barry Munnick Hertzog , the Defense Act also became legally binding and SAP was founded three years after the Union of South Africa was founded .

There were extensive strikes in the Witwatersrand area as early as 1913, 1914 and 1922 , which the SAP was only able to contain with the help of soldiers. Under the Defense Act , close cooperation between the police and the army was definitely provided. During the First World War, the SAMR was used militarily, so that the SAP had to take over its tasks domestically. Only the SAMR and the Durban City Police did not become part of the SAP. At first the SAP was only responsible for the cities, while in the rural areas the SAMR acted as police, a department of the Union Defense Force , the former army of South Africa. In 1920 the SAMR members were accepted by SAP. The SAP subsequently took over the police services in the Pietermaritzburg area , and in 1936 also in the Durban area . With this, all police forces in the country except for the South African Railway Police Force (for example: " South African Railway Police ") and the South African Military Police Corps (" South African Military Police Corps ") were united in the SAP.

In 1939 the SAP took over the South West African Police and thus provided the police services in South West Africa , which was then administered by South Africa .

During the Second World War, police officers formed part of the "South African Second Infantry Division" in North Africa , which was defeated by German Wehrmacht troops near Tobruk .

Apartheid period

Important events and stages

When the National Party defeated the more liberal United Party in the 1948 general election , new laws were passed to increase police-military cooperation. At the same time the influence of the Boer nationalists on the SAP increased. It was now one of the police's tasks to enforce the principles of the policy of “separate development”, commonly referred to as apartheid, by force if necessary. The police forces were equipped with more powerful weapons in order to be able to control crowds that were viewed as hostile. The technical equipment increasingly took on the level of the ground combat units of an army. Local police stations had stocks of rifles and submachine guns .

The Police Act (No. 7) of 1958 expanded the tasks of the police so that they could suppress civil unrest and use counterinsurgency measures. The close cooperation with the army transformed as SADF continued and was even deepened step by step. Police detained around 80,000 people between 1960 and 1994 without charge. Between 1963 and 1985, 74 people died in police custody. The Police Amendment Act (No. 74) of 1965 allowed the police to search people and their vehicles within a mile of a border without a warrant and withhold items they found. From 1979 this zone was expanded to eight miles, in 1983 to the entire country.

The police reserve, founded in the 1960s on the initiative of then Justice Minister Balthazar Johannes Vorster , allowed the government to recruit former police officers for 30 to 90 days a year, and at other times in an emergency. In 1981, another reserve was set up, consisting of unpaid volunteers who were allowed to perform limited police duties. The police increased the use of specialized part-time personnel , such as the kitskonstabels ( afrikaans for "Sofortkonstabel"; officially Special Policemen ), to fight riots in the 1980s. In 1987, almost 9,000 kit constables were recruited . After a six-week course, these mostly "black" men were armed and sent into trouble spots, preferably townships . Although training time was doubled, their often brutal approach contributed to growing animosity between the police and the public in the late 1980s.

The police action in the Durban suburb of Cato Manor in 1960 attracted national interest. Nine police officers were also killed.

Between 1962 and 1964 there was a committed expansion of the security police with extensive training activities. In the period 1965 and 1966, the training courses focused on questions of internal security, in the course of which 135 officers of this security branch received tailored training and specific instructions were given in 26 courses for 5106 SAP employees nationwide. In the course of this development, the security police used local police stations throughout the country for interrogation and detention of politically unpopular people, making use of regional police forces and employees of the criminal investigation department (CID). This was accompanied by the repeal of previous legal procedural regulations and the expansion of the scope for action in order to be able to carry out extensive isolation measures with interrogations on simple suspicion. In this way the security officers gained a lot of information and were able to establish targeted decomposition measures.

Balthazar Johannes Vorster came to the office as Minister for Justice and Prison in 1961, which gave him responsibility for SAP. Shortly after taking office, he appointed the previous head of the crime department, Hendrik Johan van den Bergh, to the rank of lieutenant colonel as head of the security police . Both had been interned together by the South African government during World War II because of their political proximity to National Socialism. Despite the assassination of Prime Minister Verwoerd in parliament in 1966, the power of the security police was not diminished. Vorster became his successor, gave up the ministry, but retained responsibility for the police. In the meantime van den Bergh rose to lieutenant general and vice-commander of the police. Vorster eventually appointed him security advisor to the prime minister. From this position he took over the development and management of the newly created secret service BOSS between 1968 and 1969 .

The student unrest that broke out in Fort Hare University in 1972 turned against the political intimidation of teachers in connection with the dictatorial sentiments of Rector Johannes Marthinus de Wet and against the longstanding activities of the police in the campus area. The security police previously arrested the local representative of the South African Students' Organization (SASO).

From 1972 women were admitted to the police force.

In the 1970s and 1980s, with the help of personnel from SAP, police units were set up in the homelands of the “blacks”, some of which were formally independent. "White" SAP officers also took on leadership positions. In 1978 SAP was extensively restructured. From then on it was divided into 18 divisions, 80 districts and 1040 police stations.

An earlier critical press coverage at home and abroad about the widespread police practice led to the establishment of the Steyn Commission in December 1979 , whose recommendations contributed to massive political influence on the South African media.

During the early 1980s, police units no longer differentiated according to skin color. Most police officers, however, had been trained according to skin color. Most of the "black" police officers had been trained in Hammanskraal near Pretoria , most of the "whites" in Pretoria, most of the colored ones in Bishop Lavis near Cape Town and the Asians in Wentworth and later in Chatsworth near Durban . Police officers from the formally independent or autonomous homelands were also trained at these police schools. In 1993 the separation by skin color began, and in 1995 the integration was complete. Almost all management positions were occupied by "white" men.

In 1986, SAP took over the South African Railways Police Force. From around 1986, SAP supported covert violent actions by Inkatha members against residents who were close to the ANC in Natal .

Human rights violations and their legislative protection

The ensuing human rights violations in police stations and prisons came into the focus of internationally active lawyers and institutions as early as the 1960s. For example, Amnesty International had collected material over a period of 15 years indicating the torture of political prisoners. Such information was also confirmed in the UN Committee against Apartheid , which dealt with such incidents from 1963. It presented evidence of this in a report to the 14th UN General Assembly in 1964. The Catholic Institute for International Relations in London reported in 1978 on torture practices by the South African police in what was then South West Africa in its publication Torture, a cancer in our society .

Within the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10, 1948, South Africa voted with abstention on the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights , six months after the National Party came to power in Pretoria.

When the Christian Institute of Southern Africa banned in October 1977 published a torture report under the title Torture in South Africa? published in Cape Town , this was banned under the security legislation of the time. The publication lists parliamentary minutes, newspaper reports and official documents on such events. In the same year it was published by the Evangelical Press Service in Frankfurt in a German translation. The government of South Africa reacted to these and other comparable actions in the national and international public by tightening press law.

The security police no longer had to fear discrediting reports due to the provisions of Section 9 in the Police Amendment Act (No. 64/1978) . In order to design the information block as perfectly as possible, the legislature introduced a further restriction. In June 1980 the South African Parliament passed the Second Police Amendment Act (No. 82) . This banned any reporting on so-called “terrorism” (the definition of which was very broad), unless information was expressly permitted by the Interior Minister or the Chief of Police. Events that could “embarrass” a South African authority were therefore already considered terrorism. As a result, media editors were no longer able to report on police activities because there was no clarity as to whether their goal was an alleged fight against terrorism. Violation was punishable by Rand 15,000 and / or eight years in prison. With the Prisons Act (No. 8/1959) , the government had already forbidden the dissemination of “false” information about prisons. The decision about the actual or supposed truth content was not made by the editorial team, but by the authorities.

Opposition spokesman for domestic affairs, Ray Swart of the Progressive Federal Party , commented on the Second Police Amendment Act of 1980 as a warning sign of the path "of free, democratic South Africa into twilight," as a "colossal impertinence" and a "dangerous attack." “On the public's right to information.

Unimpressed by this, the state apparatus strengthened the politically wanted information blackout on police actions worthy of criticism and those security forces associated with them on the basis of the Protection of Information Act (No. 84/1982). Journalists were ultimately forbidden from reporting on police and military actions against opposition members, even mentioning their names. Previously known people disappeared from the public eye. The passing on of corresponding information to foreign institutions such as the media, diplomatic missions, authorities and organizations was also subject to these criminal restrictions. In this way, the apartheid regime tried to prevent the other side's public relations work, either actual or presumed by the system.

Armament during apartheid

The Casspir , a SAP armored police vehicle
South African Bo 105 police helicopter

Among the weapons used were 37-mm Stopper guns that could fire with tear gas, rubber bullets and Signalreaketen, zwölfschüssige Browning pistols, Beretta - Fore-bolt action rifles , semi-automatic rifles of the type R-1 and HMC-machine guns. In the early 1990s, the police were equipped with vehicles that could distribute smoke and tear gas, water cannons , vehicles that could deploy barbed wire barriers, and numerous aircraft and helicopters for surveillance, ground forces management, crime fighting, rapid police transport, and transportation of people. The helicopters were the Bölkow Bo 105 and Kawasaki BK 117 . There were also special buses for police officers in the counter-insurgency and armored personnel carriers of the Casspir type .

Personnel problems

Police memorial in Pretoria, inaugurated in 1984

SAP struggled with numerous departures. At times, an average of twelve police officers a day gave up their duties, in January and February 1990 even 20 police officers a day. Most of the “white” police officers spoke Afrikaans. After the possibility of doing three years of police service in the SADF instead of two years of military service , the number of English-speaking police officers rose. In the same year, the Municipal Police was founded, which came to SAP in 1989 to compensate for the high number of departures.

The South African Police Memorial in Pretoria's Union Building Gardens commemorates all police officers who lost their lives in the course of their duties. The groundbreaking ceremony was carried out by the then police commissioner and former head of the MCW Geldenhuys security police . The then President Pieter Willem Botha unveiled it on October 17, 1984, which is noted on one of the central inscription plates. The design comes from the architects Marees & Sons .

Between 1985 and 1990 around 400 police officers died on duty, mostly blacks. The police officers killed included people who were killed in attacks with automatic weapons, incendiary devices or explosives.

South West Africa

Location of the former homelands in what was then South West Africa (now Namibia)

When South Africa intervened in the administrative autonomy of South West Africa in 1954, the government in Pretoria pursued in parallel to their own country a policy of "separate development" ( Separate Development ). On the basis of the Odendaal Plan , published in 1964, the Bantustanization of South West Africa was carried out, with the police having a militant order and control function.

In mid-1974 the SAP handed over responsibility for the north of South West Africa to the SADF. The escalating confrontation between South African security forces and the hit and run activities of fighters of the PLAN had led to an escalating conflict of considerable proportions, which the SAP was no longer able to cope with. From there, the SADF marched into Angola in 1975 . The three homelands with the greatest potential for conflict in the country were in the north of the country.

In 1981, SAP lost its responsibility for the rest of South West Africa to the re-established South West African Police (SWAPOL), which continued to work closely with the South African government.

The end of apartheid

After President Frederik Willem de Klerk lifted the ban on opposition organizations in 1990 and numerous political prisoners had been released, he instructed the police to help abolish apartheid, to show greater political tolerance and to improve their standing in the townships. It was police officers from the SAP who interrogated members of the undercover military unit Civil Cooperation Bureau for their crimes. In the same year, however, it was also high-ranking police officers who denied their involvement in acts of violence, which was later proven, before the Harms Commission set up by the government .

The climate of escalating violence in the early 1990s posed a challenge to the police as the conflicts played out between numerous rival forces. At the same time, SAP was suspected of participating in the spread of the conflict. In order to solve the tasks, the police were significantly increased. Meanwhile, the reserve was at least 37,000 police officers. In 1991 a new unit with 17,500 employees was established as the fifth department in SAP for the suppression and control of unrest. It was called Internal Stability .

The Minister of Law and Order, Hernus Kriel, appointed an ombudsman in 1991 to investigate the misconduct of police units. He increased the recruitment of black police officers. Under his influence, a generally accepted code of conduct developed and the number of training centers increased. In 1992 he transformed SAP into a three-part organization. It consisted of the National Police, responsible for domestic security and serious crimes, autonomous provincial police units responsible for crime prevention and general law and order, and community-level units responsible for local law enforcement minor offenses were responsible. Discussion groups between the police and the population have been set up in almost every police station.

The last Police Commissioner at SAP was Johann van de Merwe from 1990 to 1995. After the failure of the Harms Commission, the Goldstone Commission investigated acts of violence in South Africa from 1991 to 1994 , including those perpetrated by members of the SAP. This included the secret collaboration with members of the Inkatha Freedom Party and the KwaZulu Police in Natal and KwaZulu , which should weaken the ANC. Numerous police officers who tried to testify before the commission were threatened by their superiors; incriminating documents were destroyed. The commission also produced reports of acts of violence against police officers.

Numerous former police officers became active in right-wing groups, such as Eugène Terre'Blanche , who founded the African resistance movement .

In 1995 the police took over the police force of the former homelands Bophuthatswana , Ciskei , Gazankulu , KaNgwane , KwaNdebele , KwaZulu , Lebowa , QwaQwa , Transkei and Venda . At the same time it was renamed the South African Police Service .

Organization of SAP in the last years of its existence

In 1988, Police General De Witt headed a commission of inquiry into the restructuring of SAP, the results of which were published in 1989 and led to reforms. This included decentralization in eleven regions. The police were also headed by the Commissioner of the Police after the restructuring. He headed a general staff of 50 members who held the ranks of general , lieutenant general or major general . This included the eleven regional commissioners and deputies, the chiefs of the partial forces and deputies, as well as some generals of the homeland police forces, for example from KwaZulu .

In 1991, four super-generals were introduced to head the four divisions Crime Combatting and Investigation (these two merged into the Crime Combatting and Investigation Division (CCI) in 1992 ), Security Branch, and Detective Branch . The police force was also divided into the Uniform Branch and the Operational Branch .

At the end of 1990, the SAP employed 56,423 full-time police officers, 10,128 civilians, 1,168 part-time police officers, 8838 kit constables and 855 National Service Men (police officers ). There were 8,670 vacancies. In mid-1991, SAP had around 109,000 staff, 96,300 of whom were police officers.

Special events and police units

The Sharpeville massacre

On March 21, 1960, SAP officers opened fire on demonstrators in Sharpeville Township who were demonstrating against the passport laws outside the police station . The police killed 69 people and around 180 were injured. The event resulted in a state of emergency and the ban of the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). March 21st has been a public holiday in South Africa since 1995 and in 1966 the United Nations declared it International Day Against Racism as a day of remembrance .

The Soweto uprising

From June 16, 1976, numerous pupils and students protested against the introduction of Afrikaans as the language of instruction in "black" schools. The police took massive action against it. Around 500 demonstrators were killed by the police units. The apartheid regime deployed the paramilitary special force Riot Squad , whose members were assembled from barracked units of the riot police.

June 16 is also a public holiday today.

Steve Biko dies

Steve Biko , the founder of the Black Consciousness Movement , died in police custody on September 12, 1977 after severe abuse.

The “Koevoet” unit in South West Africa

In 1978, the SAP founded the unit in Namibia Koevoet , in the War of Independence in Namibia against the PLAN fought. They killed 3861 PLAN fighters, while their own losses were 153. In 1981 Koevoet was taken over by SWAPOL. The unit lasted until 1989 and was then dissolved.

Security Branch

The security branch (meaning: "security police") was divided into at least six desks (literally: "desks"; in practice: operation units). Desk A stood for monitoring the political activities of other countries in relation to South Africa, Desk B for "technical work", Desk C for Counter Insurgency against actions by the ANC and PAC, Desk D supervised double agents who were active in Umkhonto we Sizwe . Some desks were subdivided by subject, such as Desk C. The desks were located all over the country, with one policeman in charge of several desks in smaller police stations .

The South African Bureau for State Security (BOSS) was formed in 1969 from parts of the Security Branch . The former head of the security police, Hendrik van den Bergh , took over the management of BOSS. According to a government statement at the time, BOSS was supposed to coordinate the activities of the security branch and the intelligence department of the South African armed forces. However, both services had with some success fended off the influence of this higher level. A transfer of responsibility for police arrest and detention facilities was rejected by the BOSS officials.

Torture methods were used extensively and systematically during interrogation of political prisoners by the Security Branch . There are many documentary experiences and physical injuries such as broken jaws, blow marks, bruises on the face and other parts of the body, burn marks on the fingers, scalp injuries with bleeding and other features as evidence of this. Despite the repressive stance of the state against the documentation of such crimes, relatives of the victims of torture, mostly their parents, came together in an action group to protest notes and support the victims. This organization was founded in 1981 and was able to document many incidents of torture and human rights violations until it was banned in 1988. This Detainees Parents Support Committee (DPSC, German: " Support Committee of the Parents of Political Prisoners") approached 50 doctors' organizations abroad in March 1982 to get support for a campaign that should allow independent doctors to put political prisoners on the trail of torture to investigate.

In April 1982 this organization presented its "Memorandum on the Abuse of Political Prisoners by the Security Police" to the Minister of Law and Order, Louis Le Grange . This rejected the incidents listed therein and threatened to apply section 27 of the Police Act , i. H. with the opening of criminal proceedings if the allegations against the police cannot be proven. In September, in response to the Minister’s reaction, the DPSC produced 70 statements from prisoners and former detainees, which were so overwhelming that the Minister continued to threaten the parent organization. Finally, many medical groups confirmed the consequences of torture by the security branch and the police in general. Assistance in establishing the criminal abuse came from a University of California psychiatry professor , Charl Vorster at Randse Afrikaanse Universiteit, and Vice Chancellor of the University of Cape Town , Stuart John Saunders . After public controversy, it finally emerged that the police were instructed to behave differently. Until then, it was common practice for the security branch officials to deny, trivialize or portray the misconduct of individual police officers with documented acts of violence . Proven injuries of the tortured were found in the investigative bodies appointed by the authorities in bizarre justifications. The most frequent explanations for such facts among the mostly in solitary confinement and very well guarded political prisoners included the acts of alleged fellow prisoners or attempts to escape. Internationally, however, it was noticeable that at that time no other country reported such an accumulation of falls from stairs and windows, as well as unusual accidents under prison conditions when they had occurred in the security branch's service areas .

Former South African double agent Craig Williamson was a security branch officer . He ran the overseas service and is responsible for several murders and other crimes. He was considered Apartheid Superspy (" Superspy of Apartheid"). Theunis Jacobus Swanepoel became known for his brutal interrogation methods and as the chief investigator of the SAP Security Branch . His leading involvement in police terror in the 1960s and 1970s against the South African civilian population was later discussed in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and thus made public. The lawyer Albie Sachs was one of the torture victims in his area of ​​responsibility .

Vlakplaas

In 1979, SAP founded unit C10 (later C1), which was responsible for counterinsurgency and was temporarily led by former Koevoet member Eugene de Kock . Until 1993 the unit was managed from the farm Vlakplaas . C1 was a paramilitary death squad that killed or "turned around" opponents of the apartheid government. C1 was also responsible for several deadly bomb attacks against anti-apartheid activists, including members of the ANC. Numerous opponents of apartheid were executed on the Vlakplaas farm. The most famous victims include Griffiths Mxenge and his wife Victoria Mxenge . The former SAP officers Willem Schoon and Dirk Coetzee were also involved in numerous activities of C1 .

Special Task Force

In 1976 the Special Task Force (STF) was founded, whose members received training from SADF and mostly operated in secret. They were founded in order to be able to fight the guerrillas more effectively on the ground in Rhodesia .

aftermath

In the negotiations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) from 1995 onwards, crimes committed by police officers during the apartheid period were also dealt with. Many details of the crimes committed by police officers were only revealed in this way. Numerous leading police officers were refused amnesty .

Maintenance of tradition

Police museum in a former rural police station in Ventersburg

The Police Museum of Ventersburg (in today's province of Freistaat ) opened on October 29, 1983 in a historic rural group of buildings is now a listed building and is therefore listed by the state agency South African Heritage Resources Agency .

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ South African Police Service Act (Act No. 68/1995). on www.info.gov.za ( Memento from September 8, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  2. ↑ a b Sodemann, 1986, p. 137
  3. ^ [1] South African Institute of Race Relations : A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1972. Johannesburg 1973, pp. 69-70
  4. ↑ Kevin A. O'Brien: The South African Intelligence Services: From Apartheid to Democracy, 1960-2005. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, New York, 2011
  5. ↑ a b c d e f g h The SAP at sahistory.org.za (English), accessed on October 17, 2012
  6. ↑ SD Olley: SA Mounted Rifles 1911-1922 . on www.home.mweb.co.za (English)
  7. ^ HJ Simons: The Law and its Administration. 5. The Police . In: Ellen Hellmann, Leah Abrahams (Ed.): Handbook on Race Relations in South Africa . Oxford University Press , Cape Town, London, New York 1949, p. 75
  8. ↑ a b Sachs, Bernstein, 1976, p. 57
  9. ↑ The year 1965 at O'Malley's Archives , accessed October 20, 2012
  10. ^ Sachs, Bernstein, 1976, p. 46
  11. ↑ Sachs, Bernstein, 1976, pp. 47-48
  12. ^ South African Institute of Race Relations: A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa, 1972. Johannesburg 1973, p. 391
  13. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Janine Rauch: Deconstructing the South African Police. 1991, from csvr.org.za (English), accessed on October 13, 2012
  14. ↑ Petrus Frederik Barend Jansen van Rensburg: Covert action as an option in National Security Policy: a comparison between the United States of America and South Africa (1961-2003) . Dissertation University of Pretoria, Department of Political Science, 2005. PDF document page 68 ( Memento from December 24, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  15. ↑ a b History of SAPS ( Memento from June 11, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (English), accessed on October 11, 2012
  16. ^ Role of SAP in Natal at sahistory.org.za (English), accessed on October 19, 2012
  17. ↑ Manfred Kurz, 1981, pp. 152–153
  18. ↑ Manfred Kurz, 1981, p. 151
  19. ^ Torture, a cancer in our society im worldcat
  20. ↑ Manfred Kurz, 1981, p. 149
  21. ^ Christian Institute of Southern Africa: Torture in South Africa? in worldcat
  22. ↑ Manfred Kurz, 1981, pp. 144-145
  23. ↑ a b Manfred Kurz, 1981, p. 145
  24. ↑ Sodemann, 1986, pp. 124-125
  25. ↑ Sodemann, 1986, p. 122
  26. ^ A b Jacques Pauw: In the Heart of the Whore. The Story of Apartheid's Death Squads. Southern Book, Halfway House 1991, ISBN 1-86812-392-8 , p. 107 digitized version ( Memento from February 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  27. ^ Jacques Pauw: In the Heart of the Whore. The Story of Apartheid's Death Squads. Southern Book, Halfway House 1991, ISBN 1-86812-392-8 , p. 108 digitized version ( Memento from February 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  28. ^ South African Police Service National Commemoration Day. on www.gcis.gov.za
  29. ^ The Police Memorial at The Union Buildings in Pretoria. on www.allatsea.co.za ( Memento from April 29, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  30. ↑ SAIRR : Race Relations Survey 1991/92 . Johannesburg 1992. pp. 489-490
  31. ^ Ronald Meinardus: The Africa policy of the Republic of South Africa. Bonn 1981, pp. 156–157
  32. ↑ report at sahistory.org.za (English), accessed on 19 October 2012
  33. ^ Ronald Meinardus: The Africa policy of the Republic of South Africa . Bonn 1981, p. 290
  34. ↑ The year 1990 in South Africa on the Human Rights Watch website , accessed July 14, 2013
  35. ^ Minister of Law and Order Hernus Kriel announced the formation of a new police unit . at www.sahistory.org.za , accessed October 15, 2012
  36. ^ Minutes of the negotiations of the TRC
  37. ↑ Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, paragraph 10 ( Memento of February 6, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (English, PDF; 70 kB), accessed on July 14, 2013
  38. ↑ UNESCO : International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination . at www.unesco.org (English)
  39. ^ Republic of South Africa: Public Holidays Act, 1994 . In: Government Gazette of December 7, 1994, No. 16136, online at www.gov.za (Afrikaans, English)
  40. ↑ History of Koevoet at koevoet.webklik.nl ( Memento from 1 September 2013 Internet Archive ) (English)
  41. ↑ Niel Barnard : Secret Revolution. Memoirs of a Spy Boss . Tafelberg, Cape Town 2015, pp. 30, 36 ISBN 9780624074571
  42. ↑ Muriel Horrell (Ed.): Laws Affecting Race Relations in South Africa. (1948-1976) . South African Institute of Race Relations , Johannesburg 1978, pp. 448-449 ISBN 0-86982-168-7
  43. ↑ a b Christoph Sodemann: The laws of apartheid . Southern Africa Information Center , Bonn 1986, pp. 144–145
  44. ^ A b SAIRR: Survey of Race Relations in South Africa 1982 . Johannesburg 1983, pp. 252-253
  45. ^ Max Coleman: A Crime Against Humanity - Analyzing the Repression of the Apartheid State . on www.sahistory.org.za (English)
  46. ↑ Portraits of the negotiations of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) (English; PDF; 1.2 MB), accessed on October 21, 2012
  47. ^ TRC : The Pondoland Revolt . In: TRC Final Report. Volume 2, Chapter 5, Subsection 18, p. 428, online at www.sabctrc.saha.org.za (English)
  48. ^ Barakat Ahmad: The Politics of Apartheid of the Government of South Africa. Maltreatment and torture of prisoners in South Africa . Report of September 26, 1972, United Nations, General Assembly , p. 56 (English, PDF document)
  49. ^ History of the STF on the STF veterans page , accessed on October 21, 2012
  50. ^ SAPS Museum: The History of the Police Museum in Ventersburg. on www.saps.gov.za ( Memento from April 10, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) (English)